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 2009 JITI
Journal of Information Technology Impact
Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 63-80, 2009
Usage, Acceptance, Adoption, and Diffusion of Information & Communication
Technologies in Higher Education: A Measurement of Critical Factors1
Zaffar Ahmed Shaikh 2
Iqra University
Pakistan
Abstract
To properly integrate information & communication technologies (ICTs) in
higher educational institutes (HEIs) of Pakistan demands factors which relate
with their usage, acceptance, adoption, and diffusion need be analyzed through
some appropriate statistical tests before their implementation at ground level.
This study measures critical factors such as ZPD (zone of proximal development)
gap, difference of perception, issue by issue and on all issues under discussion by
participants’ at each round of Delphi in order to analyze the difference in
perceptions among various higher education (HE) stake holders. It was
determined that a significant ZPD gap in ICT usage, acceptance, adoption, and
diffusion is present in HEIs of Pakistan as compared to those developed nations.
However, no significant difference of thought was measured while measuring
issues such as demand & supply of ICTs, causes of deprived standard of HE, ICT
integration challenges and their proposed solutions, which reveal that the
problems identified and measures suggested need be considered compulsory in
design of any future ICT policy. Recommendations as suggested in this study
would benefit to Govt. of Pakistan while designing new ICT policies for higher
education system (HES) in particular and to other concerned stake holders of
less developed countries with similar nature of ICT problems/challenges in their
HES. It is suggested that there is an utmost need of robust, effective and target-
oriented ICT policy that may work out on issues identified in this study and take
actions in timely manner to overcome this situation of dilemma.
Keywords: Pakistan, Delphi method, zone of proximal development (ZPD) gap
Introduction
Social and economic progress can be achieved through knowledge and its applications and HE is
a most powerful tool for the creation of that knowledge and hence the knowledge-based society.
Recent research on ICTs in HE recommends robust ICT infrastructure most important factor for
knowledge-driven development. Tiene (2002) suggests in his study that ICT integration in HE is
very critical for social and economic progress of any country and for a country which go for ICT
integration in education, it should consider secondary and tertiary education levels 1st. Rogers
(2003), Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, & Davis (2003) and Yi, Jakson, Park & Probst (2006) proclaim
64 Zaffar
 2009 JITI
in their studies that a lot of research has been done in order to better understand the usage,
acceptance, adoptions and diffusion of ICT tools/applications; because of diversification and
development of ICTs that affect many fields. In this study, ICT “usage & need” is highlighted
because all the three parameters viz. adoption, acceptance and diffusion are covered under this
umbrella. ICT usage depends on whether there are enough ICT facilities available or not;
(Mumcu & Usluel 2004; Usluel & Seferoğlu 2004) claim that the significant barriers in ICT use
are the lack of ICT facilities at workplace. Gauci (2001) & Nwuke (2001) highlighted in their
research that the reason of widening gap between developed and less developed world is the cruel
cyclic relationship between ICT skills shortage and a critical shortage of opportunities for skilled
graduates in ICT disciplines. Taylor (2003) stated that powerful technical, economic, and social
trends facilitated by the internet are revolutionizing the traditional concepts of education,
business, and economics – their effects on HE are especially profound; hence due to the
increasing competition on a global scale, universities must have to change. A study concludes on
people’s perception about ICT that ICT is a driving force behind the quality of education and thus
can change a society to a knowledge-based society; but it is the educational goals, needs and
careful economics that must drive ICT use (Pelgrum, Law, 2003). Haddad (1999) stated that ICT
is only a tool; educational choices have to be made first in terms of objectives, methodologies,
and roles of teachers and students before decisions on the appropriate technologies can be made.
ICT integration in education needs proper attention, mechanism, and policy; Edelson (2001)
found that ICT resources in educational institutes have been made available without a plan to
associate them with curriculum; and it is often considered that once ICT resources are made
available in classrooms, changes will eventually occur. However Krumsvik (2004) affirms that
such perceptions have never been achieved. Beyond all this, developed world spends large sums
of investments for integrating ICTs into their educational system in order to keep in pace with
other countries.
ICTs not only help HESs of less developed countries in narrowing the global digital divide
and thus producing knowledge-based societies; but also help improve quality of learning and
educational outcomes. The state of any education system is determined through quality of its
HES; because HES contributes to the development at all levels. Today, the HESs of whole world
face diverse set of problems; among those interdisciplinary, global responsibility, and sustainable
development are the problems that developed world face; and growth in enrollments, institutional
developments, governance (e.g., lack of top-level commitment, lack of awareness & mindset,
lack of ownership & creativity), poor & uneven distribution of ICT resources/infrastructure, high
cost of the sustainability of technology due to exceptional & multifaceted growth/development of
ICTs, defining the role of ICTs as cure-all for organizational transformation, making ICT
responsive to the organizational vision & mission, and developing a non-systemic method of
implementation of ICTs are the problems that less developed world face. World Bank expects the
number of HE students will more than double from 70 million to 160 million by 2025 (Taylor,
2003).
The 21st century demands ICT skills in all fields, most importantly for education,
employment and for everyday life. Today employers demand confidence and efficiency in ICT
use either they are at academic level or at industry level; because ICT skills are crucial in the
context of job skill demand. Thus, this presents an enormous challenge to the educators; since
Critical Factors of ICTs in Higher Education
 JITI 2009
65
they are expected to equip students with relevant, up-to-date, and high-quality ICT experience
before students emerge into the employment world (Gibson, O’Reilly, & Hughes, 2002). D.
Haywood & J. Haywood (2003) while discussing the results of a survey conducted in Europe
found that majority of participants consider ICT essential for future professional activities. Billig,
Sherry & Havelock (2005) claim in their research conclusions that successful ICT integration can
not be achieved suddenly; but it requires effective & proper implementation at ground level.
At this critical stage, when world considers ICT integration in HES a top most issue to be
resolved earlier the time possible, task force on HE in Pakistan suggests poor quality of teachers,
low student motivation, lack of relevance of the course content to social or economic needs,
gender & class disparities, and student discipline etc as factors behind the collapse of HES;
unfortunately with no mention of poor ICT infrastructure and policy making.
Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Gap
The concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD) gap introduced/developed by Vygotsky
(1978, p. 78) states that there is a gap between what an individual can perform on his own and
what he is capable of performing with peer/expert help. It argues that people’s individual
disordered knowledge can become meaningful as a result of social interaction. (Luckin 2001, p.
57) states in her study that Vygotsky theory can easily be mapped into educational design. Ager
(2000) asserted that ZPD gap can be reduced to a minimum and ICT is the only tool that can
bridge that gap successfully.
In this paper the ZPD gap is measured to understand the difference between actual state (of
various matters under discussion in this study) and required state of matters. The issues: ICT use,
demand & supply of ICTs, rely on ICTs and help provided by ICTs are considered. The results of
this evaluation are discussed in terms of the confidence level of university personnel in using
ICTs in their job related tasks.
Analysis of perceptions of Delphi participants through Z Test
Z test measures if population parameter μ is equal to another population parameter μ0. Z test is
calculated by comparison of means between two samples whose sample distribution is normal
under null hypothesis.
In this paper, Z test is calculated to measure difference in perceptions of participants of any
two categories regarding 13 collective issues under discussion in this study.
Analysis of perceptions of Delphi participants through ANOVA
ANOVA test is used to measure the difference in means of more than two groups for data to be
analyzed in perspectives of similarities and differences.
In this paper, this test is calculated to measure difference in perceptions of participants on all
13 collective issues using data of Round-1 and round-2 of Delphi study.
66 Zaffar
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Research Framework & Methodology
Model and Hypotheses
For this study, a 35-item questionnaire instrument developed for Delphi study conducted in
Pakistan by Shaikh & Ahmed, (2009) is chosen as a research model; which is based on diverse set
of issues concerning ICT use in HE, ICT related problems & challenges, demand & supply of
ICTs, causes of deprived standard of HE, and suggestions for ICT-enhanced HE.
The following four hypotheses were proposed:
H1. There is no significant ZPD gap in issues regarding common/educational ICT
tools/application that Faculty/Students/Staff use in their diverse set of job-related tasks.
H2. There is no significant ZPD gap in issues: Rely on ICTs, help by ICTs, use of ICTs, ICT
demand and supply, and problem of attitude in HEIs of Pakistan.
H3. There is no significant difference in perceptions of Delphi participants regarding any of
13 collective issues under discussion in this study, both category-wise and round-wise.
H4. There is no significant difference in perceptions of Delphi participants regarding any of
13 collective issues under discussion in this study, at overall level.
Research Method, Participants & Instrument
In this study, the authors (Shaikh & Ahmed, 2009) have used normative Delphi method
(electronic survey research) in order to measure expert views of participants regarding how
effectively ICTs can be integrated in HES of Pakistan. The Delphi questionnaire instrument was
sent to participants through emails. Research group consisted of 30 personnel (both male and
female) from five categories viz. Faculty members, Students, Parents, Admin staff, and ICT
policy makers. Questionnaire instrument was initially composed of 32 questions in Round-1 but
with an addition of three more questions as suggested in Round-1 responses, it became a 35-item
questionnaire instrument (Shaikh & Ahmed, 2009).
Discussion & Analysis of Data
The aim of this Delphi study conducted by Shaikh & Ahmed, (2009) was multipurpose and multi
perspective. With the help of some appropriate statistical tests on output data of that study; this
paper measures critical factors such as (1) ZPD gap in order to know how much less ICT
tools/applications that Faculty/Students/Staff of our HEIs use today as compared with use in their
counterparts in developed countries; (2) to know and analyze the difference of perception (if
exists) among Delphi participants on each collective issue under discussion both round-wise &
category-wise; and (3) to know and analyze the difference of perception on all issues among all
participants. In this study, MS Excel the most popular academic and research tool for calculating
statistical tests is used for calculation & analysis of data. Collective issues for measuring critical
factors were:
Critical Factors of ICTs in Higher Education
 JITI 2009
67
1. ICT tools/applications usage by Faculty/Students/Staff of HEIs of Pakistan in their job-
related tasks (Questions 1-10 → (1-7,8-10));
2. Usage of Common ICT tools/applications (Question 11);
3. Usage of educational/research ICT tools/applications (Question 12);
4. How much should Faculty/Students/Staff rely on ICTs (Question 13);
5. How much should Faculty/Students/Staff use ICTs (Question 14);
6. How much help does Faculty/Students/Staff get by ICTs in their job-related tasks
(Question 15);
7. Causes of deprived standard of HE of Pakistan (Question 16);
8. ICT integration challenges in HEIs of Pakistan (Questions 17-20 → (17-18,19-20));
9. Reasons for delay in integration of ICTs in HEIs of Pakistan (21-25);
10. Suggestions for ICT-enhanced HES of Pakistan (26-32);
11. How much is ICTs demand in HEIs of Pakistan (Question 33);
12. How much ICT is supplied in response to ICT demand (Question 34); and
13. Attitude problem (Question 35).
Discussion
1. The existence or non existence of ZPD gaps for issues 1 to 15 & 33 to 35 is calculated in
Table 1 (see appendix). Optimum level of ZPD is set to 5 because mean scores were
calculated by assigning values from 5 to 1; with 5 being strongly agree and 1 being strongly
disagree.
2. Z test was applied on the results (mean & variation) of both rounds of Delphi to test the
hypothesis “there is no significant difference of perception between any one category of
Delphi participants (say Faculty) with another category (say Students) regarding each of 13
collective issues under discussion in this study”. Z-critical value at 95% significance level
(0.05 level) uses 1.96 and at 99% significance level (0.01 level) uses 2.576. In hypothesis
testing; significance level is the criterion used for rejecting or not rejecting the null
hypothesis. The computed Z test value is compared to the significance level; if the value is
less than or equal to the significance level, then the null hypothesis is not rejected. The lower
the significance level, the more the data must diverge from the null hypothesis to be
significant. Therefore, the 0.01 level is more conservative than the 0.05 level. Table 2 (see
appendix) shows the results of Z test.
3. Z test was again applied to test the hypothesis “there is no significant difference in the
perceptions of any one category of Delphi participants (say Faculty) with another category
(say Students) regarding future use of ICT tools/applications by Faculty/Students/Staff of
HEIs of Pakistan in their job-related tasks”. Table 3 (see appendix) provides the results of
calculations.
4. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied on all data collected through 35-item
questionnaire to measure the hypothesis “there is no significant difference in perceptions
among Delphi participants regarding all issues under discussion, collectively” in both rounds
of Delphi. Table 4 (see appendix) describes the details about data (mean scores) used for
calculation, Table 5 (see appendix) calculates Round-1 results while Table 6 (see appendix)
calculates Round-2 results.
68 Zaffar
 2009 JITI
Findings
Findings recorded are described below:
1. Significant ZPD gaps (>=2) in both rounds of Delphi regarding present use of ICT
tools/applications (Issue 1) were calculated in tasks: Planning, developing & organizing
instructions, assessing student learning, academic research, and group
discussion/supervision/training (see appendix: Table 1).
Figure 1. Showing ZPD gaps in present use of ICT tools/applications
2. Significant ZPD gaps (>=1.5), in both rounds of Delphi, in use of educational/research ICT
tools, rely on ICTs, demand & supply of ICTs (Issues 11-15 & 33-35) were calculated (Table
1).
Figure 2. Showing ZPD gaps in issues (11-15 & 33-35)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Round-1 Round-2
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
11 12 13 14 15 33 34 35
Round-1 Round-2
Critical Factors of ICTs in Higher Education
 JITI 2009
69
Although a little difference in perceptions was calculated in almost all issues; the issues with
most significant differences are further discussed here. Z test results to test the hypothesis “there
is no significant difference in the perceptions of Faculty members & Students regarding 13
collective issues” yielded significant difference in 1st
Round of issue-10; but in Round-2, it came
under acceptance level (1.96=0.05 level & 2.576=0.01 level) (Table 2).
Figure 3. Showing difference in perceptions (Faculty & Students)
3. Z test results to test the hypothesis “there is no significant difference of perception between
Faculty members & Admin staff” yielded a significant difference (4.36) in 2nd
Round of
issue-8 (Table 2).
Figure 4. Showing difference in perceptions (Faculty & Admin staff)
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Issues
Levelofsignificance
Round-1 Round-2
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Issues
Levelofsignificance
Round-1 Round-2
70 Zaffar
 2009 JITI
4. Z test results to test the hypothesis “there is no significant difference of perception between
Parents & Policy makers” yielded a significant difference (19.38 in Round-1 & 24.39 in
Round-2) of issue-10; other issues remained under acceptance level (Table 2)
Figure 5. Showing difference in perceptions (Parents & Policy makers)
5. Z test results to test the hypothesis “there is no significant difference of perception between
Admin staff & Policy makers” yielded a significant difference (9.69 in Round-1 & 21.3 in
Round-2) of issue-10; other issues remained under acceptance level (Table 2).
Figure 6. Showing difference in perceptions (Admin staff & Policy makers)
6. Difference of perception when testing the hypothesis “there is no significant difference of
perception between Faculty members & Students on future use of ICT tools/applications”
calculated was significant (31.5) in Round-1 but in Round-2, that (0.87) fell down under
acceptance level (Table 3).
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Issues
Levelofsignificance
Round-1 Round-2
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Issues
Levelofsignificance
Round-1 Round-2
Critical Factors of ICTs in Higher Education
 JITI 2009
71
Figure 7. Showing difference in perceptions (Faculty & Students) on future use of ICT
tools/applications
7. ANOVA test results for testing the hypothesis “there is no significant difference of perception
among Delphi participants regarding all 13 collective issues of Delphi instrument” show no
significant difference in both rounds of Delphi. Furthermore, in Round-2 of ANOVA, the
results are reduced to much lower level (Table 4, 5 & 6).
Figure 8. Showing difference in perceptions among all participants (ANOVA results)
Conclusions
The following conclusions have been drawn. Inferences regarding ZPD gap, Z test and ANOVA
test have been made in respect of the perspective in which these tests are used.
1. Almost all areas concerning with current usage of ICT tools/applications by
Faculty/Students/Staff in HEIs of Pakistan show higher ZPD gaps from optimum level of 5,
but the areas Planning, developing and organizing instructions, Assessing student learning,
Academic research, and Group discussion/supervision/training as shown in Figure 1 above
are some with significant gaps. These gaps may be due to lack of training to teaching/support
staff, poor or unavailability of ICT infrastructure, and lack of effective ICT policy for HE.
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
1ANOVA Results
Levelofsignificance
Round-1 Round-2
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1 2 3Issues
Levelofsignificance
Round-1 Round-2
72 Zaffar
 2009 JITI
2. Similarly, higher gaps from optimum level of 5, in issues such as Use of educational/research
ICT tools, demand & supply of ICTs show lacking in training, infrastructure, and policy
(Figure 2).
3. Value of Z test calculated to compare the perceptions of Faculty members & Students
regarding use of ICT tools/applications in Group discussion/supervision/training was higher
than the table value in Round-1, but consequently in Round-2 it came under acceptance level;
hence the hypothesis cannot be rejected (Figure 3).
4. Value of Z test calculated to compare the perceptions of Faculty members and Admin staff
regarding use of ICT tools/applications for using social networks/forums in quest of
knowledge remained higher than the table value in final round (Round-2), therefore the
hypothesis is rejected. This is due to an indication of significant ZPD gap which shows less
use of educational/research tools (Figure 4).
5. Value of Z test calculated to compare the perceptions of Parents and Policy makers regarding
use of ICT tools/applications in Group discussion/supervision/training was higher than the
table value in both rounds of Delphi, therefore the hypothesis is rejected. This is due to an
indication of ZPD gap which shows less ICT use in group discussion/supervision/training
(Figure 5).
6. Value of Z test calculated to compare the perceptions of Admin staff and Policy makers
regarding use of ICT tools/applications in Group discussion/supervision/training was higher
than the table value in both rounds of Delphi, therefore the hypothesis is rejected. This is due
to an indication of ZPD gap which shows less ICT use in group discussion/supervision/
training (Figure 6).
7. Value of Z test calculated to compare the perceptions of Faculty members and Students
regarding future use of ICT tools/applications by Faculty/Students/Staff of HEIs of Pakistan
in their job-related tasks was higher than the table value in Round-1, but finally it came under
acceptance level in Round-2; hence the hypothesis can not be rejected (Figure 7).
8. Value of ANOVA test calculated to compare the perceptions of Delphi participants regarding
all issues of Delphi instrument was less than the table value at both 0.01 and 0.05 levels.
Hence the hypothesis is not rejected. (Figure 8).
9. Z test results either of Round-1 or Round-2 further confirm the flaws as were identified in
ZPD gap analysis.
Recommendations
On the basis of conclusions and findings, some recommendations are made:
1. Although higher ZPD gaps were calculated in almost all areas related with ICT integration in
HE and present & potential future use of ICT tools/application, but the areas in which this
gap is greater than 1.5 should be given high priority in terms of any future developments
regarding training program, infrastructure or policy planning.
2. A ZPD incidence development strategy may be designed/formulated that not only workout to
help reduce such pronounced gaps but also recommend actions for proper ICT integration in
HEIs of Pakistan on regular basis.
3. There is a need to pay full attentions on issues of conflict among Delphi participants of this
study (i-e use of ICT tools/applications, demand & supply of ICTs etc) as identified in Z test
analysis, and a mechanism may be formulated that may inline them with other issues.
Critical Factors of ICTs in Higher Education
 JITI 2009
73
4. There is a need to come up with robust, effective and target-oriented ICT policy for HES of
Pakistan earlier that may work out on recommendations given in this study and take actions
in timely manner to overcome this situation of dilemma.
5. ANOVA results reveal the fact that Delphi participants pledge full consensus on issues
related with betterment of HES of Pakistan.
6. In order to take measures for enhancement of HES of Pakistan in future; these
recommendations may be helpful.
Recommendations for future research:
1. Since the scope of this research was limited to Pakistani perspective, a bigger & full length
study can be conducted that may identify problems at global level and provide solutions.
2. A strategy can be formulated that work on how such big ZPD gaps can be reduced to lower
possible level for demand of ICTs in HEIs of Pakistan.
3. It is further suggested that an ongoing process of research and development in ICT and HE at
local level should be started earlier that recommend actions on regular basis pertaining any
major changes in world’s HES.
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1
An earlier version of this paper entitled “ICT Integration in Higher Education: A Measurement of
Critical Factor” was published in the proceedings of the International Research Conference on
Management & Social Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan.
2
Mr. Zaffar Ahmed Shaikh is a Lecturer in Computer Science at the Department of Computer Science;
Govt. Islamia Science College Sukkur. His research interests include: ICTs in education, pedagogy,
government policies and strategies, distributed DBS, ontology management etc. He can be reached at:
CC-52 (3rd
Floor) Defence View Phase-1 Karachi-75500, Sindh PAKISTAN. Email: gemzaf@yahoo.com.
Phone: +(92) 21-333-7113817; Fax: +(92) 21-7646655.
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Appendix (Tables)
Table 1. Statistics for questions measuring ZPD gap (Source: Shaikh & Ahmed, 2009)
ROUND-1 ROUND-2
# ISSUES Mean
ZPD
Gap
Mean ZPD Gap
1.
Planning, Developing and Organizing
instruction
Present 3.43 1.57 2.93 2.07
Future 4.87 0.13 5 0
2. Housekeeping and Record keeping Tasks
Present 3.37 1.63 3.07 1.93
Future 4.87 0.13 5 0
3. Managing Student Conduct
Present 3.03 1.97 3.07 1.93
Future 4.73 0.27 4.97 0.03
4. Presenting Subject Material / Teaching
Present 3.47 1.53 3.13 1.87
Future 4.87 0.13 4.97 0.03
5. Assessing Student Learning
Present 2.77 2.23 2.97 2.03
Future 4.63 0.37 4.87 0.13
6. Academic Research
Present 2.97 2.03 2.9 2.1
Future 4.83 0.17 5 0
7. Administrative Support
Present 3.83 1.17 3.1 1.9
Future 4.73 0.27 4.9 0.1
8.
Using Social networks / forums in quest of
knowledge
Present 2.67 2.33 3.03 1.97
Future 4.73 0.27 5 0
9.
Database / Library Research & Information
e.g. IEEE, ACM
Present 3.46 1.54 3.2 1.8
Future 4.85 0.15 5 0
10. Group Discussion / Supervision / Training
Present 2.79 2.21 2.21 2.79
Future 4.41 0.59 4.93 0.07
11. Common ICT tools/applications
Present 4.82 0.18 4.97 0.03
Future 4.8 0.2 5 0
12.
Educational/Research ICT tools: Scholarly
search, encyclopedia, satellite imaginary,
programming…
Present 3.43 1.57 3.1 1.9
Future 4.7 0.3 5 0
13. Rely on ICTs 4.13 0.87 4.07 0.93
14. Use of ICTs 4.3 0.7 4.07 0.93
15. Help by ICTs 3.87 1.13 4 1
33. ICT Demand in HEIs -- -- 3.12 1.88
34. ICT Supply in HEIs -- -- 2.31 2.69
35.
Problem of Attitude. Grabbing resources & misuse
them.
--
-- 4.53 0.47
 2009 JITI
Table 2. Statistics for issues measuring Z test between categories
Categories Issues / Rounds 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
FACULTY
VS
STUDENTS
Round-1 -1.82 -0.22 0.38 0.09 -0.29 0.23 0.00 0.11 0.00 10.33 --- --- ---
Round-2 0.32 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.15 0.29 1.09 -0.10 -5.25 1.00 0.00 1.00
FACULTY
VS
PARENTS
Round-1 -1.62 -0.22 -0.29 0.08 0.20 0.06 -0.22 1.05 0.66 -14.00 --- --- ---
Round-2 1.21 0 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.72 0.10 -43.11 1.00 1.00 0.17
FACULTY
VS
ADMIN STAFF
Round-1 -2.25 -0.19 -0.29 0.09 0.20 0.12 -0.13 1.24 -0.83 -14.82 --- --- ---
Round-2 0.42 0 1.00 1.00 0.00 1.00 0.25 4.36 -0.09 -26.21 1.00 0 -1.00
FACULTY
VS
POLICY MAKERS
Round-1 -4.56 -0.22 -0.63 -0.20 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.33 -1.51 -2.42 --- --- ---
Round-2 -1.42 0 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.17 2.40 0.27 -21.51 -1.00 0 -1.25
STUDENTS
VS
PARENTS
Round-1 0.71 0.00 -0.71 0.00 0.38 -0.19 -0.16 0.75 0.78 -22.24 --- --- ---
Round-2 1.17 -1.00 0.00 0 0 -1.15 -0.29 -0.89 0.19 -20.32 0.17 1.20 0.17
STUDENTS
VS
ADMIN STAFF
Round-1 -1.55 0.38 -0.71 0.00 0.38 -0.12 -0.10 0.77 -1.12 -29.08 --- --- ---
Round-2 0.18 -1.00 1.00 0 -1.00 -1.25 0.12 0.31 0.00 -20.39 0.18 -1.00 1.00
STUDENTS
VS
POLICY MAKERS
Round-1 -5.52 0.00 -1.07 -0.63 0.19 -0.12 0.00 0.11 -1.30 -19.38 --- --- ---
Round-2 -2.05 -1.00 1.00 -1.00 0 -1.25 0.00 -0.73 0.36 -7.75 0 0 -1.00
PARENTS
VS
ADMIN STAFF
Round-1 -1.90 0.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.05 -0.28 -2.61 9.69 --- --- ---
Round-2 -0.92 0 1.00 0 -1.00 1.00 0.25 4.59 -0.17 -16.32 -1.00 1.00 0.25
PARENTS
VS
POLICY MAKERS
Round-1 -5.86 0.00 -0.36 -0.63 -0.19 0.06 0.14 -0.94 -2.80 19.38 --- --- ---
Round-2 -2.53 0 1.00 -1.00 0 1.00 0.17 1.20 0.17 24.39 0 0 -1.15
ADMIN STAFF
VS
POLICY MAKERS
Round-1 -3.97 -0.38 -0.36 -0.63 -0.19 0.00 0.10 -0.66 -0.19 9.69 --- --- ---
Round-2 -1.96 0 0 -1.00 1.00 0 -0.09 -3.27 0.32 21.30 0.00 1.00 0.25
Z-critical value at 95% significance level = 1.96
Z-critical value at 99% significance level = 2.576
 2009 JITI
Table 3: Measuring Z test for future use of ICT tools/applications
Categories
Issues/
Rounds
1 2 3
FACULTY VS STUDENTS
Round-1 31.50 -0.15 1.25
Round-2 0.87 0 0
FACULTY VS PARENTS
Round-1 1.75 -0.11 1.25
Round-2 -6.72 0 0
FACULTY VS ADMIN STAFF
Round-1 -4.53 -0.07 1.67
Round-2 -10.08 0 0
FACULTY VS POLICY MAKERS
Round-1 -11.09 -0.15 1.00
Round-2 -33.60 0 0
STUDENTS VS PARENTS
Round-1 -14.48 0.50 0.00
Round-2 -1.18 0.00 0.00
STUDENTS VS ADMIN STAFF
Round-1 -8.80 0.77 0.36
Round-2 -0.86 0.00 0.00
STUDENTS VS POLICY MAKERS
Round-1 -9.83 0.00 -0.36
Round-2 -1.72 0.00 0.00
PARENTS VS ADMIN STAFF
Round-1 -4.48 0.38 0.36
Round-2 -0.17 0.00 0.00
PARENTS VS POLICY MAKERS
Round-1 -5.52 -0.38 -0.36
Round-2 -1.03 0.00 0.00
ADMIN STAFF VS POLICY
MAKERS
Round-1 -1.03 -0.77 -0.71
Round-2 -0.86 0.00 0.00
Z-critical value at 95% significance level = 1.96
Z-critical value at 99% significance level = 2.576
Critical Factors of ICTs in Higher Education
 JITI 2009
79
Table 4. Data (mean scores) for measuring ANOVA test
I
ROUND-1 ROUND-2
Faculty Students Parents
Admin
Staff
Policy
Makers
Faculty Students Parents
Admin
Staff
Policy
Makers
1. 3.00 3.50 3.50 3.83 3.33 2.67 3.00 3.00 3.17 2.83
2. 3.33 3.17 3.17 3.17 4.00 2.83 3.00 3.00 2.83 3.67
3. 2.83 3.00 3.17 3.17 3.00 3.33 3.00 2.83 3.17 3.00
4. 3.83 3.33 3.33 3.17 3.67 3.33 3.17 2.83 3.00 3.33
5. 2.33 2.67 2.83 2.83 3.17 2.83 3.00 3.00 2.83 3.17
6. 2.67 3.17 3.17 2.83 3.00 3.00 2.83 3.00 2.83 2.83
7. 3.83 3.83 3.50 4.00 4.00 3.17 3.17 3.00 3.17 3.00
8. 2.50 2.67 3.00 2.50 2.67 3.00 2.83 3.33 3.17 2.83
9. 3.50 3.00 2.50 3.50 3.67 3.33 3.17 3.00 3.17 3.33
10. 2.67 2.67 2.50 2.83 2.83 2.17 2.17 2.00 2.17 2.17
11. 3.33 4.83 4.83 4.67 4.83 5.00 4.83 5.00 5.00 5.00
12. 3.33 3.17 3.50 3.50 3.67 3.17 3.17 3.17 3.00 3.00
13. 4.17 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.50 4.17 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.17
14. 4.33 4.50 4.17 4.17 4.33 4.17 4.00 4.00 4.17 4.00
15. 4.17 3.50 4.00 3.83 3.83 4.17 3.67 4.17 4.00 4.00
16. 4.00 4.00 4.50 4.33 4.00 4.67 4.50 4.67 4.33 4.50
17. 4.33 4.33 4.33 4.00 4.17 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.00 4.50
18. 4.17 4.17 3.33 3.50 4.00 4.33 4.33 3.50 3.50 4.33
19. 4.50 4.67 4.00 4.00 4.33 4.50 4.67 4.50 4.33 4.33
20. 3.00 2.67 2.17 2.67 3.00 4.00 2.83 4.17 3.50 3.83
21. 4.50 4.33 3.83 4.33 4.50 4.67 4.50 4.33 4.33 4.50
22. 4.17 4.00 4.67 4.67 4.50 4.50 4.67 4.67 4.67 4.50
23. 4.50 3.83 4.50 4.83 4.50 4.50 4.33 4.50 4.83 4.50
24. 2.67 3.17 1.67 2.83 3.50 2.50 2.50 2.33 2.33 2.17
25. 4.00 4.50 3.83 4.17 4.00 4.17 4.50 4.33 4.33 4.17
26. 4.33 4.17 4.83 4.67 4.67 4.50 4.17 5.00 5.67 4.67
27. 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.33 4.50 4.67 4.67 5.50 4.50
28. 4.17 4.17 4.33 4.50 4.33 4.17 4.33 4.83 5.67 4.67
29. 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.33 4.50 4.83 4.67 5.50 4.50
30. 4.67 4.17 4.83 4.67 4.67 4.67 4.67 5.00 4.83 4.83
31. 4.67 4.67 4.83 4.67 4.67 4.67 4.67 4.83 4.83 4.83
32. 4.67 4.50 4.83 4.67 4.67 4.67 4.83 4.83 4.83 4.83
33. -- -- -- -- -- 3.83 3.83 4.50 4.33 4.00
34. -- -- -- -- -- 4.33 4.50 4.83 4.50 4.50
35. -- -- -- -- -- 3.50 3.67 4.50 4.83 4.50
80 Zaffar
 2009 JITI
Table 5. Showing results of ANOVA test (Round-1)
Sources of variance Degree of frequency (df) Sum of squares Variances F
Between samples K – 1 →5 – 1 = 4 0.773503 0.193376
0.363264Within samples N – k → 160 – 5 = 155 82.51094 0.532329
Total N – 1→ 4 + 155 = 159 83.28444 0.725704
Table value 0.01 level = 3.41
Table value 0.05 level = 2.42
Table 6: Showing results of ANOVA test (Round-2)
Sources of variance Degree of frequency (df) Sum of squares Variances F
Between samples K – 1 → 5 – 1 = 4 0.570666 0.142667
0.199578Within samples N – k → 175 – 5 = 170 121.5227 0.714839
Total N – 1→ 4 + 170 = 174 122.0934 0.857506
Table value 0.01 level = 3.41
Table value 0.05 level = 2.42

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Usage, acceptance, adoption, and diffusion of information & communication

  • 1.  2009 JITI Journal of Information Technology Impact Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 63-80, 2009 Usage, Acceptance, Adoption, and Diffusion of Information & Communication Technologies in Higher Education: A Measurement of Critical Factors1 Zaffar Ahmed Shaikh 2 Iqra University Pakistan Abstract To properly integrate information & communication technologies (ICTs) in higher educational institutes (HEIs) of Pakistan demands factors which relate with their usage, acceptance, adoption, and diffusion need be analyzed through some appropriate statistical tests before their implementation at ground level. This study measures critical factors such as ZPD (zone of proximal development) gap, difference of perception, issue by issue and on all issues under discussion by participants’ at each round of Delphi in order to analyze the difference in perceptions among various higher education (HE) stake holders. It was determined that a significant ZPD gap in ICT usage, acceptance, adoption, and diffusion is present in HEIs of Pakistan as compared to those developed nations. However, no significant difference of thought was measured while measuring issues such as demand & supply of ICTs, causes of deprived standard of HE, ICT integration challenges and their proposed solutions, which reveal that the problems identified and measures suggested need be considered compulsory in design of any future ICT policy. Recommendations as suggested in this study would benefit to Govt. of Pakistan while designing new ICT policies for higher education system (HES) in particular and to other concerned stake holders of less developed countries with similar nature of ICT problems/challenges in their HES. It is suggested that there is an utmost need of robust, effective and target- oriented ICT policy that may work out on issues identified in this study and take actions in timely manner to overcome this situation of dilemma. Keywords: Pakistan, Delphi method, zone of proximal development (ZPD) gap Introduction Social and economic progress can be achieved through knowledge and its applications and HE is a most powerful tool for the creation of that knowledge and hence the knowledge-based society. Recent research on ICTs in HE recommends robust ICT infrastructure most important factor for knowledge-driven development. Tiene (2002) suggests in his study that ICT integration in HE is very critical for social and economic progress of any country and for a country which go for ICT integration in education, it should consider secondary and tertiary education levels 1st. Rogers (2003), Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, & Davis (2003) and Yi, Jakson, Park & Probst (2006) proclaim
  • 2. 64 Zaffar  2009 JITI in their studies that a lot of research has been done in order to better understand the usage, acceptance, adoptions and diffusion of ICT tools/applications; because of diversification and development of ICTs that affect many fields. In this study, ICT “usage & need” is highlighted because all the three parameters viz. adoption, acceptance and diffusion are covered under this umbrella. ICT usage depends on whether there are enough ICT facilities available or not; (Mumcu & Usluel 2004; Usluel & Seferoğlu 2004) claim that the significant barriers in ICT use are the lack of ICT facilities at workplace. Gauci (2001) & Nwuke (2001) highlighted in their research that the reason of widening gap between developed and less developed world is the cruel cyclic relationship between ICT skills shortage and a critical shortage of opportunities for skilled graduates in ICT disciplines. Taylor (2003) stated that powerful technical, economic, and social trends facilitated by the internet are revolutionizing the traditional concepts of education, business, and economics – their effects on HE are especially profound; hence due to the increasing competition on a global scale, universities must have to change. A study concludes on people’s perception about ICT that ICT is a driving force behind the quality of education and thus can change a society to a knowledge-based society; but it is the educational goals, needs and careful economics that must drive ICT use (Pelgrum, Law, 2003). Haddad (1999) stated that ICT is only a tool; educational choices have to be made first in terms of objectives, methodologies, and roles of teachers and students before decisions on the appropriate technologies can be made. ICT integration in education needs proper attention, mechanism, and policy; Edelson (2001) found that ICT resources in educational institutes have been made available without a plan to associate them with curriculum; and it is often considered that once ICT resources are made available in classrooms, changes will eventually occur. However Krumsvik (2004) affirms that such perceptions have never been achieved. Beyond all this, developed world spends large sums of investments for integrating ICTs into their educational system in order to keep in pace with other countries. ICTs not only help HESs of less developed countries in narrowing the global digital divide and thus producing knowledge-based societies; but also help improve quality of learning and educational outcomes. The state of any education system is determined through quality of its HES; because HES contributes to the development at all levels. Today, the HESs of whole world face diverse set of problems; among those interdisciplinary, global responsibility, and sustainable development are the problems that developed world face; and growth in enrollments, institutional developments, governance (e.g., lack of top-level commitment, lack of awareness & mindset, lack of ownership & creativity), poor & uneven distribution of ICT resources/infrastructure, high cost of the sustainability of technology due to exceptional & multifaceted growth/development of ICTs, defining the role of ICTs as cure-all for organizational transformation, making ICT responsive to the organizational vision & mission, and developing a non-systemic method of implementation of ICTs are the problems that less developed world face. World Bank expects the number of HE students will more than double from 70 million to 160 million by 2025 (Taylor, 2003). The 21st century demands ICT skills in all fields, most importantly for education, employment and for everyday life. Today employers demand confidence and efficiency in ICT use either they are at academic level or at industry level; because ICT skills are crucial in the context of job skill demand. Thus, this presents an enormous challenge to the educators; since
  • 3. Critical Factors of ICTs in Higher Education  JITI 2009 65 they are expected to equip students with relevant, up-to-date, and high-quality ICT experience before students emerge into the employment world (Gibson, O’Reilly, & Hughes, 2002). D. Haywood & J. Haywood (2003) while discussing the results of a survey conducted in Europe found that majority of participants consider ICT essential for future professional activities. Billig, Sherry & Havelock (2005) claim in their research conclusions that successful ICT integration can not be achieved suddenly; but it requires effective & proper implementation at ground level. At this critical stage, when world considers ICT integration in HES a top most issue to be resolved earlier the time possible, task force on HE in Pakistan suggests poor quality of teachers, low student motivation, lack of relevance of the course content to social or economic needs, gender & class disparities, and student discipline etc as factors behind the collapse of HES; unfortunately with no mention of poor ICT infrastructure and policy making. Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Gap The concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD) gap introduced/developed by Vygotsky (1978, p. 78) states that there is a gap between what an individual can perform on his own and what he is capable of performing with peer/expert help. It argues that people’s individual disordered knowledge can become meaningful as a result of social interaction. (Luckin 2001, p. 57) states in her study that Vygotsky theory can easily be mapped into educational design. Ager (2000) asserted that ZPD gap can be reduced to a minimum and ICT is the only tool that can bridge that gap successfully. In this paper the ZPD gap is measured to understand the difference between actual state (of various matters under discussion in this study) and required state of matters. The issues: ICT use, demand & supply of ICTs, rely on ICTs and help provided by ICTs are considered. The results of this evaluation are discussed in terms of the confidence level of university personnel in using ICTs in their job related tasks. Analysis of perceptions of Delphi participants through Z Test Z test measures if population parameter μ is equal to another population parameter μ0. Z test is calculated by comparison of means between two samples whose sample distribution is normal under null hypothesis. In this paper, Z test is calculated to measure difference in perceptions of participants of any two categories regarding 13 collective issues under discussion in this study. Analysis of perceptions of Delphi participants through ANOVA ANOVA test is used to measure the difference in means of more than two groups for data to be analyzed in perspectives of similarities and differences. In this paper, this test is calculated to measure difference in perceptions of participants on all 13 collective issues using data of Round-1 and round-2 of Delphi study.
  • 4. 66 Zaffar  2009 JITI Research Framework & Methodology Model and Hypotheses For this study, a 35-item questionnaire instrument developed for Delphi study conducted in Pakistan by Shaikh & Ahmed, (2009) is chosen as a research model; which is based on diverse set of issues concerning ICT use in HE, ICT related problems & challenges, demand & supply of ICTs, causes of deprived standard of HE, and suggestions for ICT-enhanced HE. The following four hypotheses were proposed: H1. There is no significant ZPD gap in issues regarding common/educational ICT tools/application that Faculty/Students/Staff use in their diverse set of job-related tasks. H2. There is no significant ZPD gap in issues: Rely on ICTs, help by ICTs, use of ICTs, ICT demand and supply, and problem of attitude in HEIs of Pakistan. H3. There is no significant difference in perceptions of Delphi participants regarding any of 13 collective issues under discussion in this study, both category-wise and round-wise. H4. There is no significant difference in perceptions of Delphi participants regarding any of 13 collective issues under discussion in this study, at overall level. Research Method, Participants & Instrument In this study, the authors (Shaikh & Ahmed, 2009) have used normative Delphi method (electronic survey research) in order to measure expert views of participants regarding how effectively ICTs can be integrated in HES of Pakistan. The Delphi questionnaire instrument was sent to participants through emails. Research group consisted of 30 personnel (both male and female) from five categories viz. Faculty members, Students, Parents, Admin staff, and ICT policy makers. Questionnaire instrument was initially composed of 32 questions in Round-1 but with an addition of three more questions as suggested in Round-1 responses, it became a 35-item questionnaire instrument (Shaikh & Ahmed, 2009). Discussion & Analysis of Data The aim of this Delphi study conducted by Shaikh & Ahmed, (2009) was multipurpose and multi perspective. With the help of some appropriate statistical tests on output data of that study; this paper measures critical factors such as (1) ZPD gap in order to know how much less ICT tools/applications that Faculty/Students/Staff of our HEIs use today as compared with use in their counterparts in developed countries; (2) to know and analyze the difference of perception (if exists) among Delphi participants on each collective issue under discussion both round-wise & category-wise; and (3) to know and analyze the difference of perception on all issues among all participants. In this study, MS Excel the most popular academic and research tool for calculating statistical tests is used for calculation & analysis of data. Collective issues for measuring critical factors were:
  • 5. Critical Factors of ICTs in Higher Education  JITI 2009 67 1. ICT tools/applications usage by Faculty/Students/Staff of HEIs of Pakistan in their job- related tasks (Questions 1-10 → (1-7,8-10)); 2. Usage of Common ICT tools/applications (Question 11); 3. Usage of educational/research ICT tools/applications (Question 12); 4. How much should Faculty/Students/Staff rely on ICTs (Question 13); 5. How much should Faculty/Students/Staff use ICTs (Question 14); 6. How much help does Faculty/Students/Staff get by ICTs in their job-related tasks (Question 15); 7. Causes of deprived standard of HE of Pakistan (Question 16); 8. ICT integration challenges in HEIs of Pakistan (Questions 17-20 → (17-18,19-20)); 9. Reasons for delay in integration of ICTs in HEIs of Pakistan (21-25); 10. Suggestions for ICT-enhanced HES of Pakistan (26-32); 11. How much is ICTs demand in HEIs of Pakistan (Question 33); 12. How much ICT is supplied in response to ICT demand (Question 34); and 13. Attitude problem (Question 35). Discussion 1. The existence or non existence of ZPD gaps for issues 1 to 15 & 33 to 35 is calculated in Table 1 (see appendix). Optimum level of ZPD is set to 5 because mean scores were calculated by assigning values from 5 to 1; with 5 being strongly agree and 1 being strongly disagree. 2. Z test was applied on the results (mean & variation) of both rounds of Delphi to test the hypothesis “there is no significant difference of perception between any one category of Delphi participants (say Faculty) with another category (say Students) regarding each of 13 collective issues under discussion in this study”. Z-critical value at 95% significance level (0.05 level) uses 1.96 and at 99% significance level (0.01 level) uses 2.576. In hypothesis testing; significance level is the criterion used for rejecting or not rejecting the null hypothesis. The computed Z test value is compared to the significance level; if the value is less than or equal to the significance level, then the null hypothesis is not rejected. The lower the significance level, the more the data must diverge from the null hypothesis to be significant. Therefore, the 0.01 level is more conservative than the 0.05 level. Table 2 (see appendix) shows the results of Z test. 3. Z test was again applied to test the hypothesis “there is no significant difference in the perceptions of any one category of Delphi participants (say Faculty) with another category (say Students) regarding future use of ICT tools/applications by Faculty/Students/Staff of HEIs of Pakistan in their job-related tasks”. Table 3 (see appendix) provides the results of calculations. 4. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied on all data collected through 35-item questionnaire to measure the hypothesis “there is no significant difference in perceptions among Delphi participants regarding all issues under discussion, collectively” in both rounds of Delphi. Table 4 (see appendix) describes the details about data (mean scores) used for calculation, Table 5 (see appendix) calculates Round-1 results while Table 6 (see appendix) calculates Round-2 results.
  • 6. 68 Zaffar  2009 JITI Findings Findings recorded are described below: 1. Significant ZPD gaps (>=2) in both rounds of Delphi regarding present use of ICT tools/applications (Issue 1) were calculated in tasks: Planning, developing & organizing instructions, assessing student learning, academic research, and group discussion/supervision/training (see appendix: Table 1). Figure 1. Showing ZPD gaps in present use of ICT tools/applications 2. Significant ZPD gaps (>=1.5), in both rounds of Delphi, in use of educational/research ICT tools, rely on ICTs, demand & supply of ICTs (Issues 11-15 & 33-35) were calculated (Table 1). Figure 2. Showing ZPD gaps in issues (11-15 & 33-35) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Round-1 Round-2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 11 12 13 14 15 33 34 35 Round-1 Round-2
  • 7. Critical Factors of ICTs in Higher Education  JITI 2009 69 Although a little difference in perceptions was calculated in almost all issues; the issues with most significant differences are further discussed here. Z test results to test the hypothesis “there is no significant difference in the perceptions of Faculty members & Students regarding 13 collective issues” yielded significant difference in 1st Round of issue-10; but in Round-2, it came under acceptance level (1.96=0.05 level & 2.576=0.01 level) (Table 2). Figure 3. Showing difference in perceptions (Faculty & Students) 3. Z test results to test the hypothesis “there is no significant difference of perception between Faculty members & Admin staff” yielded a significant difference (4.36) in 2nd Round of issue-8 (Table 2). Figure 4. Showing difference in perceptions (Faculty & Admin staff) -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Issues Levelofsignificance Round-1 Round-2 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Issues Levelofsignificance Round-1 Round-2
  • 8. 70 Zaffar  2009 JITI 4. Z test results to test the hypothesis “there is no significant difference of perception between Parents & Policy makers” yielded a significant difference (19.38 in Round-1 & 24.39 in Round-2) of issue-10; other issues remained under acceptance level (Table 2) Figure 5. Showing difference in perceptions (Parents & Policy makers) 5. Z test results to test the hypothesis “there is no significant difference of perception between Admin staff & Policy makers” yielded a significant difference (9.69 in Round-1 & 21.3 in Round-2) of issue-10; other issues remained under acceptance level (Table 2). Figure 6. Showing difference in perceptions (Admin staff & Policy makers) 6. Difference of perception when testing the hypothesis “there is no significant difference of perception between Faculty members & Students on future use of ICT tools/applications” calculated was significant (31.5) in Round-1 but in Round-2, that (0.87) fell down under acceptance level (Table 3). -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Issues Levelofsignificance Round-1 Round-2 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Issues Levelofsignificance Round-1 Round-2
  • 9. Critical Factors of ICTs in Higher Education  JITI 2009 71 Figure 7. Showing difference in perceptions (Faculty & Students) on future use of ICT tools/applications 7. ANOVA test results for testing the hypothesis “there is no significant difference of perception among Delphi participants regarding all 13 collective issues of Delphi instrument” show no significant difference in both rounds of Delphi. Furthermore, in Round-2 of ANOVA, the results are reduced to much lower level (Table 4, 5 & 6). Figure 8. Showing difference in perceptions among all participants (ANOVA results) Conclusions The following conclusions have been drawn. Inferences regarding ZPD gap, Z test and ANOVA test have been made in respect of the perspective in which these tests are used. 1. Almost all areas concerning with current usage of ICT tools/applications by Faculty/Students/Staff in HEIs of Pakistan show higher ZPD gaps from optimum level of 5, but the areas Planning, developing and organizing instructions, Assessing student learning, Academic research, and Group discussion/supervision/training as shown in Figure 1 above are some with significant gaps. These gaps may be due to lack of training to teaching/support staff, poor or unavailability of ICT infrastructure, and lack of effective ICT policy for HE. 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 1ANOVA Results Levelofsignificance Round-1 Round-2 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 1 2 3Issues Levelofsignificance Round-1 Round-2
  • 10. 72 Zaffar  2009 JITI 2. Similarly, higher gaps from optimum level of 5, in issues such as Use of educational/research ICT tools, demand & supply of ICTs show lacking in training, infrastructure, and policy (Figure 2). 3. Value of Z test calculated to compare the perceptions of Faculty members & Students regarding use of ICT tools/applications in Group discussion/supervision/training was higher than the table value in Round-1, but consequently in Round-2 it came under acceptance level; hence the hypothesis cannot be rejected (Figure 3). 4. Value of Z test calculated to compare the perceptions of Faculty members and Admin staff regarding use of ICT tools/applications for using social networks/forums in quest of knowledge remained higher than the table value in final round (Round-2), therefore the hypothesis is rejected. This is due to an indication of significant ZPD gap which shows less use of educational/research tools (Figure 4). 5. Value of Z test calculated to compare the perceptions of Parents and Policy makers regarding use of ICT tools/applications in Group discussion/supervision/training was higher than the table value in both rounds of Delphi, therefore the hypothesis is rejected. This is due to an indication of ZPD gap which shows less ICT use in group discussion/supervision/training (Figure 5). 6. Value of Z test calculated to compare the perceptions of Admin staff and Policy makers regarding use of ICT tools/applications in Group discussion/supervision/training was higher than the table value in both rounds of Delphi, therefore the hypothesis is rejected. This is due to an indication of ZPD gap which shows less ICT use in group discussion/supervision/ training (Figure 6). 7. Value of Z test calculated to compare the perceptions of Faculty members and Students regarding future use of ICT tools/applications by Faculty/Students/Staff of HEIs of Pakistan in their job-related tasks was higher than the table value in Round-1, but finally it came under acceptance level in Round-2; hence the hypothesis can not be rejected (Figure 7). 8. Value of ANOVA test calculated to compare the perceptions of Delphi participants regarding all issues of Delphi instrument was less than the table value at both 0.01 and 0.05 levels. Hence the hypothesis is not rejected. (Figure 8). 9. Z test results either of Round-1 or Round-2 further confirm the flaws as were identified in ZPD gap analysis. Recommendations On the basis of conclusions and findings, some recommendations are made: 1. Although higher ZPD gaps were calculated in almost all areas related with ICT integration in HE and present & potential future use of ICT tools/application, but the areas in which this gap is greater than 1.5 should be given high priority in terms of any future developments regarding training program, infrastructure or policy planning. 2. A ZPD incidence development strategy may be designed/formulated that not only workout to help reduce such pronounced gaps but also recommend actions for proper ICT integration in HEIs of Pakistan on regular basis. 3. There is a need to pay full attentions on issues of conflict among Delphi participants of this study (i-e use of ICT tools/applications, demand & supply of ICTs etc) as identified in Z test analysis, and a mechanism may be formulated that may inline them with other issues.
  • 11. Critical Factors of ICTs in Higher Education  JITI 2009 73 4. There is a need to come up with robust, effective and target-oriented ICT policy for HES of Pakistan earlier that may work out on recommendations given in this study and take actions in timely manner to overcome this situation of dilemma. 5. ANOVA results reveal the fact that Delphi participants pledge full consensus on issues related with betterment of HES of Pakistan. 6. In order to take measures for enhancement of HES of Pakistan in future; these recommendations may be helpful. Recommendations for future research: 1. Since the scope of this research was limited to Pakistani perspective, a bigger & full length study can be conducted that may identify problems at global level and provide solutions. 2. A strategy can be formulated that work on how such big ZPD gaps can be reduced to lower possible level for demand of ICTs in HEIs of Pakistan. 3. It is further suggested that an ongoing process of research and development in ICT and HE at local level should be started earlier that recommend actions on regular basis pertaining any major changes in world’s HES. References Ager, R. (2000). The Art of Information and Communications Technology for Teachers. David Fulton, London: UK. Akbulut, Y., Kesim, M., & Odabasi, F. (2007). Construction validation of ICT indicators measurement scale (ICTIMS). International Journal of Education and Development using Information and communication technology, 3(3), 60-77. Billig, S. H., Sherry, L., & Havelock, B. (2005). Challenge 98: sustaining the work of a regional technology integration initiative. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(6), 987- 1003. Edelson, D. C. (2001). Design research: What we learn when we engage in design. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 22(1), 105-121. Esnault, L., & Daele, A. (2003). Higher Education and ICT: Questions to Design Successful Pedagogical Scenarios to Improve the Learning Process. World Conference on E-Learning in Corp., Govt., Health, & Higher Education, Phoenix: Arizona. Gauci, A. (2001, November). Reforms in higher education and the use of information technology. Issues in Higher Education, Economic Growth, and Information Technology, Ad-hoc Expert Group Meeting, 19-21, Nairobi, Kenya. Gibson, I. S., O'Reilly, C., & Hughes, M. (2002). Integration of ICT within a project-based learning environment. European Journal of Engineering Education, 27(1), 21-31. Haddad, W. (1999). If Technology is the Solution Where Is the Problem? Retrieved from TechKnowLogia, http://techknowlogia.org/TKL_active_pages2/CurrentArticles/main.asp? IssueNumber=2&FileType=PDF&ArticleID =35.
  • 12. 74 Zaffar  2009 JITI Haywood, D., & Haywood, J. (2003). ICT Skills of Students in European Universities: SEUSSIS Project Final Report. School of Education, University of Edinburgh. Hussain, T. (2008). Dilemma of Higher Education in Pakistan and Role of World Bank. X International Summer School. In Lifelong Learning: Participatory learning, citizenship and Identity. Denmark: Roskilde University. Khan, A. M., & Shah, Q. A. (2004). Study on Impact of Information and Communication Technology on Decent Work in Pakistan. Islamabad: Pakistan Manpower Institute, Ministry of Labour Manpower & Overseas Pakistanis, Government of Pakistan. Jayson, W. R. (2008). ICT in Education Reform in Cambodia: Problems, Politics, and Policies Impacting Implementation. Information Technologies and International Development, 4(4), 67–82. Krumsvik, R. (2004). ICT and community of practice. 32nd Nordic Educational Research Association Congress: The Positioning of Education in Contemporary Knowledge Society. Iceland. Luckin, R. (2001). Designing Children’s Software to Ensure Productive Interactivity through Collaboration in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual, 1, 57-85. VA: AACE. Mumcu, K. F., & Usluel, K. Y. (2004). Mesleki ve teknik okul öğretmenlerinin bilgisayar kullanımları ve engeller. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 26, 91-100. Nwuke, O. K. (2001, November). Reforms in higher education and the use of information technology. Issues in Higher Education, Economic Growth, and Information Technology, Ad-hoc Expert Group Meeting, 19-2. Nairobi, Kenya. Pelgrum, W. J., & Law, N. (2003). ICT in education around the world: Trends, problems and prospects. Paris: UNESCO. Rogers, M. E. (2003). Diffusion of Innovations (5th Ed.). New York: The Free Press. Shaheeda, J., Dick, N., & Laura, C. (2007). The role of ICTs in higher education in South Africa: One strategy for addressing teaching and learning challenges. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology. 3(4), 131- 142. Shaikh Z. A., & Ahmed Z. (2009). ICT for Shaping the Future of Higher Education in Pakistan. Accepted for publication in the Proceedings of the WorldComp09 FEC09 Conference on Frontiers in Education: Computer Science & Computer Engineering, Las Vegas, Nevada. Retriewved from http://docs.google.com/fileview?id=F.b8b3101a-295e-492a-b436- 21a57cf168a7 Taylor, J. C. (2003, May). Higher Education Challenges and Solutions. Presentation at Microsoft Executive Breakfast.
  • 13. Critical Factors of ICTs in Higher Education  JITI 2009 75 Tiene, D. (2002). Addressing the global digital divide and its impact on educational opportunity. Educational Media International, 39(3–4), 211–222. Tinio, V. L. (2003). ICT in Education: e-Primers for the information economy, society and policy. United Nations Development Programme, New York. Usluel, Y. K., Asker, P., & Bas, T. (2008). A structural equation model for ICT usage in higher education. Educational Technology & Society, 11(2), 262-273. Usluel, Y. K., & Seferoğlu, S. S. (2004). Obstacles that faculty members face while using information technologies, solutions they propose and their computer self-efficacy, Educational Sciences and Practices, 6, 143-157. Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Davis, G. B., & Davis, F. D. (2003). User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view. MIS Quarterly, 27(3), 426-478. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. USA: Harvard University Press. Wieringen, F. V., Sellin, B., & Amsterdam, G. S. (2002). Future education: learning the future scenarios and strategies in Europe. Max Goote Expert Center, Amsterdam University. Wong, K. (2008). School-based technology coordinators and other human factors in the implementation of ICT in primary schools: A comparative study. International Journal of Education and Development using ICT, 4(1). Yi, M. Y., Jackson, J. D., Park, J. S., & Probst, J. C. (2006). Understanding information technology acceptance by individual professionals: Toward an integrative view. Information & Management, 43, 350-363. 1 An earlier version of this paper entitled “ICT Integration in Higher Education: A Measurement of Critical Factor” was published in the proceedings of the International Research Conference on Management & Social Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan. 2 Mr. Zaffar Ahmed Shaikh is a Lecturer in Computer Science at the Department of Computer Science; Govt. Islamia Science College Sukkur. His research interests include: ICTs in education, pedagogy, government policies and strategies, distributed DBS, ontology management etc. He can be reached at: CC-52 (3rd Floor) Defence View Phase-1 Karachi-75500, Sindh PAKISTAN. Email: gemzaf@yahoo.com. Phone: +(92) 21-333-7113817; Fax: +(92) 21-7646655.
  • 14. 76 Zaffar  2009 JITI Appendix (Tables) Table 1. Statistics for questions measuring ZPD gap (Source: Shaikh & Ahmed, 2009) ROUND-1 ROUND-2 # ISSUES Mean ZPD Gap Mean ZPD Gap 1. Planning, Developing and Organizing instruction Present 3.43 1.57 2.93 2.07 Future 4.87 0.13 5 0 2. Housekeeping and Record keeping Tasks Present 3.37 1.63 3.07 1.93 Future 4.87 0.13 5 0 3. Managing Student Conduct Present 3.03 1.97 3.07 1.93 Future 4.73 0.27 4.97 0.03 4. Presenting Subject Material / Teaching Present 3.47 1.53 3.13 1.87 Future 4.87 0.13 4.97 0.03 5. Assessing Student Learning Present 2.77 2.23 2.97 2.03 Future 4.63 0.37 4.87 0.13 6. Academic Research Present 2.97 2.03 2.9 2.1 Future 4.83 0.17 5 0 7. Administrative Support Present 3.83 1.17 3.1 1.9 Future 4.73 0.27 4.9 0.1 8. Using Social networks / forums in quest of knowledge Present 2.67 2.33 3.03 1.97 Future 4.73 0.27 5 0 9. Database / Library Research & Information e.g. IEEE, ACM Present 3.46 1.54 3.2 1.8 Future 4.85 0.15 5 0 10. Group Discussion / Supervision / Training Present 2.79 2.21 2.21 2.79 Future 4.41 0.59 4.93 0.07 11. Common ICT tools/applications Present 4.82 0.18 4.97 0.03 Future 4.8 0.2 5 0 12. Educational/Research ICT tools: Scholarly search, encyclopedia, satellite imaginary, programming… Present 3.43 1.57 3.1 1.9 Future 4.7 0.3 5 0 13. Rely on ICTs 4.13 0.87 4.07 0.93 14. Use of ICTs 4.3 0.7 4.07 0.93 15. Help by ICTs 3.87 1.13 4 1 33. ICT Demand in HEIs -- -- 3.12 1.88 34. ICT Supply in HEIs -- -- 2.31 2.69 35. Problem of Attitude. Grabbing resources & misuse them. -- -- 4.53 0.47
  • 15.  2009 JITI Table 2. Statistics for issues measuring Z test between categories Categories Issues / Rounds 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 FACULTY VS STUDENTS Round-1 -1.82 -0.22 0.38 0.09 -0.29 0.23 0.00 0.11 0.00 10.33 --- --- --- Round-2 0.32 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.15 0.29 1.09 -0.10 -5.25 1.00 0.00 1.00 FACULTY VS PARENTS Round-1 -1.62 -0.22 -0.29 0.08 0.20 0.06 -0.22 1.05 0.66 -14.00 --- --- --- Round-2 1.21 0 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.72 0.10 -43.11 1.00 1.00 0.17 FACULTY VS ADMIN STAFF Round-1 -2.25 -0.19 -0.29 0.09 0.20 0.12 -0.13 1.24 -0.83 -14.82 --- --- --- Round-2 0.42 0 1.00 1.00 0.00 1.00 0.25 4.36 -0.09 -26.21 1.00 0 -1.00 FACULTY VS POLICY MAKERS Round-1 -4.56 -0.22 -0.63 -0.20 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.33 -1.51 -2.42 --- --- --- Round-2 -1.42 0 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.17 2.40 0.27 -21.51 -1.00 0 -1.25 STUDENTS VS PARENTS Round-1 0.71 0.00 -0.71 0.00 0.38 -0.19 -0.16 0.75 0.78 -22.24 --- --- --- Round-2 1.17 -1.00 0.00 0 0 -1.15 -0.29 -0.89 0.19 -20.32 0.17 1.20 0.17 STUDENTS VS ADMIN STAFF Round-1 -1.55 0.38 -0.71 0.00 0.38 -0.12 -0.10 0.77 -1.12 -29.08 --- --- --- Round-2 0.18 -1.00 1.00 0 -1.00 -1.25 0.12 0.31 0.00 -20.39 0.18 -1.00 1.00 STUDENTS VS POLICY MAKERS Round-1 -5.52 0.00 -1.07 -0.63 0.19 -0.12 0.00 0.11 -1.30 -19.38 --- --- --- Round-2 -2.05 -1.00 1.00 -1.00 0 -1.25 0.00 -0.73 0.36 -7.75 0 0 -1.00 PARENTS VS ADMIN STAFF Round-1 -1.90 0.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.05 -0.28 -2.61 9.69 --- --- --- Round-2 -0.92 0 1.00 0 -1.00 1.00 0.25 4.59 -0.17 -16.32 -1.00 1.00 0.25 PARENTS VS POLICY MAKERS Round-1 -5.86 0.00 -0.36 -0.63 -0.19 0.06 0.14 -0.94 -2.80 19.38 --- --- --- Round-2 -2.53 0 1.00 -1.00 0 1.00 0.17 1.20 0.17 24.39 0 0 -1.15 ADMIN STAFF VS POLICY MAKERS Round-1 -3.97 -0.38 -0.36 -0.63 -0.19 0.00 0.10 -0.66 -0.19 9.69 --- --- --- Round-2 -1.96 0 0 -1.00 1.00 0 -0.09 -3.27 0.32 21.30 0.00 1.00 0.25 Z-critical value at 95% significance level = 1.96 Z-critical value at 99% significance level = 2.576
  • 16.  2009 JITI Table 3: Measuring Z test for future use of ICT tools/applications Categories Issues/ Rounds 1 2 3 FACULTY VS STUDENTS Round-1 31.50 -0.15 1.25 Round-2 0.87 0 0 FACULTY VS PARENTS Round-1 1.75 -0.11 1.25 Round-2 -6.72 0 0 FACULTY VS ADMIN STAFF Round-1 -4.53 -0.07 1.67 Round-2 -10.08 0 0 FACULTY VS POLICY MAKERS Round-1 -11.09 -0.15 1.00 Round-2 -33.60 0 0 STUDENTS VS PARENTS Round-1 -14.48 0.50 0.00 Round-2 -1.18 0.00 0.00 STUDENTS VS ADMIN STAFF Round-1 -8.80 0.77 0.36 Round-2 -0.86 0.00 0.00 STUDENTS VS POLICY MAKERS Round-1 -9.83 0.00 -0.36 Round-2 -1.72 0.00 0.00 PARENTS VS ADMIN STAFF Round-1 -4.48 0.38 0.36 Round-2 -0.17 0.00 0.00 PARENTS VS POLICY MAKERS Round-1 -5.52 -0.38 -0.36 Round-2 -1.03 0.00 0.00 ADMIN STAFF VS POLICY MAKERS Round-1 -1.03 -0.77 -0.71 Round-2 -0.86 0.00 0.00 Z-critical value at 95% significance level = 1.96 Z-critical value at 99% significance level = 2.576
  • 17. Critical Factors of ICTs in Higher Education  JITI 2009 79 Table 4. Data (mean scores) for measuring ANOVA test I ROUND-1 ROUND-2 Faculty Students Parents Admin Staff Policy Makers Faculty Students Parents Admin Staff Policy Makers 1. 3.00 3.50 3.50 3.83 3.33 2.67 3.00 3.00 3.17 2.83 2. 3.33 3.17 3.17 3.17 4.00 2.83 3.00 3.00 2.83 3.67 3. 2.83 3.00 3.17 3.17 3.00 3.33 3.00 2.83 3.17 3.00 4. 3.83 3.33 3.33 3.17 3.67 3.33 3.17 2.83 3.00 3.33 5. 2.33 2.67 2.83 2.83 3.17 2.83 3.00 3.00 2.83 3.17 6. 2.67 3.17 3.17 2.83 3.00 3.00 2.83 3.00 2.83 2.83 7. 3.83 3.83 3.50 4.00 4.00 3.17 3.17 3.00 3.17 3.00 8. 2.50 2.67 3.00 2.50 2.67 3.00 2.83 3.33 3.17 2.83 9. 3.50 3.00 2.50 3.50 3.67 3.33 3.17 3.00 3.17 3.33 10. 2.67 2.67 2.50 2.83 2.83 2.17 2.17 2.00 2.17 2.17 11. 3.33 4.83 4.83 4.67 4.83 5.00 4.83 5.00 5.00 5.00 12. 3.33 3.17 3.50 3.50 3.67 3.17 3.17 3.17 3.00 3.00 13. 4.17 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.50 4.17 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.17 14. 4.33 4.50 4.17 4.17 4.33 4.17 4.00 4.00 4.17 4.00 15. 4.17 3.50 4.00 3.83 3.83 4.17 3.67 4.17 4.00 4.00 16. 4.00 4.00 4.50 4.33 4.00 4.67 4.50 4.67 4.33 4.50 17. 4.33 4.33 4.33 4.00 4.17 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.00 4.50 18. 4.17 4.17 3.33 3.50 4.00 4.33 4.33 3.50 3.50 4.33 19. 4.50 4.67 4.00 4.00 4.33 4.50 4.67 4.50 4.33 4.33 20. 3.00 2.67 2.17 2.67 3.00 4.00 2.83 4.17 3.50 3.83 21. 4.50 4.33 3.83 4.33 4.50 4.67 4.50 4.33 4.33 4.50 22. 4.17 4.00 4.67 4.67 4.50 4.50 4.67 4.67 4.67 4.50 23. 4.50 3.83 4.50 4.83 4.50 4.50 4.33 4.50 4.83 4.50 24. 2.67 3.17 1.67 2.83 3.50 2.50 2.50 2.33 2.33 2.17 25. 4.00 4.50 3.83 4.17 4.00 4.17 4.50 4.33 4.33 4.17 26. 4.33 4.17 4.83 4.67 4.67 4.50 4.17 5.00 5.67 4.67 27. 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.33 4.50 4.67 4.67 5.50 4.50 28. 4.17 4.17 4.33 4.50 4.33 4.17 4.33 4.83 5.67 4.67 29. 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.33 4.50 4.83 4.67 5.50 4.50 30. 4.67 4.17 4.83 4.67 4.67 4.67 4.67 5.00 4.83 4.83 31. 4.67 4.67 4.83 4.67 4.67 4.67 4.67 4.83 4.83 4.83 32. 4.67 4.50 4.83 4.67 4.67 4.67 4.83 4.83 4.83 4.83 33. -- -- -- -- -- 3.83 3.83 4.50 4.33 4.00 34. -- -- -- -- -- 4.33 4.50 4.83 4.50 4.50 35. -- -- -- -- -- 3.50 3.67 4.50 4.83 4.50
  • 18. 80 Zaffar  2009 JITI Table 5. Showing results of ANOVA test (Round-1) Sources of variance Degree of frequency (df) Sum of squares Variances F Between samples K – 1 →5 – 1 = 4 0.773503 0.193376 0.363264Within samples N – k → 160 – 5 = 155 82.51094 0.532329 Total N – 1→ 4 + 155 = 159 83.28444 0.725704 Table value 0.01 level = 3.41 Table value 0.05 level = 2.42 Table 6: Showing results of ANOVA test (Round-2) Sources of variance Degree of frequency (df) Sum of squares Variances F Between samples K – 1 → 5 – 1 = 4 0.570666 0.142667 0.199578Within samples N – k → 175 – 5 = 170 121.5227 0.714839 Total N – 1→ 4 + 170 = 174 122.0934 0.857506 Table value 0.01 level = 3.41 Table value 0.05 level = 2.42