Presentation delivered to the English 104 class at Victor Valley College.

1. Structuring your essay
English 104

2. Introduction
• One paragraph (for shorter essays)
• Gives the reader general information about your topic, such as
background
• Leads to the thesis statement

3. Introduction
Example:
At the 2011 TED Global convention, Mark Pagel, professor at
the University of Reading and head of the Evolution
Laboratory, presented an interesting theory regarding the
impact of language on humans as a species. Pagel states that
language is unique to humans and the defining factor in our
evolutionary success. Although Pagel makes a
convincing case regarding language’s transformative
power, his logic is flawed since it is confined to verbal
language; it is not verbal language but written
language that has enabled the technological growth of
the human species.

4. Main Body
In the body of your essay, you should:
Explore your thesis in-depth
Avoid simply repeating your thesis without elaborating
Clarify and define any vague terminology
Provide concrete supporting evidence from credible sources
Include quotations and citations
Discuss quotations and how they relate to your thesis statement
and support your argument
Assume your reader has already read/watched the material
Avoid simply summarizing the text

5. Main Body
 Example:
Thesis: Although Pagel makes a convincing case regarding
language’s transformative power, his logic is flawed since it is
confined to verbal language; it is not verbal language but written
language that has enabled the technological growth of the human
species.
It is true that humans are a uniquely successful species. No other species has
acquired the same level of technological growth. As Pagel says, “the world has
changed out of all proportion to what we would recognize even 1,000 or 2,000
years ago. And all of this because of cumulative cultural adaptation. The chairs
you’re sitting in, the lights in this auditorium, my microphone […] all are a
result of cumulative cultural adaptation.”
 Thesis statement is expanded upon
 ‘Success’ is defined as technological growth
 A quotation is provided showing a point of agreement with the speaker, Mark Pagel

6. Main Body
 Example:
Thesis: Although Pagel makes a convincing case regarding
language’s transformative power, his logic is flawed since it is
confined to verbal language; it is not verbal language but written
language that has enabled the technological growth of the human
species.
Pagel, however, states that ‘cumulative cultural adaptation,’ i.e. the ability to
learn from others and to build on their ideas, is a uniquely human ability
resulting from language; Pagel says, “Once we have language, we can put our
ideas together and cooperate to have a prosperity that we couldn’t have before
we acquired it. And this is why our species has prospered around the world
while the rest of the animals sit behind bars in zoos, languishing. That’s why we
build space shuttles and cathedrals while the rest of the world sticks sticks into
the ground to extract termites.”
 A statement about the speech is supported using a direct quotation.
 Always support a paraphrase with an in-text citation or direct quotation

7. Main Body
 Example:
 Thesis: Although Pagel makes a convincing case regarding language’s
transformative power, his logic is flawed since it is confined to verbal
language; it is not verbal language but written language that has enabled
the technological growth of the human species.
 Pagel defines ‘language’ as verbal language. Pagel states, “your language relies on
pulses, discrete pulses of sound […] we know that there are words we cannot use,
phrases we cannot say, because if we do so, we might be accosted, jailed, or even
killed. And all this from a puff of air emanating from our mouths.” His discussion of
language is confined to the verbal, for language is ‘pulses of sound’ and ‘a puff of air
emanating from our mouths.’ Even at the end of the speech, language is still
confined to the verbal, for Pagel speaks of it in terms of “fine motor control of their
mouths.”
 ‘Verbal language’ from the thesis statement is explored further and supported
with direct quotations from the speech
 The quotations’ relation to the topic is clarified

8. Main Body
 Example:
 Thesis: Although Pagel makes a convincing case regarding language’s
transformative power, his logic is flawed since it is confined to verbal
language; it is not verbal language but written language that has enabled
the technological growth of the human species.
 While other species may not have human language, all species have a method of
verbal or visual communication, which can even be similar to human verbal
language. For example, studies show that “dolphin whistle repertoires contain
higher-order internal structure or organizational complexity. This suggests their
whistle ‘language’ contains elements loosely analogous to grammar or syntax in
human language” (Dorminey). Verbal communication, then, is not a uniquely
human gift as Pagel claims. However, written communication is specific to
humanity. Nowhere does Pagel discuss written language, when it is in fact written
language that has enabled cumulative cultural adaptation to span generations,
ultimately allowing each generation to improve upon the ideas of their ancestors.
 Claim is supported using specific, quoted example
 Conclusion is drawn
 Paper moves on to discuss written communication

9. Conclusion
Brings the essay to a feeling of closure
Summarizes the main points of your paper
 Tip: After finishing the first draft of your essay, you may
wish to go back and refine your thesis statement to make
sure it fits with your overall paper.

10. Common Structure
Classical Oration
Introduction/Background
Gains readers’ interest
Presents relevant information
States your claim (thesis)
Lines of Argument
Presents valid, logical reasons supporting your claim
Alternative Arguments
Examines alternative points of view
Notes the advantages and disadvantages of these views
Explains why your view is better than others
Conclusion
Summarizes the argument
Elaborates on the implications of your claim

11. Common Structure
Classical Oration
Used by ancient Greeks and Romans
Lets readers/listeners know what your subject is, how you
intend to cover it, and what evidence you have to offer
Not every argument will follow this structure or include all the
components
However, many arguments will resemble the classical oration and include
some of the elements

12. Alternative Structures
Toulmin Argument
Components:
Claim: the argument you wish to prove
Qualifiers: any limits you place on your claim
Reasons/Evidence: support for your claim
Warrants: underlying assumptions that support your claim
Backing: evidence for warrant
Thinking about the above will help you to come up with
ideas when structuring your essay, and also help you to
examine the arguments of others

13. Alternative Structures
Rogerian Argument
Introduction: describe the issue showing understanding and
respect for alternative positions
Contexts: describe contexts in which alternative positions may
be valid
Your position: state your position on the issue and present the
circumstances in which your opinion would be valid
Benefits to opponent: explain to opponents the benefits of
adopting your position

14. Alternative Structures
Rogerian and Invitational Arguments
Non-confrontational
Willingness to think about opposing positions and their validity
Aim is to work together to resolve a dispute and arrive at a greater
understanding, rather than to ‘win’ the argument
Emphasis is on respect for the opposition and mutual communication
Strives for connection, collaboration, and conversation
Good for peer-review sessions and group discussions
Useful when structuring your own arguments to learn opposing
positions accurately and to understand your opponents’ points of
view

15. Works Cited
Dorminey, Bruce. “Researchers Closer to Decoding Dolphin
Speak.” Forbes. Forbes Media, 18 Oct. 2012. Web. 19 Dec.
2014.
Lunsford, Andrea A., John J. Ruszkiewicz, and Keith Walters.
Everything’s an Argument with Readings. 6th
ed. New York:
Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2013. Print.
Pagel, Mark. “How Language Transformed Humanity.”
TEDGlobal. Edinburgh International Conference Center,
Edinburgh, Scotland, UK. 13 Jul. 2011. Conference
Presentation.