2. Personal Development TheoristsPersonal Development Theorists
Age / StageAge / Stage
Development proceeds according to a series of stagesDevelopment proceeds according to a series of stages
adults pass through as they ageadults pass through as they age
Life EventsLife Events
Development coincides with major life events such asDevelopment coincides with major life events such as
marriage, death of spouse, etcmarriage, death of spouse, etc
TransitionsTransitions
Development marked by periods of transition from oneDevelopment marked by periods of transition from one
stage to anotherstage to another
4. Daniel LevinsonDaniel Levinson
Life cycle composed of 4 developmental periodsLife cycle composed of 4 developmental periods
Childhood – Adolescence (birth – age 20)Childhood – Adolescence (birth – age 20)
Early Adulthood (ages 17-45)Early Adulthood (ages 17-45)
Middle Adulthood (ages 40 – 65)Middle Adulthood (ages 40 – 65)
Late Adulthood (ages 60 – onward)Late Adulthood (ages 60 – onward)
Each transition takes 3-6 years to completeEach transition takes 3-6 years to complete
Concept of individuation – changing relationshipConcept of individuation – changing relationship
between self and the worldbetween self and the world
5. Carol GilliganCarol Gilligan
Feminist perspective on age-stage theoriesFeminist perspective on age-stage theories
Highly critical of Levinson’s concept of “theHighly critical of Levinson’s concept of “the
dream”dream”
Male identity build upon contrast andMale identity build upon contrast and
separateness to primary care-giverseparateness to primary care-giver
Female identity based on perceptions ofFemale identity based on perceptions of
sameness and attachment to primary caregiversameness and attachment to primary caregiver
6. Gilligan, con’tGilligan, con’t
Women’s moral judgment proceeds throughWomen’s moral judgment proceeds through
three levelsthree levels
Focus on self (Level 1)Focus on self (Level 1)
Caring for others equated with good (Level 2)Caring for others equated with good (Level 2)
Caring for others and responsibility forCaring for others and responsibility for
individual needs (Level 3)individual needs (Level 3)
Two transitionsTwo transitions
Movement from selfishness to responsibilityMovement from selfishness to responsibility
Movement from goodness to truthMovement from goodness to truth
7. HavighurstHavighurst
ickering and Havighurstickering and Havighurst
Concept of the “teachable moment” whenConcept of the “teachable moment” when
the learning opportunity coincides withthe learning opportunity coincides with
the life task at handthe life task at hand
Identified developmental tasks specific toIdentified developmental tasks specific to
white, middle-class North Americanswhite, middle-class North Americans
8. Abraham MaslowAbraham Maslow
Development as reaching self-actualizationDevelopment as reaching self-actualization
Accepting of themselves and othersAccepting of themselves and others
Problem-centered not self-centeredProblem-centered not self-centered
Have spontaneityHave spontaneity
Have had mystical or spiritual experiencesHave had mystical or spiritual experiences
Resist conformity to cultureResist conformity to culture
Need for privacyNeed for privacy
Deep relationships with a few special othersDeep relationships with a few special others
Have creativityHave creativity
9. Roger GouldRoger Gould
Development is a process of confrontingDevelopment is a process of confronting
layer upon layer of childhood painlayer upon layer of childhood pain
Development involves separation fromDevelopment involves separation from
childhood assumptionschildhood assumptions
10. Erik EriksonErik Erikson
Development occurs as demands ofDevelopment occurs as demands of
society provoke struggle or crisis withinsociety provoke struggle or crisis within
the personthe person
Eight psycho-social stages: five inEight psycho-social stages: five in
childhood based on Freudian conceptschildhood based on Freudian concepts
Adult stagesAdult stages
IntimacyIntimacy
GenerativityGenerativity
IntegrityIntegrity
11. Life Events TheoristsLife Events Theorists
Neugarten (1976)Neugarten (1976)
Baltes et al. (1980)Baltes et al. (1980)
Riegel (1976)Riegel (1976)
Merriam and Clark (1991)Merriam and Clark (1991)
12. NeugartenNeugarten
Adult development defined by time factorsAdult development defined by time factors
Social timeSocial time
Development situations are not experiencedDevelopment situations are not experienced as crises ifas crises if
they occur “on time” as socially appropriatethey occur “on time” as socially appropriate
Crises come from “off time” life events when experienceCrises come from “off time” life events when experience
differs from expectationsdiffers from expectations
Historical time – creates age appropriate normsHistorical time – creates age appropriate norms
Chronological age – increases ability to interpretChronological age – increases ability to interpret
experience in more refined waysexperience in more refined ways
13. Baltes et al.Baltes et al.
Normative age-graded developmental influencesNormative age-graded developmental influences
Physical maturity, commencement of education, death ofPhysical maturity, commencement of education, death of
parentsparents
Normative, historically-determined eventsNormative, historically-determined events
Economic depressions, wars, etcEconomic depressions, wars, etc
Non-normative influences of great impactNon-normative influences of great impact
Experiences unique to the individual such as contractingExperiences unique to the individual such as contracting
rare disease, winning the lottery, etcrare disease, winning the lottery, etc
14. RiegelRiegel
Individual is a changing person in a changing worldIndividual is a changing person in a changing world
Human development moves along 4 dimensionsHuman development moves along 4 dimensions
Inner-biological (maturation, health)Inner-biological (maturation, health)
Individual-psychological (self-concept, self-esteem)Individual-psychological (self-concept, self-esteem)
Cultural-social (rules, regulations, social rituals)Cultural-social (rules, regulations, social rituals)
Outer physical (natural world events)Outer physical (natural world events)
When any 2 dimensions are in conflict,When any 2 dimensions are in conflict,
developmental change may occurdevelopmental change may occur
15. Merriam and ClarkMerriam and Clark
LoveLove andand WorkWork are the two goals ofare the two goals of
successful adult developmentsuccessful adult development
Found 3 patterns unrelated to age or genderFound 3 patterns unrelated to age or gender
Divergent (when one is good, other is low)Divergent (when one is good, other is low)
Steady/Fluctuating (one steady, other fluctuates)Steady/Fluctuating (one steady, other fluctuates)
Parallel (Love and work happiness coincide)Parallel (Love and work happiness coincide)
17. William BridgesWilliam Bridges
Life marked by a series of transitionsLife marked by a series of transitions
Each individual has a characteristic way ofEach individual has a characteristic way of
dealing with transitions which will bedealing with transitions which will be
repeated throughout liferepeated throughout life
Three recurring eventsThree recurring events
Endings firstEndings first
Neutral zoneNeutral zone
New beginningNew beginning
18. SugarmanSugarman
Change experience follows a characteristic patternChange experience follows a characteristic pattern
Immobilization – sense of being overwhelmedImmobilization – sense of being overwhelmed
Reaction – sharp mood swings from elation to despairReaction – sharp mood swings from elation to despair
Denial - minimizing the impactDenial - minimizing the impact
Letting go of the pastLetting go of the past
Testing – exploring new optionsTesting – exploring new options
Searching for meaning – a conscious effort to learn fromSearching for meaning – a conscious effort to learn from
the experiencethe experience
Integration – feeling at home with the changeIntegration – feeling at home with the change