Impact of domestic abuse on children, looking towards service developments

1. The impact of exposure
to domestic abuse on
children
Implications for service delivery
Grace Trevelyan
NSPCC

2. Children’s
exposure to
Intimate
Partner
Violence
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3. Prevalence
Around a quarter of children report witnessing at least one type of domestic
abuse at some point during their childhood. 6% of children report
experiencing severe domestic abuse (parent kicked, choked or beaten up).
NSPCC prevalence study
(Radford et al, 2011 )
Exposed to
severe
domestic
abuse
Exposed to
domestic
abuse

4. Domestic abuse and child protection
Domestic abuse is a factor in….
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60% of
cases that
lead to care
application
s
75% of
child
protection
plans
2/3 of
serious
case
reviews
Recent research based on an ADCS survey revealed that ‘nearly every
authority’ states the prevalence of domestic abuse as a significant
presenting issue in assessment, child protection plans and the reasons that
children start to be looked after.

5. Patterns of intimate partner violence
• Children may experience domestic abuse in more than one adult
relationship. CAADA’s 2014 study found that the parents of children often
had previous experience as a perpetrator/victim (42% mothers, 30%
fathers).
• Many violent relationships are characterised by a pattern of separation and
reconciliation.
• Separation may serve to escalate rather than end conflict, with contact
becoming a context for further abuse and violence.
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• First 12 months after separation are high risk
• Domestic abuse continues for about half of all families
• Behaviour problems often emerge

6. Impact of exposure to
domestic abuse
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7. Developmental impact
• All children who are exposed to domestic abuse, whatever their age, risk being
traumatised by the experience. It can have an impact on the way young / school
aged children think about themselves, regulate their emotions, and interact with
those around them.
• Where exposure to domestic abuse has been sustained since infancy, the
adaptive responses which began as functional protective strategies during the
primary attachment period often become exaggerated over time.
• Exposure to domestic abuse can have a profound impact on a child’s developing
brain, sense of self and capacity for regulating emotions.
‘A child with a brain adapted for an
environment of chaos, unpredictability,
threat, and distress is ill-suited to the
modern classroom or playground.’
(Bruce Perry)

8. Impact on relationship with parents
• Domestic abuse can severely undermine child/parent relationships
• Being the victim of domestic abuse can…
• Harm physical and mental health
• Impair parenting capacity (this can recover)
• Perpetrating domestic abuse is associated with harsh, punitive care
• Exposure to domestic abuse is associated with an increased risk of all
other types of abuse and neglect
• Children report witnessing far higher levels of DVA than their parents
acknowledge – they are often reported to be ‘asleep’ or ‘upstairs
• Witnessing a parent’s abuse can undermine children’s respect for them –
some children are even forced to abuse their mothers.
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9. Impact on evolving attachment styles
Avoidant attachment
Ambivalent attachment
Disorganised attachment
Parenting Dismissive
Rejecting
Pre-occupied
Inconsistent
Frightened/frightening
Chaotic.
Sense of
self
Self-sufficient
“I don’t need you”
Low self-esteem.
Preoccupied by loveability
Confused and helpless.
Bad or evil.
Sense of
others
Others are unavailable,
critical, rejecting
Others’ perceptions are how
self worth is measured
Others are frightening and
a source of resentment
Ability to
regulate
emotions
“Felt security” is achieved
by an over-reliance on the
self and an under-reliance
on other people.
“Felt security” is maintained
by maintaining high
involvement from others
No “felt security”. No
organised strategy for
gaining care or regulating
affect.
Behaviour
Lack of empathy/ concern
for others
Hides feelings, withdraws
Low attention-span/seeks
immediate gratification.
Coercive
Aggressive, hostile and
unaffectionate
Cruel
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10. Impact
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Behavioural Social Belief systems
Witnessing severe
domestic abuse is
associated with a tripling
in the likelihood of a child
having a conduct disorder.
(Meltzer, 2009).
Challenging behaviour
increases risk of parents
responding negatively,
including the likelihood of
direct maltreatment
(Schwerdtfeger, et al.,
2013).
In their interactions with peers,
children who are exposed to
domestic abuse may be more
aggressive or struggle to
respond to facial cues
Many children hide their ‘secret’,
compounding the sense of
lonliness
(Alexander,Macdonald, &
Paton, 2005) and leaving them
vulnerable to sexual abuse and
sexual exploitation (Goddard &
Hiller, 1993).
Exposure to domestic abuse
amongst primary school aged
children has been shown to
have a direct bearing on
children’s belief systems
regarding the intrinsic privilege
and dominance of men, and
the acceptable purpose of
violence in family interactions
(Graham-Bermann and
Brescoll, 2000).
Eventually, children may
identify with and enact the role
of the abuser or the victim
(Silverman and Lieberman,
1999).

11. What
happens as
children grow
older?
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12. 12
Teenage intimate relationships
•Three quarters of girls in a relationship experienced emotional violence, a
third reported sexual violence and a quarter had experienced physical violence
•Half of boys in a relationship experienced emotional violence, 18% physical
violence and 16% sexual violence
Barter et al’s (2009) UK study
•Rates of violence highest for LAC/ disadvantaged young people, especially in
pregnancy
•Age gap 2yrs+ increases risk
•High rates of sexual pressure/force within adolescent relationships
Wood et al, 2011

13. The legacy of exposure to DA
• Childhood exposure to domestic abuse = the best predictor of adolescent
male abusive behaviour and a significant predictor of both male and
female experiences of victimisation in intimate relationships (Wekerle and
Wolfe, 1999).
• Young people who have been exposed to domestic abuse doubt their
ability to become non-violent partners/control themselves (Holt et al.,
2008).
• Many of this cohort will have suffered multiple dimensions of harm,
internalised stereotyped gender beliefs and problematic ideas about the
functionality of aggression in couple relationships as well as negative
feelings about themselves
• A number of these individuals will couple with partners who have endured
similar or complementary experiences of trauma throughout childhood/
resulting in insecure or disorganised attachment styles (eg . Lieberman,
2005).
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14. Intergenerational dynamics
In recent years, attention has been drawn to the fact that childhood
exposure to domestic abuse is one of the most powerful predictors of
involvement in a domestically abusive relationship as an adult.
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Researchers have estimated
that approximately 30% of
children who witness
domestic abuse between
parents go on to become
violent or victims of abuse in
their adult relationships (Gelles
and Cavanagh, 2005).
This means that
approximately 70% do not.

15. The legacy of attachment styles
Avoidant attachment
Ambivalent attachment
Disorganised attachment
Dismissive, withholding,
controlling, rejecting
insensitive, critical, hostile
As a parent/partner they
may feel overwhelmed or
threatened by dependence.
They may also misattribute
the baby’s attention seeking
behaviour (e.g. as
greediness).
Likely to have low self-esteem
and experience a deep anxiety
about their own lovability or
value
Pre-occupation with partner /
unstable relationships
Pre-occupation with unresolved
emotional issues
Non-contingent parenting
As a parent they may be
abusive and cruel
Profoundly unavailable and
unresponsive
Unresolved trauma
Negative misattribution,
projects feelings of “badness”
on to the partner/ child
Lack of reflective functioning
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16. Children are affected in different ways
Exposure to domestic abuse correlates with insecure & disorganised
attachment, delinquency & a trajectory for dysfunction
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Resilience is associated with …
Secure attachment to a non-violent
parent or other significant carer
Stable school, good friends, clubs and
organisations
High levels of self-esteem; sense of
voice and influence; lack of self blame
The capacity to be reflective
Maternal mental health and self worth
Increased harm is associated with…
Repeated exposure over time
Background levels of hostility,
aggression
Poor family functioning, unresponsive
care
Direct abuse/neglect
Substance misuse
Parental mental health problems

17. The response
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18. Developing an evidence base
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DART: A group work
programme for mothers and
their children, focused on
strengthening the care-giving
relationship
Caring Dads: A fathering
programme, helping fathers
understand the nature of
abuse and its impact on
children

19. Intervention and support can make a difference
Our evaluation of DART showed:
Mothers: Increases in Self esteem,
confidence in parenting, felt more
affectionate & less rejecting
Children: Fewer emotional and
behavioural difficulties, felt mothers
were more affectionate & less rejecting
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With Caring Dads we saw:
Fathers: On average found being a
parent less stressful after
programme. They were interacting
better with children
Partners and children: Depression
and anxiety reduced. Most mothers
said some of the abuse reduced

20. Meeting the scale of the challenge
• Widespread recognition of the harm suffered by children exposed to
domestic abuse does not adequately filter through to policy or practice in
the form of a satisfactory support offer
• There is an inadequate supply of dedicated support services for children
exposed to domestic abuse
• There are specific gaps for those highly vulnerable children who live in
households where a perpetrator continues to be present
• The evidence base relating to the effectiveness of many of the specialist
children’s services which do exist is limited
• Too often our response is only to “monitor” rather than support.
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21. Time for a
re-think?
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22. Need for range of interventions
Building on what we already have, we also need:
•Family based programmes or services that work on the dyadic relationships
within violent families
•Interventions for families where both parents are violent or where there are
violent mothers
•Home based intervention services
•Focus on intervention and change within families
•Focus on pregnancy and early childhood – age specific services
•Programmes that target domestic abuse, addiction and mental ill-health
•Early preventative work with adolescents on the nature of relationships.
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23. A whole system ecological approach
There are multiple interacting levels of influence on the Theories and models
dynamics of child development
Parenting quality
(proximal)
Parental
stressors
Family factors
(distal)
Community
(higher risk)
Baby
Outcomes in infancy
Attachment, neurodevelopment,
language, emotional regulation,
physical, cognitive and social
development
MALTREATMENT
Future development
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Ecology
Development
A framework for understanding the causes and
consequences of maltreatment in infancy
(social costs and consequences)
Externalities
Macro system
Feedback loop
(ontogenic)
E.g. attachment, capacity for
reflective functioning
E.g. parental mental illness, domestic abuse,
substance abuse
E.g. family structure, size, employment,
income, assets, housing
E.g. Social networks, peers, neighbourhood
E.g. Culture and norms, attitudes to violence
[1] Scannapieco & Connell-Carrick, K. (2005) Understanding child maltreatment. An ecological and developmental perspective; [2] Belsky, J (1980) Child
maltreatment: an ecological integration;

24. Time for more nuanced approach?
Based on the premise that:
•Children form relationships with their carers
•“Programmed” to form attachment relationships from birth
•At its heart, domestic abuse disrupts these attachments
•Seeks to prevent the intergenerational transmission of abuse
•Home based intervention programme working with families pre-separation
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25. Thank You
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