2. How to Read and
Understand
a Research
Study

4. INTRODUCTION
As a student and later
in your professional life,
you are likely to read
research studies
conducted by other
people. A good scientific
study builds on and
furthers what is already
known about a
You may particular topic.
even conduct
your own research study.

5. INTRODUCTION Methods
control group
In order to help you VARIABLES
read and understand
Literature cited
research studies, Quasi-
this presentation will: Experiment
Abstract
hypothesis
Explore the components RELIABLILITY
random sample
of a scientific paper.
internal validity
procedure
Explain what you need to
Study
Observational
know in order to evaluate
the quality of a scientific experimental group
study.
construct
validity

7. Every research
paper has seven Abstract
sections: Introduction
Methods
Let’s explore each
section and consider Results
the information that Discussion
can be found in each.
Acknowledgements
Literature Cited

8. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 1: The Abstract
The abstract is the first Our finding have
section of a research paper. implications _____
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
An abstract should:
____________________
Analysis of our
____________________
____________________
It contains
data indicated
ABSTRACT ____________________
that _______________
_____________
a shortwhat is being studied
Explain summary
____________________
____________________
____________________
and why.
(about 250 words).
____________________
____________________
The methods we
____________________
used ____________________
______________
Include a brief description ___________________
____________________
____________________
of procedures used. ____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
Offer a brief explanation of This paper will
____________________
study____________________
______________
____________
the major results of the study. ____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
Describe the significance of ____________________
____________________
____________________
the results in a larger context. ____________________
____________________
________________

9. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 2: The Introduction
The introduction
provides background
information explaining INTRODUCTION
the basis of a
research study.
For example,
a research study
can be based on
other research studies.

10. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 2: The Introduction
The introduction should: This study adds to
our knowledge____
____________________
____________________
____________________
State the problem
____________________
____________________
____________________
being tested as a
We looked at
____________________
____________________
studies done by___
INTRODUCTION _______________
____________________
question.
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
We believe that if
____________________
Contain a hypothesis.* ____________________
we treat________
___
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
Citehypothesisliterature
other is a prediction
____________________
____________________
*A What____________________
will be the
and studies on the topic.
____________________
effect of__________
about the relationship ____________
____________________
____________________
between variables. ____________________
____________________
Explain why the an
It is usually written as
____________________
____________________
____________________
“If… then” statement. ____________________
research is important. ____________________
________________

11. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
The methods section
describes the exact METHODS
procedures performed
in an experiment.
It is important that
this section provides
a lot of detail so that
another researcher can
repeat the study.

12. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
The methods section
should include a
discussion of:
METHODS Protocols for our
methodology_____
Research
____________________
____________________
____________________
participants.
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
The equipment
____________________
and resources
____________________
needed____________
_____________
Materials, ____________________
____________________
____________________
or what was
____________________
The subjects ____________________
who
____________________
took part__________
used in the study.
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
______
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
Procedure ____________________
____________________
_________

13. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
Let’s look more closely at
the participants component
of the methods section.
In discussing research
participants,
a researcher should:
Define the
overall population.*
Explain the type of sample*
*A population is the general
that was selected for that
type of person (or animal)
the research. in the study.
will participate
*A sample is a
Show how the sample was selected.
subset of that
population.

14. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
Let’s look more closely at
the participants component
of the methods section.
In a large potential
population, you need to
have a way to select a
random sample.
A random sample allows every person
(or animal) in the population an equal
chance of being selected for the sample.
Random assignment places each subject
in the sample into either the control or
experimental group based entirely on
chance.

15. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
These include:
There are a few
different types of Observational Studies
True Experiments
research studies. Quasi-Experiments

16. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
Observational Study

17. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
Observational Study
An observational study is
a descriptive study.
There are two types of
observational studies
Naturalistic, in which
the researcher or observer
is invisible to what is being studied.
Participatory, in which the observer
is a participant in the behavior
being studied or sometimes the
observer’s presence may affect the
behavior being studied.

18. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
True Experiments
True experiments are: An experimental study
Performed in a highly controlled allows the researcher to
environment.
control the environment
Have a control group,
which is NOT exposed to in order to examine the
the independent variable *
and an experimental group, which causal effects of one
IS exposed to the independent variable.
variable on another
*An independent variable is
the component that is being
manipulated in a study. variable.
A dependent variable is
the component that is affected
by the independent variable.
It is what is being studied
in an experiment.

19. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
True Experiments
Let’s consider
an example:
If you wish to study the effects
of caffeine consumption on
blood pressure, the
independent variable would
be the amount of caffeine
consumed during the day.
The dependent variable would
be the participant’s blood
pressure reading.

20. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
CONTROL GROUP
True Experiments
In a true experiment,
there may be more than
one experimental In any
experiment, EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 1
group. it is vital to ensure
that the only different
NOTE!
between the control and
By creating experimental group is
more than one the variable.
independent
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 2
experimental group,
you may increase the
quality of your study and
enhance the value of its
findings.

21. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
CONTROL GROUP
True Experiments
Perhaps when designing your study
Let’s revisitof caffeine
into the effects our example.
consumption on blood pressure,
you decide to create three groups: EXPERIMENTAL GROUP A
1
A control group,
which receives no coffee.
Experimental Group A,
which receives 1 cup of coffee per day.
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP B
2
Experimental Group B,
which receives 2 cups of coffee per day.
The addition of the second experimental
group may enhance your ability to assess
the effects of caffeine on blood pressure.

22. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
Quasi-Experiments
For example…
Quasi-experiments differ from
If you are studying school
true experiments in that:
segregation, you cannot, for
ethical reasons, assign students to
Subjects may not be randomly
be segregated.
assigned to a control or
experimental group for either
Additionally, if you are
ethical or practical reasons.
studying a situation involving
gender, your subjects are
You cannot make true causal
either male or female.
statements.
Practically speaking, you
cannot assign someone to be
male for a study.

23. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
Quasi-Experiments
In quasi-experiments
you CAN:
Establish consistent
relational patterns.
Manipulate dependent
and independent
variables.

24. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
When evaluating
the quality of
In exploring the
the design of a study, methods used in
Let’s take a
you should ask:
closer look at
a research study,
How large was
the sample size?
these
you can determine
considerations.
How were the subjects selected? the quality of a
What did the experiment
control for?
study’s design.
Were the measurements
reliable and valid?

25. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
Sample size
A larger sample size decreases the * Reliability
likelihood that the conclusions or refers to the stability of a
results are due to chance.
Let’s take a
measurement.
Subject selection
The use of random selection and
closer look at
assignment makes it more likely
that a sample represents its
theseValidity represents the
†
greater population.
considerations.
confidence that the
findings of an experiment
represent the truth of the
Reliability * and validity †
. situation.
The quality of a research study is
dependent on its results being
reliable and dependable.

26. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
When reading
An experiment is a research study,
reliable when it you must be able
will provide the
same results if it is
to determine that
repeated. the experiment is
both reliable
and valid.

27. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
When reading
An experiment is valid a research study,
if the results correlate
to real-world behavior. you must be able
to determine that
A valid test
measures what the experiment is
it set out to measure.
both reliable
and valid.

28. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 3: Methods
There are When reading
three types of validity:
a research study,
Internal validity,
or the degree to which
the design of the experiment you must be able
allows the questions to be tested
by eliminating outside influences. to determine that
Construct validity,
or how well the test measures
the experiment is
what it is believed to be measuring.
both reliable
External validity,
or the degree to which the experiment and valid.
actually generalizes to the world outside
the study.

29. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 4: Results
The results section
includes the data that
is analyzed in the study.
RESULTS Our statistical
data showed_____
____________________
This section should: ____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
Be concise.
____________________
____________________
____________________
_____________
Use graphs and charts The findings of
to illustrate results. this________________
____________________
●_______________
●_______________
Show quantitatively ●_______________
●_______________
whether the hypothesis
was correct or not.

30. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 4: Results
Different statistical tests
are used to determine
whether results are
A result is
* The
significant. P-value shows
the probability that significant when
One common
statistical test
the differences
between control
and experimental
it is most likely
calculates
the P-value.*
groups are due
to chance. not due to
For most research, a P-value of
0.05 or less is considered to be
significant. This means that there
random chance.
is less than a 5% chance that
what you see in the results
happened by chance alone.

31. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 5: Discussion
Greater accuracy
could be attained_
____________________
____________________
The discussion: section
The discussion ____________________
____________________
____________________
summarizes, in a more
The inconsistent
____________________
results weakened
____________________
Does NOT simply ____________________
our________________
_______________
global way, the meaning
____________________
reiterate the results. ____________________
____________________
DISCUSSION ____________________
____________________our
Comparing
results with
Tries to connect the information ____________________
previous__________
____________________
ofpresented to the theory and
the results. research.
____________________
____________________
_________
____________________
findings from previous ____________________
____________________
Our results
____________________
strengthen prior
____________________
attempts__________
____________________
Notes consistencies and ____________________
____________________
___
____________________
inconsistencies between what was ____________________
____________________
found in the study and what has been What we____________________
found to
be interesting
____________________
found in other studies. was_______________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________
____________________
____________________
Discusses the weaknesses of the study. ____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
Offers suggestions for further research _______
based on the study.

32. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 5: Discussion
When evaluating
the discussion,
you should ask:
Does the discussion explain the
results, or does it just restate
them?
Does the author spend adequate
time discussing the implications of
all of the results, or does she just
focus on some of the results?
Are the implications from the
study appropriate?
Is the author drawing conclusions from
the study that are too general?

33. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 6: Acknowledgements
The acknowledgements
section thanks the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Funding was
people or institutions
generously
provided_________
____________________
that helped with the
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
research, or who ____________________
We would like to
thank the____________________
____________________
University of _____
provided financial or
________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
academic support ____________________
This study would
____________________
____________________
not be possible
throughout the course
____________________
but for____________
___________
____________________
____________________
of the study.
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
_________

34. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 7: Literature Cited
The literature cited
section should contain LITERATURE CITED STUDIES CITED IN
THIS STUDY
____________________
a comprehensive ____________________
____________________
____________________
list of all the articles
____________________
____________________
____________________
JOURNALS
____________________
and studies referenced REFERENCED IN
____________________
THIS STUDY ____
____________________
in the study. ____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________

35. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 7: Literature Cited
Throughout the body
of the paper, a
researcher should use LITERATURE CITED STUDIES CITED IN
THIS STUDY
in-text citations to
____________________
____________________
____________________
acknowledge any
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
outside article,
JOURNALS
____________________
REFERENCED IN
____________________
THIS STUDY ____
paper, or study ____________________
____________________
____________________
referenced. ____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________
____________________

36. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 7: Literature Cited
Throughout the body
of the paper, a
researcher should use but we didn’t encounter any o
in-text citations to in comparison to the variation
acknowledge any ter. This difference can be att
2002)
nly once. (Jones, 2002). Furth
outside article, every two days to see if the tr
paper, or study space. Twice during the first
referenced. jects rejected the association
An in-text citation
should look like this.

37. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 7: Literature Cited
Throughout the body
of the paper, a
researcher should use
in-text citations to
acknowledge any
outside article,
paper, or study
referenced.
At the end of
the paper, he or she should
compile a list of all citations
found throughout the text.

38. Sections of a Research Paper
Section 7: Literature Cited
Appropriate citations
have a reference
structure that
includes: Jones, Sarah (2002).
“The effects of exercise on
The author.
academic performance.”
The title of the article. Journal of Exercise Science.
81: 154-162.
The journal title.
The page number where the
cited information can be found.
The year the article was published.

40. SUMMARY
Every research Abstract
paper has seven Introduction
sections:
Methods
Understanding each
Results
component, including
the information it Discussion
provides, will make you Acknowledgements
better able to read and
evaluate any research study. Literature Cited

42. This presentation is based on
Insight Media’s DVD
How to Read and Understand
a Research Study.
For further information on the
topic, please order
How to Read and Understand 800-233-9910
a Research Study on DVD. 212-721-6316
2162 Broadway ● New York ● NY 10024
www. insight-media.com
Or ask about other PowerPoint
cs@insight-media.com
presentations in Insight Media’s
Research series:
The Research Process: Research Design
Experimentation:
Types of Designs and
Interpretation of Data
Quasi-Experiments and Small-N Designs
Measurement Methods:
Reliability and Validity of Participants’ Responses
Research Ethics

43. 800-233-9910
212-721-6316
2162 Broadway ● New York ● NY 10024
www. insight-media.com
cs@insight-media.com
Written and Edited by:
Kristin Thieling-Di Rico
Presentation by:
Paul Aljian