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Workshop Notes




                    The IJCAI-09 Workshop on

Automated Reasoning about Context and Ontology Evolution

                          ARCOE-09
                           July 11-12, 2009
                       Pasadena, California, USA
                              held at the
      International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence




                                                         Co-Chairs

                                                   Alan Bundy
                                                   Jos Lehmann
                                                   Guilin Qi
                                                   Ivan José Varzinczak




                            AAAI Press
Proceedings of ARCOE'09
Introduction to the Notes of the IJCAI-09 Workshop ARCOE-09

       Automated Reasoning about Context and Ontology Evolution

             Alan Bundya , Jos Lehmanna , Guilin Qib , Ivan Jos´ Varzinczakc
                                                               e
                         a
                             School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh
                                b
                                  Institute AIFB, Universitaet Karlsruhe
                               c
                                  Meraka Institute, Pretoria, South Africa
   Methods of automated reasoning have solved a large number of problems in Computer Science by using
formal ontologies expressed in logic. Over the years, though, each problem or class of problems has required
a different ontology, and sometimes a different version of logic. Moreover, the processes of conceiving, con-
trolling and maintaining an ontology and its versions have turned out to be inherently complex. All this has
motivated much investigation in a wide range of disparate disciplines about how to relate ontologies to one
another.
The IJCAI-09 Workshop ARCOE-09 brings together researchers and practitioners from core areas of Artifi-
cial Intelligence (e.g. Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, Contexts, and Ontologies) to discuss these
kinds of problems and relevant results.
Historically, there have been at least three different, yet interdependent motivations behind this type of re-
search: providing support to ontology engineers, especially in modeling Common Sense and Non-Monotonic
Reasoning; defining the relationship between an ontology and its context; enhancing problem solving and
communication for software agents, often by allowing for the evolution of the very basis of their ontologies
or ontology languages.
ARCOE Call for Abstracts has been formulated against such historical background. Submissions to ARCOE-
09 have been reviewed by two to three Chairs or PC members and ranked on relevance and quality. Approx-
imately seventy-five percent of the submissions have been selected for presentation at the workshop and
for inclusion in these Workshop Notes. Accordingly, the abstracts are here grouped in three sections and
sequenced within each section by their order of submission.

Common Sense and Non-Monotonic Reasoning Ontology engineers are not supposed to succeed right
from the beginning when (individually or collaboratively) developing an ontology. Despite their expertise and
any assistance from domain experts, revision cycles are the rule. Research on the automation of the process
of engineering an ontology has improved efficiency and reduced the introduction of unintended meanings by
means of interactive ontology editors. Moreover, ontology matching has studied the process of manual, off-
line alignment of two or more known ontologies. The following works focus on the development of revision
techniques for logics with limited expressivity.
 Ribeiro, Wasserman. AGM Revision in Description Logics.
 Wang, Wang, Topor. Forgetting for Knowledge Bases in DL-Litebool .
 Moguillansky, Wassermann Inconsistent-Tolerant DL-Lite Reasoning: An Argumentative Approach.
 Booth, Meyer, Varzinczak. First Steps in EL Contraction.

Context and Ontology Most application areas have recognized the need for representing and reasoning
about knowledge that is distributed over many resources. Such knowledge depends on its context, i.e., on
the syntactic and/or semantic structure of such resources. Research on information integration, distributed
knowledge management, the semantic web, multi-agent and distributed reasoning have pinned down different
aspects of how ontologies relate to and/or develop within their context. The following works concentrate on
the relationship between contexts and ontologies.
 Ptaszynski, Dybala, Shi, Rzepka, Araki. Shifting Valence Helps Verify Contextual Appropriateness of Emo-
     tions.
 Kutz, Normann. Context Discovery via Theory Interpretation.
Redavid, Palmisano, Iannone. Contextualized OWL-DL KB for the management of OWL-S effects.
 Sboui, B´ dard, Brodeur, Badard Modeling the External Quality of Context to Fine-tune Context Reasoning
          e
     in Geo-spatial Interoperability.
 Qi, Ji, Haase. A Conflict-based Operator for Mapping Revision.

Automated Ontology Evolution Agents that communicate with one another without having full access to
their respective ontologies or that are programmed to face new non-classifiable situations must change their
own ontology dynamically at run-time – they cannot rely on human intervention. Research on this problem
has either concentrated on non-monotonic reasoning and belief revision or on changes of signature, i.e., of the
grammar of the ontology’s language, with a minimal disruption to the original theory. The following works
concentrate on Automated Ontology Evolution, an area which in recent years has been drawing the attention
of Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge Representation and Reasoning.
 Bundy. Unite: A New Plan for Automated Ontology Evolution in Physics.
 Chan, Bundy. An Architecture of GALILEO: A System for Automated Ontology Evolution in Physics.
 Lehmann. A Case Study of Ontology Evolution in Atomic Physics as the Basis of the Open Structure Ontol-
      ogy Repair Plan.
 Jouis, Habib, Liu. Atypicalities in Ontologies: Inferring New Facts from Topological Axioms.

  Thanks to the invaluable and much appreciated contributions of the Program Committee, the Invited
Speakers and the authors, ARCOE-09 provides participants with an opportunity to position various ap-
proaches with respect to one another. Hopefully, though the workshop and these Notes will also start a
process of cross-pollination and set out the constitution of a truly interdisciplinary research-community
dedicated to automated reasoning about contexts and ontology evolution.

(Edinburgh, Karlsruhe, Pretoria – May 2009)



ARCOE-09 Co-Chairs
 Alan Bundy (University of Edinburgh, UK)
 Jos Lehmann (University of Edinburgh, UK)
 Guilin Qi (Universit¨ t Karlsruhe, Germany)
                     a
 Ivan Jos´ Varzinczak (Meraka Institute, South Africa)
         e

ARCOE-09 Invited Speakers
 Franz Baader (Technische Universit¨ t Dresden, Germany)
                                   a
 Deborah McGuinness (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA)

ARCOE-09 Program Committee
 Richard Booth (M´ h˘ a W´tt´ yaalai Mahasarakham, Thailand)
                    a a    ı a
 Paolo Bouquet (Universit` di Trento, Italy)
                          a
 J´ rˆ me Euzenat (INRIA Grenoble Rhˆ ne-Alpes, France)
  eo                                  o
 Chiara Ghidini (FBK Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Italy)
 Alain Leger (France Telecom R&D, France)
 Deborah McGuinness (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA)
 Thomas Meyer (Meraka Institute, South Africa)
 Maurice Pagnucco (The University of New South Wales, Australia)
 Valeria de Paiva (Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), USA)
 Luciano Serafini (FBK Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Italy)
 Pavel Shvaiko (TasLab, Informatica Trentina S.p.A., Italy)
 John F. Sowa (VivoMind Intelligence, Inc., Rockville MD, USA)
 Holger Wache (Fachhochschule Nordwestschweiz, Switzerland)
 Renata Wassermann (Universidade de S˜ o Paulo, Brazil)
                                         a
Table of Contents

Martin O. Moguillansky and Renata Wassermann
Inconsistent-Tolerant DL-Lite Reasoning: An Argumentative Approach…………………….…...…...7-9

Zhe Wang, Kewen Wang and Rodney Topor
Forgetting for Knowledge Bases in DL-Litebool.……………………………………………….………10-12

Márcio Ribeiro and Renata Wassermann
AGM Revision in Description Logics……………………………………………….…………………13-15

Richard Booth, Thomas Meyer and Ivan Varzinczak
First Steps in EL Contraction..………………………………………………………………...………16-18

Michal Ptaszynski, Pawel Dybala, Wenhan Shi
Rafal Rzepka and Kenji Araki
Shifting Valence Helps Verify Contextual Appropriateness of Emotions…………………………...…19-21

Oliver Kutz and Immanuel Normann
Context Discovery via Theory Interpretation…….……………………………………………..……...22-24

Domenico Redavid, Ignazio Palmisano and Luigi Iannone
Contextualized OWL-DL KB for the Management of OWL-S Effects………………………….………25-27

Tarek Sboui, Yvan Bédard, Jean Brodeur and Thierry Badard
Modeling the External Quality of Context to Fine-tune Context
Reasoning in Geo-spatial Interoperability…………………………………………….……………….28-30

Guilin Qi, Qiu Ji and Peter Haase
A Conflict-based Operator for Mapping Revision…………………………………….……………….31-33

Alan Bundy
Unite: A New Plan for Automated Ontology Evolution in Physics……………………………….……34-36

Michael Chan and Alan Bundy
Architecture of GALILEO: A System for Automated Ontology
Evolution in Physics…………………………………………………………………….…….………..37-39

Jos Lehmann
A Case Study of Ontology Evolution in Atomic Physics as the Basis
of the Open Structure Ontology Repair Plan…….……………………………………………………40-42

Christophe Jouis, Bassel Habib and Jie Liu
Atypicalities in Ontologies: Inferring New Facts from Topological Axioms………………………….43-45
Proceedings of ARCOE'09
ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes




                                 Inconsistent-Tolerant DL-Lite Reasoning:
                                      An Argumentative Approach
                     Mart´n O. Moguillansky
                         ı                                                      Renata Wassermann
             Scientific Research’s National Council (CONICET)               Department of Computer Science (DCC)
                 AI Research and Development Lab (LIDIA)                 Institute of Mathematics and Statistics (IME)
             Department of Computer Science and Eng. (DCIC)
             Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), ARGENTINA.                University of S˜ o Paulo (USP), BRAZIL.
                                                                                          a
                          mom@cs.uns.edu.ar                                       renata@ime.usp.br


                                                                     R E for roles; and a finite set of functional restrictions of
                                                                     the form (functR). Assuming the sets NV of variables and
1 Introduction                                                       NC of constant names, an ABox is composed by a finite set of
                                                                     membership assertions on atomic concepts and atomic roles,
This article is devoted to the problem of reasoning over in-         of the form A(a) and P (a, b), where {a, b} ⊆ NC .
consistent ontologies expressed through the description logic
                                                                        As usual in DLs, semantics is given in terms of interpreta-
DL-Lite [Calvanese et al., 2007]. A specialized argumenta-
                                                                     tions I = (ΔI , ·I ). Reasoning services (RS) represent logi-
tion machinery is proposed through which DL-Lite knowl-              cal implications of KB assertions verifying:
edge bases (KB) may be reinterpreted a la argumentation.
                                         `
Such machinery arises from the reification to DL-Lite of the          (subsumption) Σ |= C1 C2 or Σ |= E1 E2 ;
argumentation framework introduced in [Moguillansky et al.,          (functionality) Σ |= (functR) or Σ |= ¬(functR); and
2008a], which in turn was formalized on top of the widely            (query answering) Σ |= q(¯).  x
accepted Dung’s argumentation framework [Dung, 1995]. A                 A conjunctive query q(¯), with a tuple x ∈ (NV )n of ar-
                                                                                                 x               ¯
preliminary investigation to handle ontology debugging and           ity n ≥ 0, is a non empty set of atoms C(z), E(z1 , z2 ),
consistent ontology evolution of ALC through argumentation           z1 = z2 , or z1 = z2 , where C and E are respectively a gen-
was presented in [Moguillansky et al., 2008a]. But this pro-         eral concept and a general role of Σ, and some of the names
posal aims at handling ontology evolution with no need of            {z, z1 , z2 } ⊆ NC ∪ NV are considered in x. We will use
                                                                                                                   ¯
consistency restoration. Argumentation techniques applied            the function var : (NV )n −→2NV to identify the variables in
to reasoning over ontologies appear as a promissory fusion           x. When x is the empty tuple, no free variables are consid-
                                                                     ¯            ¯
to work in certain domains in which it is mandatory to avoid         ered and the query is identified as boolean. Intuitively, q(¯)
                                                                                                                                 x
loosing any kind of knowledge disregarding inconsistencies.          represents the conjunction of its elements. Let I be an in-
Therefore, we provide the theory for an inconsistent-tolerant        terpretation, and m : var(¯) ∪ NC −→ΔI a total function.
                                                                                                  x
argumentation DL-Lite reasoner, and finally the matter of on-         If z ∈ NC then m(z) = z I otherwise m(z) = a ∈ ΔI .
tology dynamics is reintroduced.                                     We write I |=m C(z) if m(z) ∈ C I , I |=m E(z1 , z2 ) if
                                                                     (m(z1 ), m(z2 )) ∈ E I , I |=m (z1 = z2 ) if m(z1 ) = m(z2 ),
2 DL-Lite Brief Overview                                             and I |=m (z1 = z2 ) if m(z1 ) = m(z2 ). If I |=m φ for all
Next we describe in a very brief manner the language                 φ ∈ q(¯), we write I |=m q(¯) and call m a match for I and
                                                                             x                      x
DL-LiteA used to represent DL-Lite knowledge. In the se-             q(¯). We say that I satisfies q(¯) and write I |= q(¯) if there
                                                                        x                             x                  x
quel we will write φ ∈ DL-LiteA , or Σ ⊆ DL-LiteA , to iden-         is a match m for I and q(¯). If I |= q(¯) for all models I
                                                                                                 x             x
tify a DL-Lite assertion φ, and a DL-Lite knowledge base Σ,          of a KB Σ, we write Σ |= q(¯) and say that Σ entails q(¯).
                                                                                                     x                          x
respectively. For full details about DL-Lite please refer to         Note that the well known instance checking RS (Σ |= C(a)
[Calvanese et al., 2007]. Consider the DL-Lite grammar:              or Σ |= E(a, b)) is generalized by query answering. Finally,
                                                                     the knowledge base satisfiability RS (whether the KB admits
B −→ A|∃R C −→ B|¬B R −→ P |P − E −→ R|¬R                            at least one model) will be discussed in Sect. 4.
where A denotes an atomic concept, P an atomic role, P −
the inverse of the atomic role P , and B a basic concept that is     3 The Argumentation DL-Lite Reasoner
either atomic or conforming to ∃R, where R denotes a basic
role that is either atomic or its inverse. Finally, C denotes a      We are particularly interested in handling the reasoning ser-
(general) concept, whereas E denotes a (general) role.               vices presented before. This will be achieved through the
   A KB Σ details the represented knowledge in terms of the          claim of an argument. Intuitively, an argument may be seen
intensional information described in the TBox T , and the ex-        as a set of interrelated pieces of knowledge providing sup-
tensional, in the ABox A. A TBox is formed by a finite set            port to a claim. Hence, the claim should take the form of
of inclusion assertions of the form B C for concepts, and            any possible RS, and the knowledge inside an argument will
                                                                     be represented through DL-LiteA assertions. The notion of
 Written during the first author’s visit to USP, financed by LACCIR.   argument will rely on the language for claims:




                                                                 7
ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes


    Lcl −→ C1 C2 |E1 E2 |(functR)|¬(functR)|q(¯)            x       P         P }, ¬(functP ) . Finally, coherency-negation of func-
    An argument is defined as a structure implying the claim         tional assertions is not allowed, whereas negation of queries
 from a minimal consistent subset of Σ, namely the body.            is only allowed for singletons, i.e., |q(¯)| = 1.
                                                                                                               x
                                                                       Comparing the arguments involved in a conflictive pair
 Definition 1 (Argument) Given a KB Σ ⊆ DL-LiteA , an ar-
                                                                    leads to the notion of attack which usually relies on an ar-
 gument B is a structure Δ, β , where Δ ⊆ Σ is the body,
                                                                    gument comparison criterion. Through such criterion, it is
 β ∈ Lcl the claim, and it holds (1) Δ |= β, (2) Δ |= ⊥,
                                                                    decided if the counterargument prevails from a conflict, and
 and (3) X ⊂ Δ : X |= β. We say that B supports β. The
                                                                    herein the attack ends up identified. A variety of alternatives
 domain of arguments from Σ is identified through the set AΣ .
                                                                    appears to specify such criterion. In general, the quantity
    Consider a KB Σ and an RS α ∈ Lcl , the argumenta-              and/or quality of knowledge is somehow weighted to obtain
 tive DL reasoner verifies Σ |= α if there exists Δ, β ∈             a confidence rate of an argument. The exhaustive analysis
 AΣ such that β unifies with α and Δ, β is warranted.                goes beyond the scope of this article, hence an abstract argu-
 An argument is warranted if it ends up accepted (or un-            ment comparison criterion “ ” will be assumed. The notion
 defeated) from the argumentation interplay. This notion            of attack is based on the criterion “ ” over conflictive pairs.
 will be made clear in the sequel. Primitive arguments are
                                                                    Definition 3 (Attack) Given a conflictive pair of arguments
 those whose body consists of the claim itself, for instance
                                                                    B 1 ∈ AΣ and B2 ∈ AΣ , B2 defeats B1 iff B2 is the counter-
  {A(a)}, {A(a)} . Σ |= (functR) is simply verified through
                                                                    argument and B2 B1 holds. Argument B2 is said a defeater
 a primitive argument {(functR)}, (functR) . Besides,
                                                                    of B1 (or B1 is defeated by B2 ), noted as B2 →B1 .
 functional assertions (functR) can be part of an argument’s
 body. For instance, Σ |= ¬P (a, c) is verified through ei-             As said before, the reasoning methodology we propose is
 ther an argument {P (a, b), (functP )}, {¬P (a, z), z = b} ,       based on the analysis of the warrant status of the arguments
 or {P (b, c), (functP − )}, {¬P (z, c), z = a} , with z ∈ NV .     giving support to the required RS. This is the basis of dialec-
 Observe that z = b and z = a are deduced from (2) in Def. 1.       tical argumentation [Ches˜ evar and Simari, 2007]. An ar-
                                                                                                    n
    Once an argument supporting the required RS is identi-          gumentation line may be seen as the repeated interchange of
 fied, the argumentation game begins: a repeated interchange         arguments and counterarguments resembling a dialogue be-
 of arguments and counterarguments (i.e., arguments whose           tween two parties, formally:
 claim poses a justification to disbelieve in another argument).     Definition 4 (Argumentation Line) Given the arguments
 From the standpoint of logics, this is interpreted as a contra-    B 1 , . . . , Bn from AΣ , an argumentation line λ is a non-empty
 diction between an argument B 1 and a counterargument B2 .         sequence of arguments [B1 , . . . , B n ] such that Bi →B i−1 , for
 Such contradiction could appear while considering the claim        1 < i ≤ n. We will say that λ is rooted in B1 , and that Bn is
 of B2 along with some piece of information deduced from            the leaf of λ. Arguments placed on even positions are referred
 B1 . Thereafter, B1 and B2 are referred as a conflictive pair.      as con, whereas those on odd positions will be pro. The do-
 Definition 2 (Conflict) Two arguments Δ, β ∈ AΣ and                  main of every argumentation line formed through arguments
  Δ , β ∈ AΣ are conflictive iff Δ |= ¬β . Argument                  from AΣ is noted as LΣ .
  Δ , β is identified as the counterargument.                           We will consider LΣ to contain only argumentation lines
    Let us analyze the formation of counterarguments. Con-          that are exhaustive (lines only end when the leaf argument
 sider the argument {A        B, B       C, C      D}, A      D ,   has no identifiable defeater from AΣ ), and acceptable (lines
 since A     C is inferred from its body a possible counterar-      whose configuration is compliant with the dialectical con-
 gument could support an axiom like ¬(A            C). But how      straints). In dialectical argumentation, the notion of dialec-
 could negated axioms be interpreted in DLs? In [Flouris et         tical constraints (DC) is introduced to state an acceptability
 al., 2006], negation of general inclusion axioms was stud-         condition among the argumentation lines. The DCs assumed
 ied. In general, for an axiom like B       C, the consistency-     in this work will include non-circularity (no argument is rein-
 negation is ¬(B       C) = ∃(B ¬C) and the coherency-              troduced in a same line), and concordance (the set of bodies
 negation ∼(B       C) = B       ¬C. For the former, although       of pro (resp., con) arguments in the same line is consistent).
 the existence assertion ∃(B ¬C)(x) falls out of DL-LiteA ,            A dialectical tree appears when several dialogues about a
 it could be rewritten as a query q( x ) = {B(x), ¬C(x)}.           common issue (i.e., the root of the tree) are set together. Thus,
 For instance, the counterargument {B(a), A(a), A ¬C},              from a particular set of argumentation lines (namely bundle
 {B(a), ¬C(a)} supports q( x ) with x = a. On the other             set) the dialectical tree is formalized. A bundle set for B 1
 hand, coherency-negation is solved by simply looking for an        is the maximal set S(B 1 ) ⊆ LΣ (wrt. set inclusion) of ex-
 argument supporting B        ¬C. Recall that an inconsistent       haustive and acceptable argumentation lines such that every
 ontology is that which has no possible interpretation, whereas     λ ∈ S(B 1 ) is rooted in B1 . Finally, a dialectical tree is:
 an incoherent ontology [Flouris et al., 2006] is that containing   Definition 5 (Dialectical Tree) Given a KB Σ ⊆ DL-LiteA ,
 at least one empty named concept. Observe that incoherence         a dialectical tree T (R) rooted in an argument R ∈ AΣ
 does not inhibit the ontology from being satisfiable.               is determined by a bundle set S(R) ⊆ LΣ such that B is
    We extend negation of axioms to functional assertions, in-      an inner node in a branch [R, . . . , B] of T (R) (resp., the
 terpreting ¬(functR) as a role R that does not conform to the      root argument) iff each child of B is an argument D ∈
 definition of a function. The only option to form an argument       [R, . . . , B, D, . . .] ∈ S(R) (resp.,D ∈ [R, D, . . .] ∈ S(R)).
 supporting such negation is through extensional informa-           Leaves in T (R) and each line in S(R), coincide. The do-
 tion (ABox). For instance, the argument {P (a, b), P (a, c),       main of all dialectical trees from Σ will be noted as TΣ .




                                                                8
ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes


   With a little abuse of notation, we will overload the mem-     would be satisfiable from our theory. On the other hand, what
bership symbol writing B ∈ λ to identify B from the argu-         is exactly a satisfiable KB for the proposed reasoner? If there
mentation line λ, and λ ∈ T (R) when the line λ belongs to        is a warranted argument supporting an RS α and there is an-
the bundle set associated to the tree T (R). Dialectical trees    other warranted argument supporting ¬α, then the KB would
allow to determine whether the root node of the tree is to be     be unsatisfiable. An argumentation system free of such draw-
accepted (ultimately undefeated) or rejected (ultimately de-      backs would depend on the appropriate definition of the com-
feated) as a rationally justified belief. Therefore, given a KB    parison and warranting criteria. The required analysis is part
Σ ⊆ DL-LiteA and a dialectical tree T (R), the argument R ∈       of the future work in this direction.
AΣ is warranted from T (R) iff warrant(T (R)) = true.                Argumentation was studied in [Williams and Hunter, 2007]
The warranting function warrant : TΣ −→{true, f alse}             to harness ontologies for decision making. Through such ar-
will determine the status of the tree from the mark of the root   gumentation system they basically allow the aggregation of
argument. This evaluation will be obtained by weighting all       defeasible rules to enrich the ontology reasoning tasks. In our
the information present in the tree through the marking func-     approach an argumentative methodology is defined on top of
tion mark : AΣ × LΣ × TΣ −→M. Such function defines the            the DL-reasoner aiming at reasoning about inconsistent on-
acceptance criterion applied to each individual argument by       tologies. However our main objective goes further beyond:
assigning to each argument in T (R) a marking value from          to manage ontology evolution disregarding inconsistencies.
the domain M = [D, U ]. This is more likely to be done by         To such purpose, a theory of change is required to be applied
obtaining the mark of an inner node of the tree from its chil-    over argumentation systems. In [Moguillansky et al., 2008b],
dren (i.e., its defeaters). Once each argument in the tree has    a theory capable of handling dynamics of arguments applied
been marked (including the root) the warranting function will     over defeasible logic programs (DeLP) [Garc´a and Simari,
                                                                                                                  ı
determine the root’s acceptance status from its mark. Hence,      2004] was presented under the name of Argument Theory
    warrant(T (R)) = true iff mark(R, λ, T (R)) = U .             Change (ATC). Basically, dialectical trees are analyzed to be
                                                                  altered in a form such that the same root argument ends up
   DELP (Defeasible Logic Programming) [Garc´a and      ı         warranted from the resulting program. Ongoing work also
Simari, 2004], is an argumentative machinery for reasoning        involves the study of ATC on top of the model presented here.
over defeasible logic programs. In this article we will assume
the DELP marking criterion. That is, (1) all leaves are marked
U and (2) every inner node B is marked U iff every child of
                                                                  References
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                                                                         n                                n
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and therefore Σ |= B(a) holds.                                    [Moguillansky et al., 2008a] M. Moguillansky, N. Rotstein,
                                                                     and M. Falappa. A Theoretical Model to Handle Ontology
4 Concluding Remarks and Future Work                                 Debugging & Change Through Argumentation. In IWOD,
A novel DL-Lite reasoner based on argumentation techniques           2008.
was proposed. The machinery presented here is defined to           [Moguillansky et al., 2008b] M. Moguillansky, N. Rotstein,
support the usual DL-Lite reasoning services, including an           M. Falappa, A. Garc´a, and G. Simari. Argument The-
                                                                                           ı
extension of the conjunctive queries presented in [Calvanese         ory Change Applied to Defeasible Logic Programming. In
et al., 2007]. In particular, the notion of satisfiability de-        AAAI, pages 132–137, 2008.
serves special attention since its meaning requires to be rein-   [Williams and Hunter, 2007] M. Williams and A. Hunter.
terpreted. Given that the argumentation machinery would
                                                                     Harnessing Ontologies for Argument-Based Decision-
answer consistently disregarding the potentially inconsistent        Making in Breast Cancer. ICTAI, 2:254–261, 2007.
KB, a KB that is unsatisfiable for standard DL reasoners




                                                              9
ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes




                              Forgetting for Knowledge Bases in DL-Litebool

                                     Zhe Wang, Kewen Wang and Rodney Topor
                                            Griffith University, Australia




                           Abstract                                     In this paper, we investigate the issue of semantic forget-
                                                                     ting for DL-Lite KBs. The main contributions of this paper
      We address the problem of term elimination in DL-              can be summarized as follows:
      Lite ontologies by adopting techniques from clas-
      sical forgetting theory. Specifically, we generalize               • We introduce a model-based definition of forgetting for
      our previous results on forgetting in DL-Litecore                    DL KBs. We investigate some reasoning and express-
      TBox to forgetting in DL-Litebool KBs. We also                       ibility properties of forgetting, which are important for
      introduce query-based forgetting, a parameterized                    DL-Lite ontology reuse and merging.
      definition of forgetting, which provides a unify-                  • We provide a resolution-like algorithm for forgetting
      ing framework for defining and comparing different                    about concepts in DL-Litebool KBs. The algorithm can
      definitions of forgetting in DL-Lite ontologies.                      also be applied to KB forgetting in DL-Litehorn , and to
                                                                           any specific query-based forgetting. It is proved that the
 1   Introduction                                                          algorithm is complete.
 An ontology is a formal description of the terminological in-          • As a general framework for defining and comparing var-
 formation of an application domain. An ontology is usually                ious notions of forgetting, we introduce a parameterized
 represented as a DL knowledge base (KB), which consists of                forgetting based on query-answering, by which a given
 a TBox and an ABox. As ontologies in Semantic Web appli-                  collection of queries determines the result of forgetting.
 cations are becoming larger and more complex, a challenge                 Thus, our approach actually provides a hierarchy of for-
 is how to construct and maintain large ontologies efficiently.             getting for DL-Lite.
 Recently, ontology reuse and merging have received inten-
 sive interest, and different approaches have been proposed.         2   Forgetting in DL-Litebool Knowledge Bases
 Among several approaches, the forgetting operator is partic-        In this section, we define the operation of forgetting a signa-
 ularly important, which concerns the elimination of terms in        ture from a DL-Litebool KB. We assume the readers’ familiar-
 ontologies. Informally, forgetting is a particular form of rea-     ity with DL-Litebool . For the syntax and semantics details of
 soning that allows a set of attributes F (such as propositional     DL-Litebool , the readers should refer to [Artale et al., 2007].
 variables, predicates, concepts and roles) in a KB to be dis-          Let L and Lh , respectively, denote the languages DL-
 carded or hidden in such a way that future reasoning on in-         Litebool and DL-Litehorn . Without special mentioning, we
 formation irrelevant to F will not be affected. Forgetting has      use K to denote a KB in L and S a signature (a finite set
 been well investigated in classical logic [Lin and Reiter, 1994;    of concept names and role names) in L. Our model-based
 Lang et al., 2003] and logic programming [Eiter and Wang,           definition of forgetting in DL-Lite is analogous to the defi-
 2008; Wang et al., 2005].                                           nition for forgetting in classical logic [Lin and Reiter, 1994;
    Efforts have also been made to define forgetting in DL-           Lang et al., 2003].
 Lite [Kontchakov et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2008], a family            Let I1 , I2 be two interpretations of L. Define I1 ∼S I2 iff
 of lightweight ontology languages. However, a drawback in
                                                                       1. ΔI1 = ΔI2 , and aI1 = aI2 for each individual name a.
 these approaches is that forgetting is defined only for TBoxes.
 Although a syntactic notion of forgetting in ontologies is dis-       2. For each concept name A not in S, AI1 = AI2 .
 cussed in [Wang et al., 2008], no semantic justification is pro-       3. For each role name P not in S, P I1 = P I2 .
 vided. In most applications, an ontology is expressed as a KB,
 which is a pair of a TBox and an ABox. We believe that for-         Clearly, ∼S is an equivalence relation.
 getting should be defined for DL-Lite KBs rather than only           Definition 1 We call KB K a result of model-based forget-
 for TBoxes. Although it is not hard to extend the definitions        ting about S in K if:
 of forgetting to KBs, our efforts show that it is non-trivial to       • Sig(K ) ⊆ Sig(K) − S,
 extend results of forgetting in TBoxes to forgetting in KBs,
 due to the involvement of ABoxes.                                      • Mod(K ) = {I | ∃I ∈ Mod(K) s.t. I ∼S I }.




                                                                10
ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes


   It follows from the definition that the result of forgetting               3. Ci is in disjunction of conjunctions of literal con-
about S in K is unique up to KB equivalence. So we will use                     cepts (DNF), for each 1 ≤ i ≤ s.
forget(K, S) to denote the result of forgetting about S in K             We can show that every KB in L can be equivalently trans-
throughout the paper.                                                 formed into its normal form.
Example 1 Let K consist of the following axioms:                         Now we present in Algorithm 1 how to compute the result
  Lecturer     2 teaches, ∃teaches − Course,                          of forgetting about a set of concept names in a L-KB.
  ∃teaches Lecturer PhD,
  Lecturer Course ⊥, PhD Course ⊥.
  Lecturer (John), teaches(John, AI ).                                Algorithm 1 (Compute the result of forgetting a set of con-
                                                                      cept names in a DL-Litebool KB)
   Suppose we want to forget about {Lecturer , PhD}, then             Input: A DL-Litebool KB K = T , A and a set S of concept
forget(K, {Lecturer , PhD}) consists of the following ax-             names.
ioms:                                                                 Output: forget(K, S).
  ∃teaches − Course, ∃teaches Course                 ⊥,               Method:
     2 teaches(John), ¬Course(John),                                  Step 1. Transform K into its normal form.
  teaches(John, AI ).                                                 Step 2. For each pair of inclusions A C         D and C
                                                                      A D in T , where A ∈ S, add inclusion C C             D D
   The result of forgetting possesses several desirable prop-         to T if it contains no concept name A appearing on both
erties. In particular, it preserves reasoning properties of the       sides of the inclusion.
KB.                                                                   Step 3. For each concept name A ∈ S occurring in A, add
                                                                      A       and ⊥ A to T ;
Proposition 1 We have
                                                                      Step 4. For each assertion C(a) in A, each inclusion A
 1. forget(K, S) is consistent iff K is consistent.                   D1 D2 and each inclusion D3 A D4 in T , where A ∈
 2. for any inclusion or assertion α with Sig(α) ∩ S = ∅,             S, add C (a) to A, where C is obtained by replacing each
    forget(K, S) |= α iff K |= α.                                     occurrence of A in C with ¬D1 D2 and ¬A with ¬D3 D4 ,
                                                                      and C is transformed into its DNF.
 3. for any grounded query q with Sig(q) ∩ S = ∅,                     Step 5. Remove all inclusions of the form C        or ⊥ C,
    forget(K, S) |= q iff K |= q.                                     and all assertions of the form (a).
  The following property is useful for ontology partial reuse         Step 6. Remove all inclusions and assertions that contain any
and merging.                                                          concept name in S.
Proposition 2 Let K1 , K2 be two L-KBs. Suppose Sig(K1 )∩             Step 7. Return the resulting KB as forget(K, S).
Sig(K2 ) ∩ S = ∅, then we have:
                                                                             Figure 1: Forget concepts in a DL-Litebool KB.
   forget(K1 ∪ K2 , S) ≡ forget(K1 , S) ∪ forget(K2 , S).
   An interesting special case is Sig(K2 ) ∩ S = ∅. In this              In Algorithm 1, Step 2 generates all the inclusions in
case, it is safe to forget about S from K1 before merging K1          forget(K, S) in a resolution-like manner. Step 3 is to make
and K2 .                                                              the specification of Step 4 simpler. In Step 4, each positive
   The following proposition shows that the forgetting opera-         occurrence of A in the ABox is replaced by its ‘supersets’,
tion can be divided into steps.                                       and each negative occurrence by its ‘subsets’.
                                                                         Algorithm 1 always terminates. The following theorem
Proposition 3 Let S1 , S2 be two signatures. Then we have             shows that it is sound and complete with respect to the se-
      forget(K, S1 ∪ S2 ) ≡ forget(forget(K, S1 ), S2 ).              mantic definition of forgetting.
   In the following part of the section, we introduce a syn-          Theorem 1 Let S be a set of concept names.             Then
tactic algorithm for computing the results of forgetting about        forget(K, S) is expressible in L, and Algorithm 1 always re-
concepts in DL-Litebool KBs. The algorithm first transforms            turns forget(K, S).
a DL-Litebool KB into a equivalent normal form, and then                 Suppose S is fixed. When the input K is in normal
eliminates concepts from the KB.                                      form, Algorithm 1 takes only polynomial time to compute
   We call a basic concept or its negation a literal concept.         forget(K, S).
Definition 2 K = T , A is in normal form if:
                                                                      3   Query-Based Forgetting for DL-Lite
   • All the inclusions in T are of the form B1 . . . Bm
      Bm+1 . . . Bn where 0 ≤ m ≤ n and B1 , . . . , Bn
                                                                          Knowledge Bases
      are basic concepts such that Bi = Bj for all i < j.             In this section, we introduce a parameterized definition of for-
                                                                      getting for DL-Litebool KBs, which can be used as a unifying
   • A = {C1 (a1 ), . . . , Cs (as )} ∪ Ar , where s ≥ 0, satisfies
                                                                      framework for forgetting in DL-Litebool KBs.
      the following conditions:
                                                                         We assume that Q is a query language for DL-Litebool . The
        1. Ar contains only role assertions,                          notion of query is very general here. A query can be an asser-
        2. ai = aj for 1 ≤ i < j ≤ s, and                             tion, an inclusion, or even a formula in a logic language.




                                                                 11
ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes


 Definition 3 (query-based forgetting) We call KB K a re-            makes things more complex. This can be seen from the al-
 sult of Q-forgetting about S in K if the following three con-      gorithms and proofs of corresponding results. Our parame-
 ditions are satisfied:                                              terized forgetting generalizes the definition of forgetting (uni-
     • Sig(K ) ⊆ Sig(K) − S,                                        form interpolation) in [Kontchakov et al., 2008] in two ways
                                                                    (although it is not technically hard): (1) our definition is de-
     • K |= K ,                                                     fined for KBs and (2) our definition is defined for arbitrary
     • for any grounded query q in Q with Sig(q) ∩ S = ∅, we        query languages.
       have K |= q implies K |= q.                                     Conservative extension and module extraction have some
                                                                    similarity with forgetting but they are different in that the
    The above definition implicitly introduces a family of for-      first two approaches support only removing axioms, but can-
 getting in the sense that each query language determines a         not modify them. Update and erasure operations in DL-Lite
 notion of forgetting for DL-Lite KBs.                              are discussed in [Giacomo et al., 2007]. Although both era-
    The results of Q-forgetting are not necessarily unique, We      sure [Giacomo et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2006] and forgetting
 denote the set of all results of Q-forgetting about S in K as      are concerned with eliminating information from an ontol-
 ForgetQ (K, S).                                                    ogy, they are quite different. When erasing an assertion A(a)
    As model-based forgetting requires preserving model             from a DL KB K, only the membership relation between in-
 equivalence, it is easy to see that the result of model-based      dividual a and concept A is removed, while concept name A
 forgetting is also a result of Q-forgetting for any query lan-     is not necessarily removed from K. Whereas forgetting about
 guage Q. In this sense, the model-based forgetting is the          A in K involves eliminating all logical relations (e.g., sub-
 strongest notion of forgetting for DL-Litebool .                   sumption relation, membership relation, etc.) in K that refer
 Theorem 2 We have                                                  to A.
                                                                       We plan to work in different directions including: (1) To
     1. forget(K, S) ∈ ForgetQ (K, S);                              identify a query language that can balance computational
     2. for each K ∈ ForgetQ (K, S), forget(K, S) |= K .            complexity of the corresponding notion of forgetting and re-
                                                                    quirements for forgetting from practical applications, such
    This theorem shows that Algorithm 1 can also be used to         as ontology reuse, merging and update. (2) To establish a
 compute a result of Q-forgetting for any Q.                        general framework of forgetting for more expressive DLs in
    Now we consider how to characterize model-based forget-         terms of query-based forgetting.
 ting by query-based forgetting. The results of model-based
 forgetting may not be expressible in DL-Litebool . The major       References
 reason for this, as our efforts show, is that DL-Litebool does     [Artale et al., 2007] A. Artale, D. Calvanese, R. Kontchakov, and
 not have a construct to represent the cardinality of a concept.       M. Zakharyaschev. DL-Lite in the light of first-order logic. In
    For this reason, we extend L to Lc by introducing new con-         Proc. 22nd AAAI, pages 361–366, 2007.
 cepts of the form n u.C, where C is a L-concept and n is           [Eiter and Wang, 2006] T. Eiter and K. Wang. Forgetting and con-
 a natural number. Given an interpretation I, ( n u.C)I =              flict resolving in disjunctive logic programming. In Proc. 21st
 ΔI if (C I ) ≥ n and ( n u.C)I = ∅ if (C I ) ≤ n − 1,                 AAAI, pages 238–243, 2006.
 where (S) denotes the cardinality of set S.                        [Eiter and Wang, 2008] T. Eiter and K. Wang. Semantic forgetting
    We are interested in the query language Qc , which is the
                                                L                      in answer set programming. Artificial Intelligence, 14:1644–
 set of concept inclusions and (negated) assertions in Lc , and        1672, 2008.
 possibly their unions. We can show that Qc -forgetting is
                                                 L                  [Giacomo et al., 2007] G. De Giacomo, M. Lenzerini, A. Poggi,
 equivalent to model-based forgetting.                                 and R. Rosati. On the approximation of instance level update
                                                                       and erasure in description logics. In Proc. 22nd AAAI, pages
 Theorem 3 KB K is a result of Qc -forgetting about S in K
                                L                                      403–408, 2007.
 iff K ≡ forget(K, S).
                                                                    [Kontchakov et al., 2008] R. Kontchakov, F. Wolter, and M. Za-
 Example 2 Recall the KB K in Example 1. We have                       kharyaschev. Can you tell the difference between DL-Lite on-
 forget(K, {teaches}) is not expressible in L. However, it is          tologies? In Proc. 11th KR, pages 285–295, 2008.
 expressible in Lc , and it consists of the following axioms:       [Lang et al., 2003] J. Lang, P. Liberatore, and P. Marquis. Proposi-
                                                                       tional independence: Formula-variable independence and forget-
     Lecturer Course ⊥, PhD           Course      ⊥,
                                                                       ting. J. Artif. Intell. Res. (JAIR), 18:391–443, 2003.
     Lecturer     2 u.Course,
                                                                    [Lin and Reiter, 1994] F. Lin and R. Reiter. Forget it. In Proc. AAAI
     Lecturer (John), Course(AI ).
                                                                       Fall Symposium on Relevance, pages 154–159, 1994.
                                                                    [Liu et al., 2006] H. Liu, C. Lutz, M. Milicic, and F. Wolter. Updat-
 4     Related Work and Conclusions                                    ing description logic ABoxes. In Proc. KR, pages 46–56, 2006.
 The works that are close to this paper are [Kontchakov et          [Wang et al., 2005] K. Wang, A. Sattar, and K. Su. A theory of
 al., 2008; Wang et al., 2008]. One major difference of                forgetting in logic programming. In Proc. 20th AAAI, pages 682–
                                                                       687. AAAI Press, 2005.
 our work from them is that we investigate forgetting for
 KBs while [Kontchakov et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2008] are         [Wang et al., 2008] Z. Wang, K. Wang, R. Topor, and J. Z. Pan.
 only restricted to TBoxes. Such an extension (from TBoxes             Forgetting concepts in DL-Lite. In Proc. 5th ESWC2008, pages
                                                                       245–257, 2008.
 to KBs) is non-trivial because the involvement of ABoxes




                                                               12
ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes




                                     AGM Revision in Description Logics∗

                                 M´ rcio Moretto Ribeiro and Renata Wassermann
                                  a
                                          Department of Computer Science
                                              University of S˜ o Paulo
                                                             a
                                          {marciomr, renata}@ime.usp.br


                          Abstract                                        closed under logical consequence. The consequence operator
                                                                          Cn is assumed to be tarskian, compact, satisfy the deduction
     The AGM theory for belief revision cannot be di-                     theorem and supraclassicality. We will sometimes refer to
     rectly applied to most description logics. For con-                  these properties as the AGM-assumptions. Three operations
     traction, the problem lies on the fact that many log-                are defined: expansion, contraction and revision. Given a be-
     ics are not compliant with the recovery postulate.                   lief set K and a formula α, the expansion K + α is defined as
     For revision, the problem is that several interesting                K + α = Cn(K ∪ {α}). Contraction consists in removing
     logics are not closed under negation.                                some belief from the belief set and revision consist in adding
     In this work, we present solutions for both prob-                    a new belief in such a way that the resulting set is consis-
     lems: we recall a previous solution proposing to                     tent. Contraction and revision are not uniquely defined, but
     substitute the recovery postulate of contraction by                  are constrained by a set of rationality postulates. The AGM
     relevance and we present a construction for revision                 basic postulates for contraction are:
     that does not depend on negation, together with a
     set of postulates and a representation theorem.                       (closure) K − α = Cn(K − α)
                                                                           (success) If α ∈ Cn(∅) then α ∈ K − α
                                                                                          /              /
1   Introduction                                                           (inclusion) K − α ⊆ K
The development of Semantic Web technologies has atracted                  (vacuity) If α ∈ K then K − α = K
                                                                                          /
the attention of the artificial intelligence community to the
                                                                           (recovery) K ⊆ K − α + α
importance to represent conceptual knowledge in the web.
This development has reached a peak with the adoption of                   (extensionality) If Cn(α) = Cn(β) then K − α = K − β
OWL as the standard language to represent ontologies on the                  Of the six postulates, five are very intuitive and widely ac-
web. Since knowledge on the web is not static, another area               cepted. The recovery postulate has been debated in the lit-
has gained popularity in the past few years: ontology evo-                erature since the very beginning of AGM theory [Makinson,
lution. The main challenge of ontology evolution is to study              1987]. Nevertheless, the intuition behind the postulate, that
how ontologies should behave in a dynamic environment. Be-                unnecessary loss of information should be avoided, is com-
lief revision theory has been facing this challenge for propo-            monly accepted.
sitional logic for more than twenty years and, hence, it would               In [Alchourr´ n et al., 1985], besides the postulates, the au-
                                                                                          o
be interesting to try to apply these techniques to ontologies.            thors also present a construction for contraction (partial-meet
   In this work we apply the most influential work in belief               contraction) which, for logics satisfying the AGM assump-
revision, the AGM paradigm, to description logics. First, in              tions, is equivalent to the set of postulates in the following
section 2, an introduction to AGM theory is presented. In                 sense: every partial-meet contraction satisfies the six postu-
section 3, we show how to adapt the AGM postulates for con-               lates and every operation that satisfies the postulates can be
traction so that they can be used with description logics. In             constructed as a partial-meet contraction.
section 4, we present a construction for AGM-style revision                  The operation of revision is also constrained by a set of six
that does not depend on the negation of axioms. Finally we                basic postulates:
conclude and point towards future work.
                                                                           (closure) K ∗ α = Cn(K ∗ α)
2   AGM Paradigm                                                           (success) α ∈ K ∗ a
In the AGM paradigm [Alchourr´ n et al., 1985], the beliefs
                                 o                                         (inclusion) K ∗ α ⊆ K + α
of an agent are represented by a belief set, a set of formulas
                                                                           (vacuity) If K + α is consistent then K ∗ α = K + α
    ∗
      The first author is supported by FAPESP and the second author
                                                                           (consistency) If α is consistent then K ∗ α is consistent.
is partially supported by CNPq. This work was developed as part of
FAPESP project 2004/14107-2.                                               (extensionality) If Cn(α) = Cn(β) then K ∗ α = K ∗ β




                                                                     13
ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes



   In AGM theory, usually revision is constructed based on              negation of axioms. In [Ribeiro and Wassermann, 2008] we
contraction and expansion, using the Levi Identity: K ∗ α =             have proposed such constructions for belief bases (sets not
(K − ¬α) + α. The revision obtained using a partial-meet                necessarily closed under logical consequence). In this sec-
contraction is equivalent to the six basic postulates for revi-         tion we define a construction for revision without negation
sion.                                                                   that can be used for revising belief sets.
                                                                           Satisfying the AGM postulates for revision is quite easy.
3   AGM Contraction and Relevance                                       For example if we get K ∗ α = K + α if K + α is consistent
                                                                        and K ∗α = Cn(α) otherwise, we end up with a construction
Although very elegant, the AGM paradigm cannot be applied
                                                                        that satisfies all the AGM postulates for revision.
to every logic. [Flouris et al., 2004] define a logic to be AGM-
                                                                           This happens because there is no postulate in AGM revi-
compliant if it admits a contraction operation satisfying the
                                                                        sion that guaranties minimal loss of information We can de-
six AGM postulates.
                                                                        fine a minimality criterium for revision using a postulate sim-
   The authors also showed that the logics behind OWL
                                                                        ilar to the relevance postulate for contraction:
(SHIF(D) and SHOIN (D) ) are not AGM-compliant. For
this reason it was proposed in [Flouris et al., 2006] that a new         (relevance) If β ∈ K  K ∗ α then there is K such that
set of postulates for contraction should be defined. A con-              K ∩ (K ∗ α) ⊆ K ⊆ K and K ∪ {α} is consistent, but
traction satisfying this new set of postulates should exist in          K ∪ {α, β} is inconsistent.
any logic (existence criteria) and this new set of postulates
                                                                           In order to define a construction that satisfies relevance,
should be equivalent to the AGM postulates for every AGM-
                                                                        we will use the definition of maximally consistent sets with
compliant logic (AGM-rationality criteria).
                                                                        respect to a sentence, which are the maximal subsets of K
   In [Ribeiro and Wassermann, 2006] we have shown a set of
                                                                        that, together with α, are consistent:
postulates that partially fulfills these criteria, the AGM postu-
lates with the recovery postulate exchanged by:                         Definition 4.1 (Maximally consistent set w.r.t α) [Del-
                                                                        grande, 2008] X ∈ K ↓ α iff: i.X ⊆ K. ii. X ∪ {α} is
  (relevance) If β ∈ K  K − α, then there is K s. t.                   consistent. iii. If X ⊂ X ⊆ K then X ∪{α} is inconsistent.
K − α ⊆ K ⊆ K and α ∈ Cn(K ), but α ∈ Cn(K ∪ {β}).
                                                                           A selection function chooses at least one element of this
                                                                        set:
   The relevance postulate was proposed in [Hansson, 1989]
in order to capture the minimal change intuition, i.e. to avoid         Definition 4.2 (Selection function) [Alchourr´ n et al.,
                                                                                                                      o
unnecessary loss of information. We have proven the follow-             1985] A selection function for K is a function γ such that:
ing result:                                                             If K ↓ α = ∅, then ∅ = γ(K ↓ α) ⊆ K ↓ α, otherwise,
                                                                        γ(K ↓ α) = {K}.
Representation Theorem 3.1 [Ribeiro and Wassermann,
2006] For every belief set K closed under a tarskian and                   We define partial-meet revision without negation by the in-
compact logical consequence, − is a partial meet contraction            tersection of the elements chosen by the selection function
operation over K iff − satisfies closure, success, inclusion,            followed by an expansion by α:
vacuity, extensionality and relevance.                                  Definition 4.3 (Revision without negation)
   From this theorem, it follows that the existence criteria for                         K ∗γ α =       γ(K ↓ α) + α
this set of postulates is valid for tarskian and compact logics.
Corollary 3.2 [Ribeiro and Wassermann, 2006] Every                         The revision presented above satisfies the six AGM postu-
tarskian and compact logic is compliant with the AGM pos-               lates for revision plus relevance:
tulates if recovery is substituted by relevance.                        Theorem 4.4 K ∗γ α satisfies the six basic AGM postulates
   Furthermore, since partial meet contraction is equivalent            for revision and relevance.
to the AGM postulates for every logic that satisfies the AGM                Proof: Closure, success and inclusion follow directly
assumptions [Hansson, 1999], we have the following weaker               from the construction. Vacuity follows from the fact that if
version of the AGM-rationality criteria:                                K + α is consistent then K ↓ α = {K}. Extensional-
                                                                        ity follows from the fact that if Cn(α) = Cn(β) then for
Corollary 3.3 For every logic that satisfies the AGM as-
                                                                        all sets X, X ∪ {α} is inconsistent iff X ∪ {β} is also in-
sumptions relevance is equivalent to recovery in the presence
                                                                        consistent. To prove consistency, assume that α is consis-
of the other AGM postulates.
                                                                        tent and that γ(K ↓ α) + α is inconsistent. Then since
                                                                           γ(K ↓ α) ⊆ X ∈ K ↓ α, by monotonicity X ∪ {α} is in-
4   AGM Revision without Negation                                       consistent, which contradicts the definition. For relevance, let
In [Ribeiro and Wassermann, 2008] we pointed out that the               β ∈ K  K ∗γ α. Then there exists X ∈ γ(K ↓ α) such that
main problem to apply AGM revision to description logics is             β ∈ X + α. We also know that for all X ∈ γ(K ↓ α),
                                                                            /
the absence of negation of axioms in some logics, since con-            it holds that γ(K ↓ α) + α ⊆ X + α and hence,
structions for revision are usually based on the Levi identity.         K ∩ ( γ(K ↓ α) + α) ⊆ K ∩ (X + α). This holds in
For example: there is not a consensus on which should be                particular for X as above. Take K = K ∩ (X + α).
the negation of R S in SHOIN (D) . For this reason we                      It also satisfies a postulate that for classical logics follows
should try to define constructions that do not depend on the             from the AGM postulates, but not in the general case:




                                                                   14
ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes



   (uniformity) If for all K ⊆ K, K ∪ {α} is inconsistent                    Otherwise, K ∩ (K ∗ α) ⊆ X for every X ∈ γ(K ↓ α). It
iff K ∪ {β} is inconsistent then K ∩ K ∗ α = K ∩ K ∗ β                    follows that K ∩ (K ∗ α) ⊆ γ(K ↓ α). By monotonicity,
                                                                          (K ∩ (K ∗ α)) + α ⊆ γ(K ⊥α ) + α and by Lemma 4.7,
  In order to prove the representation theorem, we need to                K ∗ α ⊆ K ∗γ α.
make use of two properties of consequence operations:                        To prove that K ∗γ α ⊆ K ∗ α, we will show that γ(K ↓
  1. Inconsistent explosion: Whenever K is inconsistent,                  α) ⊆ K ∗ α. Let β ∈ γ(K ↓ α)  K ∗ α. Since γ(K ↓
     then for all formulas α, α ∈ Cn(K)                                   α) ⊆ K, by relevance, there is K such that K ∩ (K ∗ α) ⊆
                                                                          K ⊆ K and K ∪ {α} is consistent, but K ∪ {α, β} is
  2. Distributivity: For all sets of formulas X, Y and W ,                inconsistent. Since K ⊆ K and K ∪ {α} is consistent, by
     Cn(X ∪ (Cn(Y ) ∩ Cn(W ))) = Cn(X ∪ Y ) ∩ Cn(X ∪                      Lemma 4.5 we know that there is X such that β ∈ X, K ⊆
                                                                                                                          /
     W)                                                                   X ∈ K ↓ α. Since K ∩ (K ∗ α) ⊆ X, by the construction of
  We also need the following lemmas:                                      γ, X ∈ γ(K ↓ α) and hence, β ∈ γ(K ↓ α).
                                                                                                         /
Lemma 4.5 For any monotonic and compact logic if X ⊆ K
and X ∪ {α} is consistent then there is X s.t. X ⊆ X ∈
                                                                          5   Conclusion and Future Work
K ↓ α.1                                                                   Although it is not possible to apply the AGM paradigm di-
                                                                          rectly to description logics, it is possible to adapt it. In the
Lemma 4.6 [Delgrande, 2008]K ↓ α = K ↓ β iff for all                      case of the contraction, that means a small change in the pos-
X ⊆ K, X ∪ {α} is inconsistent iff X ∪ {β} is inconsistent.               tulates. In the case of the revision, we need to adapt both
Lemma 4.7 If Cn satisfies distributivity and * satisfies suc-               construction and postulates.
cess, inclusion and consistency, then (K ∩ K ∗ α) + α =                      As future work we plan to compare our set of postulates for
K +α∩K ∗α+α=K ∗α                                                          contraction with the one proposed in [Flouris et al., 2006] and
                                                                          study the relation between the contraction and revision oper-
   The representation theorem states the equivalence between              ators proposed. We also plan to apply the solution for con-
the construction and a set of postulates:                                 traction and revision to other logics where negation is prob-
Representation Theorem 4.8 (Revision without negation)                    lematic, such as Horn logic.
For any monotonic and compact logic that satisfies incon-
sistent explosion and distributivity, a revision operator ∗               References
is a revision without negation γ(K ↓ α) + α for some                      [Alchourr´ n et al., 1985] C. Alchourr´ n, P. G¨ rdenfors, and
                                                                                     o                            o      a
selection function γ if and only if it satisfies closure, success,            D. Makinson. On the logic of theory change. J. of Sym-
inclusion, consistency, relevance and uniformity.                            bolic Logic, 50(2):510–530, 1985.
Proof: (construction ⇒ postulates):                                       [Delgrande, 2008] J. P. Delgrande.        Horn clause belief
   The AGM postulates and relevance are satisfied, as shown                   change: Contraction functions. In G. Brewka and J. Lang,
in Theorem 4.4. For uniformity, note that if it holds that for all           editors, Proceedings of KR2008, pages 156–165. AAAI
K ⊆ K, K ∪{α} is inconsistent iff K ∪{β} is inconsistent,                    Press, 2008.
then by Lemma 4.6, K ↓ α = K ↓ β, and hence, γ(K ↓                        [Flouris et al., 2004] G. Flouris, D. Plexousakis, and G. An-
α) = γ(K ↓ β).
                                                                             toniou. Generalizing the AGM postulates. In J.P. Del-
   (postulates ⇒ construction):
                                                                             grande and T. Schaub, editors, Proceedings of (NMR-04),
   Let ∗ be an operator satisfying the six postulates and let                pages 171–179, 2004.
γ(K ↓ α) = {X ∈ K ↓ α|K ∩ (K ∗ α) ⊆ X} if α is
consistent and γ(K ↓ α) = {K} otherwise. We have to                       [Flouris et al., 2006] G. Flouris, D. Plexousakis, and G. An-
prove that: 1) γ(K ↓ α) is a selection function and 2) K ∗γ                  toniou. On generalizing the AGM postulates. In Proceed-
α = K ∗ α.                                                                   ings of STAIRS, 2006.
   1. First we need to prove that γ is well defined, i.e., that if         [Hansson, 1989] S. O. Hansson. New operators for theory
K ↓ α = K ↓ β then γ(K ↓ α) = γ(K ↓ β). This follows                         change. Theoria, 55:114–132, 1989.
directly from Lemma 4.6 and uniformity.                                   [Hansson, 1999] S. O. Hansson. A Textbook of Belief Dy-
   To prove that γ is a selection function we need to prove
                                                                             namics. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.
that if K ↓ α = ∅, then ∅ = γ(K ↓ α) ⊆ K ↓ α. If
α is consistent then it follows from consistency that K ∗ α               [Makinson, 1987] D. Makinson. On the status of the postu-
is consistent. In this case, because of closure and success                  late of recovery in the logic of theory change. Journal of
(K ∗ α) + α is consistent. It follows that (K ∩ K ∗ α) ∪ {α}                 Philosophical Logic, 16:383–394, 1987.
is consistent and by Lemma 4.5 there is X s.t. K ∩ (K ∗ α) ⊆              [Ribeiro and Wassermann, 2006] M. M. Ribeiro and
X ∈ K ↓ α. Hence X ∈ γ(K ↓ α).                                               R. Wassermann. First steps towards revising ontologies.
   2. If α is inconsistent, it follows from closure, success, and            In Proceedings of WONTO, 2006.
inconsistent explosion that both K ∗ α and K ∗γ α are the                 [Ribeiro and Wassermann, 2008] M. M. Ribeiro and
unique inconsistent belief set.
                                                                             R. Wassermann. Base revision for ontology debugging.
   1
     This is a generalization of the Upper Bound Property used in            Journal of Logic and Computation, to appear, 2008.
[Alchourr´ n et al., 1985]
          o




                                                                     15
ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes




                                         First Steps in EL Contraction∗
           Richard Booth                              Thomas Meyer               Ivan Jos´ Varzinczak
                                                                                         e
       Mahasarakham University                   Meraka Institute, CSIR and         Meraka Institute
              Thailand                          School of Computer Science        CSIR, South Africa
        richard.b@msu.ac.th                     University of Kwazulu-Natal ivan.varzinczak@meraka.org.za
                                                       South Africa
                                               tommie.meyer@meraka.org.za

                          Abstract                                      Amputation-of-Finger as being subsumed by the con-
                                                                        cept Amputation-of-Arm. Finding a solution to prob-
     In this work we make a preliminary investigation of                lems such as these is known as repair in the DL commu-
     belief contraction in the EL family of description                 nity [Schlobach and Cornet, 2003], but it can also be seen
     logics. Based on previous work on propositional                    as the problem of contracting by the subsumption statement
     Horn logic contraction, here we state the main defi-                Amputation-of-Finger Amputation-of-Arm.
     nitions for contraction in a description logic extend-                The scenario also illustrates why we are concerned with
     ing it, and point out the main issues involved when                belief contraction of belief sets (logically closed theories) and
     addressing belief set contraction in EL.                           not belief base contraction [Hansson, 1999]. In practice, on-
                                                                        tologies are not constructed by writing DL axioms, but rather
1   Motivation                                                          using ontology editing tools, from which the axioms are gen-
                                                                        erated automatically. Because of this, from the knowledge
Belief change is a subarea of knowledge representation con-             engineer’s perspective, it is the belief set and not the axioms
cerned with describing how an intelligent agent ought to                from which the theory is generated that is important.
change its beliefs about the world in the face of new and pos-
sibly conflicting information. Arguably the most influential              2   Classical Belief Contraction
work in this area is the so-called AGM approach [Alchourr´ n o
et al., 1985; G¨ rdenfors, 1988] which focuses on two types
                  a                                                     Before establishing our constructions, we give a very brief
of belief change: revision, in which an agent has to keep its           summary of classical belief contraction. For that we assume
set of beliefs consistent while incorporating new information           the reader is familiar with Classical Propositional Logic.
into it, and contraction, in which an agent has to give up some         Given a finitely generated propositional language LP , if X ⊆
of its beliefs in order to avoid drawing unwanted conclusions.          LP , the set of sentences logically entailed by X is denoted by
   Our primary reason for focusing on this topic is be-                 Cn(X). A belief set is a logically closed set, i.e., for a belief
cause of its application to constructing and repairing                  set X, X = Cn(X).
ontologies in description logics (DLs) [Baader et al.,                     AGM [Alchourr´ n et al., 1985] is the best-known approach
                                                                                            o
2003].      A typical scenario involves an ontology en-                 to contraction. It gives a set of postulates characterizing all
gineer teaming up with an expert to construct an on-                    rational contraction functions. The aim is to describe belief
tology related to the domain of expertise of the latter                 contraction on the knowledge level of how beliefs are repre-
with the aid of an ontology engineering tool such as                    sented. Belief states are modelled by belief sets in a logic with
SWOOP [http://code.google.com/p/swoop] or                               a Tarskian consequence relation including classical proposi-
Prot´ g´ [http://protege.stanford.edu]. An ex-
     e e                                                                tional logic. The expansion of K by ϕ, K + ϕ, is defined
ample of this is the medical ontology SNOMED [Spackman                  as Cn(K ∪ {ϕ}). Contraction is intended to represent sit-
et al., 1997], whose formal substratum is the less expressive           uations in which an agent has to give up information from
description logic EL [Baader, 2003].                                    its current beliefs. Formally, belief contraction is a (partial)
   One of the principal methods for testing the quality of              function from P(LP ) × LP to P(LP ): the contraction of a
a constructed ontology is for the domain expert to inspect              belief set by a sentence yields a new set.
and verify the computed subsumption hierarchy. Correct-                    The AGM approach to contraction requires that the follow-
ing such errors involves the expert pointing out that cer-              ing set of postulates characterize basic contraction.
tain subsumptions are missing from the subsumption hi-                  (K−1) K − ϕ = Cn(K − ϕ)
erarchy, while others currently occurring in the subsump-
tion hierarchy ought not to be there. A concrete exam-                  (K−2) K − ϕ ⊆ K
ple of this involves SNOMED, which classifies the concept                (K−3) If ϕ ∈ K, then K − ϕ = K
                                                                                      /
   ∗
     This paper is based upon work supported by the National Re-
                                                                        (K−4) If |= ϕ, then ϕ ∈ K − ϕ
                                                                                                  /
search Foundation under Grant number 65152.                             (K−5) If ϕ ≡ ψ, then K − ϕ = K − ψ




                                                                   16
ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes



(K−6) If ϕ ∈ K, then (K − ϕ) + ϕ = K                                       Given EL concepts C, D, C          D is a general concept
   Various methods exist for constructing basic AGM contrac-            inclusion axiom (GCI for short). C ≡ D is an abbreviation
tion. In this paper we focus on the use of remainder sets.              for both C D and D C. An EL-TBox T is a set of GCIs.
                                                                           An interpretation I satisfies an axiom C D (noted I |=
Definition 2.1 For a belief set K, X ∈ K ↓ ϕ iff (i) X ⊆ K,              C D) iff C I ⊆ DI . I |= C ≡ D iff C I = DI .
(ii) X |= ϕ, and (iii) for every X s.t. X ⊂ X ⊆ K, X |= ϕ.                 An interpretation I is a model of a TBox T (noted I |=
We call the elements of K ↓ ϕ remainder sets of K w.r.t. ϕ.             T) iff I satisfies every axiom in T. An axiom C         D is a
Remainder sets are belief sets, and K ↓ ϕ = ∅ iff |= ϕ. AGM             consequence of a TBox T, noted T |= C        D, iff for every
presupposes the existence of a suitable selection function for          interpretation I, if I |= T, then I |= C D. Given a TBox
choosing between possibly different remainder sets.                     T, Cn(T) = {C         D | T |= C      D}. An EL belief set is
Definition 2.2 A selection function σ is a function from                 then a TBox T = Cn(T).
P(P(LP )) to P(P(LP )) such that σ(K ↓ ϕ) = {K}, if                       For more details on EL, the reader is referred to the work
K ↓ ϕ = ∅, and ∅ = σ(K ↓ ϕ) ⊆ K ↓ ϕ otherwise.                          by Baader [2003].
Selection functions provide a mechanism for identifying the
remainder sets judged to be most appropriate, and the result-           4 EL Contraction
ing contraction is then obtained by taking the intersection of          In this section we give the basic definitions for contraction
the chosen remainder sets.                                              in EL. The presentation follows that for Horn contraction by
Definition 2.3 For σ a selection function, −σ is a partial               Delgrande [2008] and Booth et al. [2009].
meet contraction iff K −σ ϕ = σ(K ↓ ϕ).                                    We want to be able to contract an EL TBox T with a set of
One of the fundamental results of AGM contraction is a repre-           GCIs Φ. The goal of contracting T with Φ is the removal of at
sentation theorem which shows that partial meet contraction             least one of the axioms in Φ. For full propositional logic, con-
corresponds exactly with the six basic AGM postulates.                  traction with a set of sentences is not particularly interesting
Theorem 2.1 ([G¨ rdenfors, 1988]) Every partial meet con-
                   a                                                    since it amounts to contracting by their conjunction. For EL it
traction satisfies (K 1)–(K 6). Conversely, every contraction
                     −       −                                          is interesting though, since the conjunction of the axioms in Φ
function satisfying (K 1)–(K 6) is a partial meet contraction.
                        −      −                                        is not always expressible as a single EL axiom. Our starting
                                                                        point for defining contraction is in terms of remainder sets.
Two subclasses of partial meet deserve special mention.
Definition 2.4 Given a selection function σ, −σ is a maxi-               Definition 4.1 (EL Remainder Sets) For a belief set T, X ∈
choice contraction iff σ(K ↓ ϕ) is a singleton set. It is a full        T ↓EL Φ iff (i) X ⊆ T, (ii) X |= Φ, and (iii) for every X s.t.
meet contraction iff σ(K ↓ ϕ) = K ↓ ϕ whenever K ↓ ϕ = ∅.               X ⊂ X ⊆ T, X |= Φ. We refer to the elements of T ↓EL Φ
                                                                        as the EL remainder sets of T w.r.t. Φ.
   Clearly full meet contraction is unique, while maxichoice
contraction usually is not.                                                EL remainder sets exist since EL is compact [Sofronie-
                                                                        Stokkermans, 2006] and has a Tarskian consequence relation.
                                                                        It is easy to verify that all EL remainder sets are belief sets.
3   The Description Logic EL                                            Also, T ↓EL Φ = ∅ iff |= Φ.
The language of EL (LEL ) is a sublanguage of the descrip-
tion logic ALC [Baader et al., 2003] built upon a set of                   We now proceed to define selection functions to be used
atomic concept names {A, B, . . .} and a set of role names              for EL partial meet contraction.
{R, S, . . .}, together with the constructors and ∃. Among              Definition 4.2 (EL Selection Functions) A partial meet EL
the concept names are the distinguished concepts and ⊥.                 selection function σ is a function from P(P(LEL )) to
Complex concepts are denoted by C, D, . . . and are con-                P(P(LEL )) s.t. σ(T ↓EL Φ) = {T} if T ↓EL Φ = ∅, and
structed according to the rule                                          ∅ = σ(T ↓EL Φ) ⊆ T ↓EL Φ otherwise.
                C ::= A |      |⊥|C    C | ∃R.C                            Using these selection functions, we define partial meet EL
                                                                        contraction.
   The semantics of EL is the standard set theoretic Tarskian
semantics. An interpretation is a structure I = ΔI , ·I ,               Definition 4.3 (Partial Meet EL Contraction) Given              a
where ΔI is a non-empty set called the domain, and ·I is an             partial meet EL selection function σ, −σ is a partial meet
interpretation function mapping concept names A to subsets              EL contraction iff T −σ Φ = σ(T ↓EL Φ).
AI of ΔI and mapping role names R to binary relations RI                   We also consider two special cases.
over ΔI × ΔI :                                                          Definition 4.4 (EL Maxichoice and Full Meet) Given              a
                 AI ⊆ ΔI , RI ⊆ ΔI × ΔI ,                               partial meet EL selection function σ, −σ is a maxichoice EL
                         I                                              contraction iff σ(T ↓EL Φ) is a singleton set. It is a full meet
                             = ΔI , ⊥I = ∅                              EL contraction iff σ(T ↓EL Φ) = T ↓EL Φ when T ↓EL Φ = ∅.
   Given an interpretation I = ΔI , ·I , ·I is extended to              Example 4.1 Let T = Cn({A B, B ∃R.A}). Then
interpret complex concepts in the following way:                        T ↓EL {A ∃R.A} = {T1 , T2 }, where T1 = Cn({A B}),
                    (C
                               I
                             D) = C I ∩ DI ,                            and T2 = Cn({B ∃R.A, A ∃R.A B}). So contract-
                                                                        ing with {A      ∃R.A} yields either T1 , T2 , or T1 ∩ T2 =
            I                                                           Cn({A ∃R.A B}).
    (∃R.C) = {a ∈ ΔI | ∃b.(a, b) ∈ RI and b ∈ C I }




                                                                   17
ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes



   As pointed out by Booth et al. [2009], maxichoice contrac-             (T − 7) If |= Φ, then T − Φ = T
tion is not enough for logics that are less expressive than full            Postulates (T −1)–(T −5) are analogues of (K−1)–(K−5),
propositional logic, like e.g. Horn logic. The same argument              while (T − 6) states that all sentences removed from T dur-
holds here for EL, as the following example shows.                        ing a contraction of Φ must have been removed for a reason:
Example 4.2 Recalling Example 4.1, when contracting                       adding them again brings back Φ. (T − 7) simply states that
{A     ∃R.A} from T = Cn({A B, B ∃R.A}), full                             contracting with a (possibly empty) set of tautologies leaves
meet yields Tf m = Cn({A ∃R.A B}), while maxi-                            the initial belief set unchanged. We remark that (T − 3) is
choice yields either Tmc = Cn({A B}) or Tmc =                             actually redundant in the list, since it can be shown to follow
Cn({B ∃R.A, A ∃R.A B}). Now consider the belief                           mainly from (T − 6).
set Ti = Cn({A ∃R.A B, A B ∃R.A}). Clearly                                Theorem 5.1 Every EL contraction satisfies (T−1)–(T−7).
Tf m ⊆ Ti ⊆ Tmc , but no partial meet yields Ti .                         Conversely, every contraction function satisfying (T − 1)–
   Our contention is that EL contraction should include cases             (T − 7) is an EL contraction.
such as Ti above. Given that full meet contraction is deemed
to be appropriate, it stands to reason that any belief set Ti big-        6   Concluding Remarks
ger than it should also be seen as appropriate, provided that             Here we have laid the groundwork for contraction in the EL
Ti does not contain any irrelevant additions. But since Ti is             family of description logics by providing a formal account of
contained in some maxichoice contraction, Ti cannot contain               basic contraction of a TBox with a set of GCIs.
any irrelevant additions. After all, the maxichoice contrac-
tion contains only relevant additions, since it is an appropriate            Here we focus only on basic contraction. For future work
form of contraction. Hence Ti is also an appropriate result of            we plan to investigate EL contraction for full AGM contrac-
EL contraction.                                                           tion, obtained by adding the extended postulates. We also
                                                                          plan to pursue our future investigations on repair in more ex-
Definition 4.5 (Infra-Remainder Sets) For belief sets T                    pressive DLs.
and X, X ∈ T ⇓EL Φ iff there is some X ∈ T ↓EL Φ s.t.
( T ↓EL Φ) ⊆ X ⊆ X . We refer to the elements of T ⇓EL Φ
as the infra-remainder sets of T w.r.t. Φ.                                References
                                                                          [Alchourr´ n et al., 1985] C. Alchourr´ n, P. G¨ rdenfors, and
                                                                                     o                              o        a
   Note that all remainder sets are also infra-remainder sets,
                                                                             D. Makinson. On the logic of theory change: Partial meet
and so is the intersection of any set of remainder sets. Indeed,
                                                                             contraction and revision functions. J. of Symbolic Logic,
the intersection of any set of infra-remainder sets is also an
                                                                             50:510–530, 1985.
infra-remainder set. So the set of infra-remainder sets con-
tains all belief sets between some remainder set and the inter-           [Baader et al., 2003] F. Baader, D. Calvanese, D. McGuin-
section of all remainder sets.                                               ness, D. Nardi, and P. Patel-Schneider, editors. Descrip-
                                                                             tion Logic Handbook. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Definition 4.6 (EL Contraction) An infra-selection func-
tion τ is a function from P(P(LEL )) to P(LEL ) s.t.                      [Baader, 2003] F. Baader. Terminological cycles in a de-
τ (T ⇓EL Φ) = T whenever |= Φ, and τ (T ⇓EL Φ) ∈ T ⇓EL Φ                     scription logic with existential restrictions. In Proc. IJCAI,
otherwise. A contraction function −τ is an EL contraction iff                2003.
T −τ Φ = τ (T ⇓EL Φ).                                                     [Booth et al., 2009] R. Booth, T. Meyer, and I. Varzinczak.
                                                                             Next steps in propositional Horn contraction. In Proc. IJ-
5   A Representation Result                                                  CAI, 2009.
Our representation result makes use of EL versions of all of              [Delgrande, 2008] J. Delgrande. Horn clause belief change:
the basic AGM postulates, except for the Recovery Postulate                  Contraction functions. In Proc. KR, pages 156–165, 2008.
(K − 6). It is easy to see that EL contraction does not satisfy           [G¨ rdenfors, 1988] P. G¨ rdenfors. Knowledge in Flux: Mod-
                                                                            a                       a
Recovery. As an example, take T = Cn({A C}) and let                          eling the Dynamics of Epistemic States. MIT Press, 1988.
Φ = {A B C}. Then T−Φ = Cn(∅) and so (T−Φ)+Φ =
                                                                          [Hansson, 1999] S. Hansson. A Textbook of Belief Dynamics.
Cn({A B C}) = T. In place of Recovery we have a
postulate that closely resembles Hansson’s [1999] Relevance                  Kluwer, 1999.
Postulate, and a postulate handling the case when trying to               [Schlobach and Cornet, 2003] S. Schlobach and R. Cornet.
contract with a tautology.                                                   Non-standard reasoning services for the debugging of DL
                                                                             terminologies. In Proc. IJCAI, pages 355–360, 2003.
(T − 1) T − Φ = Cn(T − Φ)
                                                                          [Sofronie-Stokkermans, 2006] V. Sofronie-Stokkermans. In-
(T − 2) T − Φ ⊆ T
                                                                             terpolation in local theory extensions. In Proc. IJCAR,
(T − 3) If Φ ⊆ T, then T − Φ = T                                             2006.
(T − 4) If |= Φ, then Φ ⊆ T − Φ                                           [Spackman et al., 1997] K.A. Spackman, K.E. Campbell,
(T − 5) If Cn(Φ) = Cn(Ψ), then T − Φ = T − Ψ                                 and R.A. Cote. SNOMED RT: A reference terminology
                                                                             for health care. Journal of the American Medical Infor-
(T − 6) If α ∈ T  (T − Φ), then there is a T such that                      matics Association, pages 640–644, 1997.
       (T ↓EL Φ) ⊆ T ⊆ T, T |= Φ, and T + {α} |= Φ




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Proceedings of ARCOE'09

  • 1. Workshop Notes The IJCAI-09 Workshop on Automated Reasoning about Context and Ontology Evolution ARCOE-09 July 11-12, 2009 Pasadena, California, USA held at the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence Co-Chairs Alan Bundy Jos Lehmann Guilin Qi Ivan José Varzinczak AAAI Press
  • 3. Introduction to the Notes of the IJCAI-09 Workshop ARCOE-09 Automated Reasoning about Context and Ontology Evolution Alan Bundya , Jos Lehmanna , Guilin Qib , Ivan Jos´ Varzinczakc e a School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh b Institute AIFB, Universitaet Karlsruhe c Meraka Institute, Pretoria, South Africa Methods of automated reasoning have solved a large number of problems in Computer Science by using formal ontologies expressed in logic. Over the years, though, each problem or class of problems has required a different ontology, and sometimes a different version of logic. Moreover, the processes of conceiving, con- trolling and maintaining an ontology and its versions have turned out to be inherently complex. All this has motivated much investigation in a wide range of disparate disciplines about how to relate ontologies to one another. The IJCAI-09 Workshop ARCOE-09 brings together researchers and practitioners from core areas of Artifi- cial Intelligence (e.g. Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, Contexts, and Ontologies) to discuss these kinds of problems and relevant results. Historically, there have been at least three different, yet interdependent motivations behind this type of re- search: providing support to ontology engineers, especially in modeling Common Sense and Non-Monotonic Reasoning; defining the relationship between an ontology and its context; enhancing problem solving and communication for software agents, often by allowing for the evolution of the very basis of their ontologies or ontology languages. ARCOE Call for Abstracts has been formulated against such historical background. Submissions to ARCOE- 09 have been reviewed by two to three Chairs or PC members and ranked on relevance and quality. Approx- imately seventy-five percent of the submissions have been selected for presentation at the workshop and for inclusion in these Workshop Notes. Accordingly, the abstracts are here grouped in three sections and sequenced within each section by their order of submission. Common Sense and Non-Monotonic Reasoning Ontology engineers are not supposed to succeed right from the beginning when (individually or collaboratively) developing an ontology. Despite their expertise and any assistance from domain experts, revision cycles are the rule. Research on the automation of the process of engineering an ontology has improved efficiency and reduced the introduction of unintended meanings by means of interactive ontology editors. Moreover, ontology matching has studied the process of manual, off- line alignment of two or more known ontologies. The following works focus on the development of revision techniques for logics with limited expressivity. Ribeiro, Wasserman. AGM Revision in Description Logics. Wang, Wang, Topor. Forgetting for Knowledge Bases in DL-Litebool . Moguillansky, Wassermann Inconsistent-Tolerant DL-Lite Reasoning: An Argumentative Approach. Booth, Meyer, Varzinczak. First Steps in EL Contraction. Context and Ontology Most application areas have recognized the need for representing and reasoning about knowledge that is distributed over many resources. Such knowledge depends on its context, i.e., on the syntactic and/or semantic structure of such resources. Research on information integration, distributed knowledge management, the semantic web, multi-agent and distributed reasoning have pinned down different aspects of how ontologies relate to and/or develop within their context. The following works concentrate on the relationship between contexts and ontologies. Ptaszynski, Dybala, Shi, Rzepka, Araki. Shifting Valence Helps Verify Contextual Appropriateness of Emo- tions. Kutz, Normann. Context Discovery via Theory Interpretation.
  • 4. Redavid, Palmisano, Iannone. Contextualized OWL-DL KB for the management of OWL-S effects. Sboui, B´ dard, Brodeur, Badard Modeling the External Quality of Context to Fine-tune Context Reasoning e in Geo-spatial Interoperability. Qi, Ji, Haase. A Conflict-based Operator for Mapping Revision. Automated Ontology Evolution Agents that communicate with one another without having full access to their respective ontologies or that are programmed to face new non-classifiable situations must change their own ontology dynamically at run-time – they cannot rely on human intervention. Research on this problem has either concentrated on non-monotonic reasoning and belief revision or on changes of signature, i.e., of the grammar of the ontology’s language, with a minimal disruption to the original theory. The following works concentrate on Automated Ontology Evolution, an area which in recent years has been drawing the attention of Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge Representation and Reasoning. Bundy. Unite: A New Plan for Automated Ontology Evolution in Physics. Chan, Bundy. An Architecture of GALILEO: A System for Automated Ontology Evolution in Physics. Lehmann. A Case Study of Ontology Evolution in Atomic Physics as the Basis of the Open Structure Ontol- ogy Repair Plan. Jouis, Habib, Liu. Atypicalities in Ontologies: Inferring New Facts from Topological Axioms. Thanks to the invaluable and much appreciated contributions of the Program Committee, the Invited Speakers and the authors, ARCOE-09 provides participants with an opportunity to position various ap- proaches with respect to one another. Hopefully, though the workshop and these Notes will also start a process of cross-pollination and set out the constitution of a truly interdisciplinary research-community dedicated to automated reasoning about contexts and ontology evolution. (Edinburgh, Karlsruhe, Pretoria – May 2009) ARCOE-09 Co-Chairs Alan Bundy (University of Edinburgh, UK) Jos Lehmann (University of Edinburgh, UK) Guilin Qi (Universit¨ t Karlsruhe, Germany) a Ivan Jos´ Varzinczak (Meraka Institute, South Africa) e ARCOE-09 Invited Speakers Franz Baader (Technische Universit¨ t Dresden, Germany) a Deborah McGuinness (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA) ARCOE-09 Program Committee Richard Booth (M´ h˘ a W´tt´ yaalai Mahasarakham, Thailand) a a ı a Paolo Bouquet (Universit` di Trento, Italy) a J´ rˆ me Euzenat (INRIA Grenoble Rhˆ ne-Alpes, France) eo o Chiara Ghidini (FBK Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Italy) Alain Leger (France Telecom R&D, France) Deborah McGuinness (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA) Thomas Meyer (Meraka Institute, South Africa) Maurice Pagnucco (The University of New South Wales, Australia) Valeria de Paiva (Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), USA) Luciano Serafini (FBK Fondazione Bruno Kessler, Italy) Pavel Shvaiko (TasLab, Informatica Trentina S.p.A., Italy) John F. Sowa (VivoMind Intelligence, Inc., Rockville MD, USA) Holger Wache (Fachhochschule Nordwestschweiz, Switzerland) Renata Wassermann (Universidade de S˜ o Paulo, Brazil) a
  • 5. Table of Contents Martin O. Moguillansky and Renata Wassermann Inconsistent-Tolerant DL-Lite Reasoning: An Argumentative Approach…………………….…...…...7-9 Zhe Wang, Kewen Wang and Rodney Topor Forgetting for Knowledge Bases in DL-Litebool.……………………………………………….………10-12 Márcio Ribeiro and Renata Wassermann AGM Revision in Description Logics……………………………………………….…………………13-15 Richard Booth, Thomas Meyer and Ivan Varzinczak First Steps in EL Contraction..………………………………………………………………...………16-18 Michal Ptaszynski, Pawel Dybala, Wenhan Shi Rafal Rzepka and Kenji Araki Shifting Valence Helps Verify Contextual Appropriateness of Emotions…………………………...…19-21 Oliver Kutz and Immanuel Normann Context Discovery via Theory Interpretation…….……………………………………………..……...22-24 Domenico Redavid, Ignazio Palmisano and Luigi Iannone Contextualized OWL-DL KB for the Management of OWL-S Effects………………………….………25-27 Tarek Sboui, Yvan Bédard, Jean Brodeur and Thierry Badard Modeling the External Quality of Context to Fine-tune Context Reasoning in Geo-spatial Interoperability…………………………………………….……………….28-30 Guilin Qi, Qiu Ji and Peter Haase A Conflict-based Operator for Mapping Revision…………………………………….……………….31-33 Alan Bundy Unite: A New Plan for Automated Ontology Evolution in Physics……………………………….……34-36 Michael Chan and Alan Bundy Architecture of GALILEO: A System for Automated Ontology Evolution in Physics…………………………………………………………………….…….………..37-39 Jos Lehmann A Case Study of Ontology Evolution in Atomic Physics as the Basis of the Open Structure Ontology Repair Plan…….……………………………………………………40-42 Christophe Jouis, Bassel Habib and Jie Liu Atypicalities in Ontologies: Inferring New Facts from Topological Axioms………………………….43-45
  • 7. ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes Inconsistent-Tolerant DL-Lite Reasoning: An Argumentative Approach Mart´n O. Moguillansky ı Renata Wassermann Scientific Research’s National Council (CONICET) Department of Computer Science (DCC) AI Research and Development Lab (LIDIA) Institute of Mathematics and Statistics (IME) Department of Computer Science and Eng. (DCIC) Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), ARGENTINA. University of S˜ o Paulo (USP), BRAZIL. a mom@cs.uns.edu.ar renata@ime.usp.br R E for roles; and a finite set of functional restrictions of the form (functR). Assuming the sets NV of variables and 1 Introduction NC of constant names, an ABox is composed by a finite set of membership assertions on atomic concepts and atomic roles, This article is devoted to the problem of reasoning over in- of the form A(a) and P (a, b), where {a, b} ⊆ NC . consistent ontologies expressed through the description logic As usual in DLs, semantics is given in terms of interpreta- DL-Lite [Calvanese et al., 2007]. A specialized argumenta- tions I = (ΔI , ·I ). Reasoning services (RS) represent logi- tion machinery is proposed through which DL-Lite knowl- cal implications of KB assertions verifying: edge bases (KB) may be reinterpreted a la argumentation. ` Such machinery arises from the reification to DL-Lite of the (subsumption) Σ |= C1 C2 or Σ |= E1 E2 ; argumentation framework introduced in [Moguillansky et al., (functionality) Σ |= (functR) or Σ |= ¬(functR); and 2008a], which in turn was formalized on top of the widely (query answering) Σ |= q(¯). x accepted Dung’s argumentation framework [Dung, 1995]. A A conjunctive query q(¯), with a tuple x ∈ (NV )n of ar- x ¯ preliminary investigation to handle ontology debugging and ity n ≥ 0, is a non empty set of atoms C(z), E(z1 , z2 ), consistent ontology evolution of ALC through argumentation z1 = z2 , or z1 = z2 , where C and E are respectively a gen- was presented in [Moguillansky et al., 2008a]. But this pro- eral concept and a general role of Σ, and some of the names posal aims at handling ontology evolution with no need of {z, z1 , z2 } ⊆ NC ∪ NV are considered in x. We will use ¯ consistency restoration. Argumentation techniques applied the function var : (NV )n −→2NV to identify the variables in to reasoning over ontologies appear as a promissory fusion x. When x is the empty tuple, no free variables are consid- ¯ ¯ to work in certain domains in which it is mandatory to avoid ered and the query is identified as boolean. Intuitively, q(¯) x loosing any kind of knowledge disregarding inconsistencies. represents the conjunction of its elements. Let I be an in- Therefore, we provide the theory for an inconsistent-tolerant terpretation, and m : var(¯) ∪ NC −→ΔI a total function. x argumentation DL-Lite reasoner, and finally the matter of on- If z ∈ NC then m(z) = z I otherwise m(z) = a ∈ ΔI . tology dynamics is reintroduced. We write I |=m C(z) if m(z) ∈ C I , I |=m E(z1 , z2 ) if (m(z1 ), m(z2 )) ∈ E I , I |=m (z1 = z2 ) if m(z1 ) = m(z2 ), 2 DL-Lite Brief Overview and I |=m (z1 = z2 ) if m(z1 ) = m(z2 ). If I |=m φ for all Next we describe in a very brief manner the language φ ∈ q(¯), we write I |=m q(¯) and call m a match for I and x x DL-LiteA used to represent DL-Lite knowledge. In the se- q(¯). We say that I satisfies q(¯) and write I |= q(¯) if there x x x quel we will write φ ∈ DL-LiteA , or Σ ⊆ DL-LiteA , to iden- is a match m for I and q(¯). If I |= q(¯) for all models I x x tify a DL-Lite assertion φ, and a DL-Lite knowledge base Σ, of a KB Σ, we write Σ |= q(¯) and say that Σ entails q(¯). x x respectively. For full details about DL-Lite please refer to Note that the well known instance checking RS (Σ |= C(a) [Calvanese et al., 2007]. Consider the DL-Lite grammar: or Σ |= E(a, b)) is generalized by query answering. Finally, the knowledge base satisfiability RS (whether the KB admits B −→ A|∃R C −→ B|¬B R −→ P |P − E −→ R|¬R at least one model) will be discussed in Sect. 4. where A denotes an atomic concept, P an atomic role, P − the inverse of the atomic role P , and B a basic concept that is 3 The Argumentation DL-Lite Reasoner either atomic or conforming to ∃R, where R denotes a basic role that is either atomic or its inverse. Finally, C denotes a We are particularly interested in handling the reasoning ser- (general) concept, whereas E denotes a (general) role. vices presented before. This will be achieved through the A KB Σ details the represented knowledge in terms of the claim of an argument. Intuitively, an argument may be seen intensional information described in the TBox T , and the ex- as a set of interrelated pieces of knowledge providing sup- tensional, in the ABox A. A TBox is formed by a finite set port to a claim. Hence, the claim should take the form of of inclusion assertions of the form B C for concepts, and any possible RS, and the knowledge inside an argument will be represented through DL-LiteA assertions. The notion of Written during the first author’s visit to USP, financed by LACCIR. argument will rely on the language for claims: 7
  • 8. ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes Lcl −→ C1 C2 |E1 E2 |(functR)|¬(functR)|q(¯) x P P }, ¬(functP ) . Finally, coherency-negation of func- An argument is defined as a structure implying the claim tional assertions is not allowed, whereas negation of queries from a minimal consistent subset of Σ, namely the body. is only allowed for singletons, i.e., |q(¯)| = 1. x Comparing the arguments involved in a conflictive pair Definition 1 (Argument) Given a KB Σ ⊆ DL-LiteA , an ar- leads to the notion of attack which usually relies on an ar- gument B is a structure Δ, β , where Δ ⊆ Σ is the body, gument comparison criterion. Through such criterion, it is β ∈ Lcl the claim, and it holds (1) Δ |= β, (2) Δ |= ⊥, decided if the counterargument prevails from a conflict, and and (3) X ⊂ Δ : X |= β. We say that B supports β. The herein the attack ends up identified. A variety of alternatives domain of arguments from Σ is identified through the set AΣ . appears to specify such criterion. In general, the quantity Consider a KB Σ and an RS α ∈ Lcl , the argumenta- and/or quality of knowledge is somehow weighted to obtain tive DL reasoner verifies Σ |= α if there exists Δ, β ∈ a confidence rate of an argument. The exhaustive analysis AΣ such that β unifies with α and Δ, β is warranted. goes beyond the scope of this article, hence an abstract argu- An argument is warranted if it ends up accepted (or un- ment comparison criterion “ ” will be assumed. The notion defeated) from the argumentation interplay. This notion of attack is based on the criterion “ ” over conflictive pairs. will be made clear in the sequel. Primitive arguments are Definition 3 (Attack) Given a conflictive pair of arguments those whose body consists of the claim itself, for instance B 1 ∈ AΣ and B2 ∈ AΣ , B2 defeats B1 iff B2 is the counter- {A(a)}, {A(a)} . Σ |= (functR) is simply verified through argument and B2 B1 holds. Argument B2 is said a defeater a primitive argument {(functR)}, (functR) . Besides, of B1 (or B1 is defeated by B2 ), noted as B2 →B1 . functional assertions (functR) can be part of an argument’s body. For instance, Σ |= ¬P (a, c) is verified through ei- As said before, the reasoning methodology we propose is ther an argument {P (a, b), (functP )}, {¬P (a, z), z = b} , based on the analysis of the warrant status of the arguments or {P (b, c), (functP − )}, {¬P (z, c), z = a} , with z ∈ NV . giving support to the required RS. This is the basis of dialec- Observe that z = b and z = a are deduced from (2) in Def. 1. tical argumentation [Ches˜ evar and Simari, 2007]. An ar- n Once an argument supporting the required RS is identi- gumentation line may be seen as the repeated interchange of fied, the argumentation game begins: a repeated interchange arguments and counterarguments resembling a dialogue be- of arguments and counterarguments (i.e., arguments whose tween two parties, formally: claim poses a justification to disbelieve in another argument). Definition 4 (Argumentation Line) Given the arguments From the standpoint of logics, this is interpreted as a contra- B 1 , . . . , Bn from AΣ , an argumentation line λ is a non-empty diction between an argument B 1 and a counterargument B2 . sequence of arguments [B1 , . . . , B n ] such that Bi →B i−1 , for Such contradiction could appear while considering the claim 1 < i ≤ n. We will say that λ is rooted in B1 , and that Bn is of B2 along with some piece of information deduced from the leaf of λ. Arguments placed on even positions are referred B1 . Thereafter, B1 and B2 are referred as a conflictive pair. as con, whereas those on odd positions will be pro. The do- Definition 2 (Conflict) Two arguments Δ, β ∈ AΣ and main of every argumentation line formed through arguments Δ , β ∈ AΣ are conflictive iff Δ |= ¬β . Argument from AΣ is noted as LΣ . Δ , β is identified as the counterargument. We will consider LΣ to contain only argumentation lines Let us analyze the formation of counterarguments. Con- that are exhaustive (lines only end when the leaf argument sider the argument {A B, B C, C D}, A D , has no identifiable defeater from AΣ ), and acceptable (lines since A C is inferred from its body a possible counterar- whose configuration is compliant with the dialectical con- gument could support an axiom like ¬(A C). But how straints). In dialectical argumentation, the notion of dialec- could negated axioms be interpreted in DLs? In [Flouris et tical constraints (DC) is introduced to state an acceptability al., 2006], negation of general inclusion axioms was stud- condition among the argumentation lines. The DCs assumed ied. In general, for an axiom like B C, the consistency- in this work will include non-circularity (no argument is rein- negation is ¬(B C) = ∃(B ¬C) and the coherency- troduced in a same line), and concordance (the set of bodies negation ∼(B C) = B ¬C. For the former, although of pro (resp., con) arguments in the same line is consistent). the existence assertion ∃(B ¬C)(x) falls out of DL-LiteA , A dialectical tree appears when several dialogues about a it could be rewritten as a query q( x ) = {B(x), ¬C(x)}. common issue (i.e., the root of the tree) are set together. Thus, For instance, the counterargument {B(a), A(a), A ¬C}, from a particular set of argumentation lines (namely bundle {B(a), ¬C(a)} supports q( x ) with x = a. On the other set) the dialectical tree is formalized. A bundle set for B 1 hand, coherency-negation is solved by simply looking for an is the maximal set S(B 1 ) ⊆ LΣ (wrt. set inclusion) of ex- argument supporting B ¬C. Recall that an inconsistent haustive and acceptable argumentation lines such that every ontology is that which has no possible interpretation, whereas λ ∈ S(B 1 ) is rooted in B1 . Finally, a dialectical tree is: an incoherent ontology [Flouris et al., 2006] is that containing Definition 5 (Dialectical Tree) Given a KB Σ ⊆ DL-LiteA , at least one empty named concept. Observe that incoherence a dialectical tree T (R) rooted in an argument R ∈ AΣ does not inhibit the ontology from being satisfiable. is determined by a bundle set S(R) ⊆ LΣ such that B is We extend negation of axioms to functional assertions, in- an inner node in a branch [R, . . . , B] of T (R) (resp., the terpreting ¬(functR) as a role R that does not conform to the root argument) iff each child of B is an argument D ∈ definition of a function. The only option to form an argument [R, . . . , B, D, . . .] ∈ S(R) (resp.,D ∈ [R, D, . . .] ∈ S(R)). supporting such negation is through extensional informa- Leaves in T (R) and each line in S(R), coincide. The do- tion (ABox). For instance, the argument {P (a, b), P (a, c), main of all dialectical trees from Σ will be noted as TΣ . 8
  • 9. ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes With a little abuse of notation, we will overload the mem- would be satisfiable from our theory. On the other hand, what bership symbol writing B ∈ λ to identify B from the argu- is exactly a satisfiable KB for the proposed reasoner? If there mentation line λ, and λ ∈ T (R) when the line λ belongs to is a warranted argument supporting an RS α and there is an- the bundle set associated to the tree T (R). Dialectical trees other warranted argument supporting ¬α, then the KB would allow to determine whether the root node of the tree is to be be unsatisfiable. An argumentation system free of such draw- accepted (ultimately undefeated) or rejected (ultimately de- backs would depend on the appropriate definition of the com- feated) as a rationally justified belief. Therefore, given a KB parison and warranting criteria. The required analysis is part Σ ⊆ DL-LiteA and a dialectical tree T (R), the argument R ∈ of the future work in this direction. AΣ is warranted from T (R) iff warrant(T (R)) = true. Argumentation was studied in [Williams and Hunter, 2007] The warranting function warrant : TΣ −→{true, f alse} to harness ontologies for decision making. Through such ar- will determine the status of the tree from the mark of the root gumentation system they basically allow the aggregation of argument. This evaluation will be obtained by weighting all defeasible rules to enrich the ontology reasoning tasks. In our the information present in the tree through the marking func- approach an argumentative methodology is defined on top of tion mark : AΣ × LΣ × TΣ −→M. Such function defines the the DL-reasoner aiming at reasoning about inconsistent on- acceptance criterion applied to each individual argument by tologies. However our main objective goes further beyond: assigning to each argument in T (R) a marking value from to manage ontology evolution disregarding inconsistencies. the domain M = [D, U ]. This is more likely to be done by To such purpose, a theory of change is required to be applied obtaining the mark of an inner node of the tree from its chil- over argumentation systems. In [Moguillansky et al., 2008b], dren (i.e., its defeaters). Once each argument in the tree has a theory capable of handling dynamics of arguments applied been marked (including the root) the warranting function will over defeasible logic programs (DeLP) [Garc´a and Simari, ı determine the root’s acceptance status from its mark. Hence, 2004] was presented under the name of Argument Theory warrant(T (R)) = true iff mark(R, λ, T (R)) = U . Change (ATC). Basically, dialectical trees are analyzed to be altered in a form such that the same root argument ends up DELP (Defeasible Logic Programming) [Garc´a and ı warranted from the resulting program. Ongoing work also Simari, 2004], is an argumentative machinery for reasoning involves the study of ATC on top of the model presented here. over defeasible logic programs. In this article we will assume the DELP marking criterion. That is, (1) all leaves are marked U and (2) every inner node B is marked U iff every child of References B is marked D, otherwise, B is marked D. [Calvanese et al., 2007] D. Calvanese, G. De Giacomo, D. Lembo, M. Lenzerini, and R. Rosati. Tractable Reason- Example 1 Consider the KB Σ and arguments leading to the dialectical tree depicted below to answer Σ |= B(a). ing and Efficient Query Answering in Description Logics: Σ = {A B, A C, C ¬B, D A, A(a), C(b), D(b)} The DL-Lite family. JAR, 39(3):385–429, 2007. R = {A B, A(a)}, {B(a)} [Ches˜ evar and Simari, 2007] C. Ches˜ evar and G. Simari. n n B 1 = {C ¬B, A C, A(a)}, {¬B(a)} A Lattice-based Approach to Computing Warranted Belief B 2 = {D A, A B, C(b), D(b)}, {C(b), B(b)} in Skeptical Argumentation Frameworks. In IJCAI, pages B 3 = {A C, C ¬B}, A ¬B 280–285, 2007. [Dung, 1995] P. Dung. On the Acceptability of Arguments Assume λ1 = [R, B1 , B2 ] and λ2 = [R, B3 , B2 ]. Ob- and its Fundamental Role in Nonmonotonic Reasoning serve that, B3 is a counterargument of B2 (as and Logic Programming and n-person Games. Artif. In- well as B2 of B 3 ) but since B2 B3 is de- R tell., 77:321–357, 1995. duced from λ2 , B3 cannot attack B2 ∈ λ1 . [Flouris et al., 2006] G. Flouris, Z. Huang, J. Pan, D. Plex- Regarding λ2 , another justification to avoid B B3 B3 attacking B2 is that non-circularity would 1 ousakis, and H. Wache. Inconsistencies, Negations and be violated. Following the marking function, Changes in Ontologies. In AAAI, pages 1295–1300, 2006. since B1 ∈ λ1 and B3 ∈ λ2 are defeated, the B2 B2 [Garc´a and Simari, 2004] A. Garc´a and G. Simari. Defea- ı ı root R is marked undefeated. Thus, the tree sible Logic Programming: An Argumentative Approach. ends up warranting the argument R which supports the RS TPLP, 4(1-2):95–138, 2004. and therefore Σ |= B(a) holds. [Moguillansky et al., 2008a] M. Moguillansky, N. Rotstein, and M. Falappa. A Theoretical Model to Handle Ontology 4 Concluding Remarks and Future Work Debugging & Change Through Argumentation. In IWOD, A novel DL-Lite reasoner based on argumentation techniques 2008. was proposed. The machinery presented here is defined to [Moguillansky et al., 2008b] M. Moguillansky, N. Rotstein, support the usual DL-Lite reasoning services, including an M. Falappa, A. Garc´a, and G. Simari. Argument The- ı extension of the conjunctive queries presented in [Calvanese ory Change Applied to Defeasible Logic Programming. In et al., 2007]. In particular, the notion of satisfiability de- AAAI, pages 132–137, 2008. serves special attention since its meaning requires to be rein- [Williams and Hunter, 2007] M. Williams and A. Hunter. terpreted. Given that the argumentation machinery would Harnessing Ontologies for Argument-Based Decision- answer consistently disregarding the potentially inconsistent Making in Breast Cancer. ICTAI, 2:254–261, 2007. KB, a KB that is unsatisfiable for standard DL reasoners 9
  • 10. ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes Forgetting for Knowledge Bases in DL-Litebool Zhe Wang, Kewen Wang and Rodney Topor Griffith University, Australia Abstract In this paper, we investigate the issue of semantic forget- ting for DL-Lite KBs. The main contributions of this paper We address the problem of term elimination in DL- can be summarized as follows: Lite ontologies by adopting techniques from clas- sical forgetting theory. Specifically, we generalize • We introduce a model-based definition of forgetting for our previous results on forgetting in DL-Litecore DL KBs. We investigate some reasoning and express- TBox to forgetting in DL-Litebool KBs. We also ibility properties of forgetting, which are important for introduce query-based forgetting, a parameterized DL-Lite ontology reuse and merging. definition of forgetting, which provides a unify- • We provide a resolution-like algorithm for forgetting ing framework for defining and comparing different about concepts in DL-Litebool KBs. The algorithm can definitions of forgetting in DL-Lite ontologies. also be applied to KB forgetting in DL-Litehorn , and to any specific query-based forgetting. It is proved that the 1 Introduction algorithm is complete. An ontology is a formal description of the terminological in- • As a general framework for defining and comparing var- formation of an application domain. An ontology is usually ious notions of forgetting, we introduce a parameterized represented as a DL knowledge base (KB), which consists of forgetting based on query-answering, by which a given a TBox and an ABox. As ontologies in Semantic Web appli- collection of queries determines the result of forgetting. cations are becoming larger and more complex, a challenge Thus, our approach actually provides a hierarchy of for- is how to construct and maintain large ontologies efficiently. getting for DL-Lite. Recently, ontology reuse and merging have received inten- sive interest, and different approaches have been proposed. 2 Forgetting in DL-Litebool Knowledge Bases Among several approaches, the forgetting operator is partic- In this section, we define the operation of forgetting a signa- ularly important, which concerns the elimination of terms in ture from a DL-Litebool KB. We assume the readers’ familiar- ontologies. Informally, forgetting is a particular form of rea- ity with DL-Litebool . For the syntax and semantics details of soning that allows a set of attributes F (such as propositional DL-Litebool , the readers should refer to [Artale et al., 2007]. variables, predicates, concepts and roles) in a KB to be dis- Let L and Lh , respectively, denote the languages DL- carded or hidden in such a way that future reasoning on in- Litebool and DL-Litehorn . Without special mentioning, we formation irrelevant to F will not be affected. Forgetting has use K to denote a KB in L and S a signature (a finite set been well investigated in classical logic [Lin and Reiter, 1994; of concept names and role names) in L. Our model-based Lang et al., 2003] and logic programming [Eiter and Wang, definition of forgetting in DL-Lite is analogous to the defi- 2008; Wang et al., 2005]. nition for forgetting in classical logic [Lin and Reiter, 1994; Efforts have also been made to define forgetting in DL- Lang et al., 2003]. Lite [Kontchakov et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2008], a family Let I1 , I2 be two interpretations of L. Define I1 ∼S I2 iff of lightweight ontology languages. However, a drawback in 1. ΔI1 = ΔI2 , and aI1 = aI2 for each individual name a. these approaches is that forgetting is defined only for TBoxes. Although a syntactic notion of forgetting in ontologies is dis- 2. For each concept name A not in S, AI1 = AI2 . cussed in [Wang et al., 2008], no semantic justification is pro- 3. For each role name P not in S, P I1 = P I2 . vided. In most applications, an ontology is expressed as a KB, which is a pair of a TBox and an ABox. We believe that for- Clearly, ∼S is an equivalence relation. getting should be defined for DL-Lite KBs rather than only Definition 1 We call KB K a result of model-based forget- for TBoxes. Although it is not hard to extend the definitions ting about S in K if: of forgetting to KBs, our efforts show that it is non-trivial to • Sig(K ) ⊆ Sig(K) − S, extend results of forgetting in TBoxes to forgetting in KBs, due to the involvement of ABoxes. • Mod(K ) = {I | ∃I ∈ Mod(K) s.t. I ∼S I }. 10
  • 11. ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes It follows from the definition that the result of forgetting 3. Ci is in disjunction of conjunctions of literal con- about S in K is unique up to KB equivalence. So we will use cepts (DNF), for each 1 ≤ i ≤ s. forget(K, S) to denote the result of forgetting about S in K We can show that every KB in L can be equivalently trans- throughout the paper. formed into its normal form. Example 1 Let K consist of the following axioms: Now we present in Algorithm 1 how to compute the result Lecturer 2 teaches, ∃teaches − Course, of forgetting about a set of concept names in a L-KB. ∃teaches Lecturer PhD, Lecturer Course ⊥, PhD Course ⊥. Lecturer (John), teaches(John, AI ). Algorithm 1 (Compute the result of forgetting a set of con- cept names in a DL-Litebool KB) Suppose we want to forget about {Lecturer , PhD}, then Input: A DL-Litebool KB K = T , A and a set S of concept forget(K, {Lecturer , PhD}) consists of the following ax- names. ioms: Output: forget(K, S). ∃teaches − Course, ∃teaches Course ⊥, Method: 2 teaches(John), ¬Course(John), Step 1. Transform K into its normal form. teaches(John, AI ). Step 2. For each pair of inclusions A C D and C A D in T , where A ∈ S, add inclusion C C D D The result of forgetting possesses several desirable prop- to T if it contains no concept name A appearing on both erties. In particular, it preserves reasoning properties of the sides of the inclusion. KB. Step 3. For each concept name A ∈ S occurring in A, add A and ⊥ A to T ; Proposition 1 We have Step 4. For each assertion C(a) in A, each inclusion A 1. forget(K, S) is consistent iff K is consistent. D1 D2 and each inclusion D3 A D4 in T , where A ∈ 2. for any inclusion or assertion α with Sig(α) ∩ S = ∅, S, add C (a) to A, where C is obtained by replacing each forget(K, S) |= α iff K |= α. occurrence of A in C with ¬D1 D2 and ¬A with ¬D3 D4 , and C is transformed into its DNF. 3. for any grounded query q with Sig(q) ∩ S = ∅, Step 5. Remove all inclusions of the form C or ⊥ C, forget(K, S) |= q iff K |= q. and all assertions of the form (a). The following property is useful for ontology partial reuse Step 6. Remove all inclusions and assertions that contain any and merging. concept name in S. Proposition 2 Let K1 , K2 be two L-KBs. Suppose Sig(K1 )∩ Step 7. Return the resulting KB as forget(K, S). Sig(K2 ) ∩ S = ∅, then we have: Figure 1: Forget concepts in a DL-Litebool KB. forget(K1 ∪ K2 , S) ≡ forget(K1 , S) ∪ forget(K2 , S). An interesting special case is Sig(K2 ) ∩ S = ∅. In this In Algorithm 1, Step 2 generates all the inclusions in case, it is safe to forget about S from K1 before merging K1 forget(K, S) in a resolution-like manner. Step 3 is to make and K2 . the specification of Step 4 simpler. In Step 4, each positive The following proposition shows that the forgetting opera- occurrence of A in the ABox is replaced by its ‘supersets’, tion can be divided into steps. and each negative occurrence by its ‘subsets’. Algorithm 1 always terminates. The following theorem Proposition 3 Let S1 , S2 be two signatures. Then we have shows that it is sound and complete with respect to the se- forget(K, S1 ∪ S2 ) ≡ forget(forget(K, S1 ), S2 ). mantic definition of forgetting. In the following part of the section, we introduce a syn- Theorem 1 Let S be a set of concept names. Then tactic algorithm for computing the results of forgetting about forget(K, S) is expressible in L, and Algorithm 1 always re- concepts in DL-Litebool KBs. The algorithm first transforms turns forget(K, S). a DL-Litebool KB into a equivalent normal form, and then Suppose S is fixed. When the input K is in normal eliminates concepts from the KB. form, Algorithm 1 takes only polynomial time to compute We call a basic concept or its negation a literal concept. forget(K, S). Definition 2 K = T , A is in normal form if: 3 Query-Based Forgetting for DL-Lite • All the inclusions in T are of the form B1 . . . Bm Bm+1 . . . Bn where 0 ≤ m ≤ n and B1 , . . . , Bn Knowledge Bases are basic concepts such that Bi = Bj for all i < j. In this section, we introduce a parameterized definition of for- getting for DL-Litebool KBs, which can be used as a unifying • A = {C1 (a1 ), . . . , Cs (as )} ∪ Ar , where s ≥ 0, satisfies framework for forgetting in DL-Litebool KBs. the following conditions: We assume that Q is a query language for DL-Litebool . The 1. Ar contains only role assertions, notion of query is very general here. A query can be an asser- 2. ai = aj for 1 ≤ i < j ≤ s, and tion, an inclusion, or even a formula in a logic language. 11
  • 12. ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes Definition 3 (query-based forgetting) We call KB K a re- makes things more complex. This can be seen from the al- sult of Q-forgetting about S in K if the following three con- gorithms and proofs of corresponding results. Our parame- ditions are satisfied: terized forgetting generalizes the definition of forgetting (uni- • Sig(K ) ⊆ Sig(K) − S, form interpolation) in [Kontchakov et al., 2008] in two ways (although it is not technically hard): (1) our definition is de- • K |= K , fined for KBs and (2) our definition is defined for arbitrary • for any grounded query q in Q with Sig(q) ∩ S = ∅, we query languages. have K |= q implies K |= q. Conservative extension and module extraction have some similarity with forgetting but they are different in that the The above definition implicitly introduces a family of for- first two approaches support only removing axioms, but can- getting in the sense that each query language determines a not modify them. Update and erasure operations in DL-Lite notion of forgetting for DL-Lite KBs. are discussed in [Giacomo et al., 2007]. Although both era- The results of Q-forgetting are not necessarily unique, We sure [Giacomo et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2006] and forgetting denote the set of all results of Q-forgetting about S in K as are concerned with eliminating information from an ontol- ForgetQ (K, S). ogy, they are quite different. When erasing an assertion A(a) As model-based forgetting requires preserving model from a DL KB K, only the membership relation between in- equivalence, it is easy to see that the result of model-based dividual a and concept A is removed, while concept name A forgetting is also a result of Q-forgetting for any query lan- is not necessarily removed from K. Whereas forgetting about guage Q. In this sense, the model-based forgetting is the A in K involves eliminating all logical relations (e.g., sub- strongest notion of forgetting for DL-Litebool . sumption relation, membership relation, etc.) in K that refer Theorem 2 We have to A. We plan to work in different directions including: (1) To 1. forget(K, S) ∈ ForgetQ (K, S); identify a query language that can balance computational 2. for each K ∈ ForgetQ (K, S), forget(K, S) |= K . complexity of the corresponding notion of forgetting and re- quirements for forgetting from practical applications, such This theorem shows that Algorithm 1 can also be used to as ontology reuse, merging and update. (2) To establish a compute a result of Q-forgetting for any Q. general framework of forgetting for more expressive DLs in Now we consider how to characterize model-based forget- terms of query-based forgetting. ting by query-based forgetting. The results of model-based forgetting may not be expressible in DL-Litebool . The major References reason for this, as our efforts show, is that DL-Litebool does [Artale et al., 2007] A. Artale, D. Calvanese, R. Kontchakov, and not have a construct to represent the cardinality of a concept. M. Zakharyaschev. DL-Lite in the light of first-order logic. In For this reason, we extend L to Lc by introducing new con- Proc. 22nd AAAI, pages 361–366, 2007. cepts of the form n u.C, where C is a L-concept and n is [Eiter and Wang, 2006] T. Eiter and K. Wang. Forgetting and con- a natural number. Given an interpretation I, ( n u.C)I = flict resolving in disjunctive logic programming. In Proc. 21st ΔI if (C I ) ≥ n and ( n u.C)I = ∅ if (C I ) ≤ n − 1, AAAI, pages 238–243, 2006. where (S) denotes the cardinality of set S. [Eiter and Wang, 2008] T. Eiter and K. Wang. Semantic forgetting We are interested in the query language Qc , which is the L in answer set programming. Artificial Intelligence, 14:1644– set of concept inclusions and (negated) assertions in Lc , and 1672, 2008. possibly their unions. We can show that Qc -forgetting is L [Giacomo et al., 2007] G. De Giacomo, M. Lenzerini, A. Poggi, equivalent to model-based forgetting. and R. Rosati. On the approximation of instance level update and erasure in description logics. In Proc. 22nd AAAI, pages Theorem 3 KB K is a result of Qc -forgetting about S in K L 403–408, 2007. iff K ≡ forget(K, S). [Kontchakov et al., 2008] R. Kontchakov, F. Wolter, and M. Za- Example 2 Recall the KB K in Example 1. We have kharyaschev. Can you tell the difference between DL-Lite on- forget(K, {teaches}) is not expressible in L. However, it is tologies? In Proc. 11th KR, pages 285–295, 2008. expressible in Lc , and it consists of the following axioms: [Lang et al., 2003] J. Lang, P. Liberatore, and P. Marquis. Proposi- tional independence: Formula-variable independence and forget- Lecturer Course ⊥, PhD Course ⊥, ting. J. Artif. Intell. Res. (JAIR), 18:391–443, 2003. Lecturer 2 u.Course, [Lin and Reiter, 1994] F. Lin and R. Reiter. Forget it. In Proc. AAAI Lecturer (John), Course(AI ). Fall Symposium on Relevance, pages 154–159, 1994. [Liu et al., 2006] H. Liu, C. Lutz, M. Milicic, and F. Wolter. Updat- 4 Related Work and Conclusions ing description logic ABoxes. In Proc. KR, pages 46–56, 2006. The works that are close to this paper are [Kontchakov et [Wang et al., 2005] K. Wang, A. Sattar, and K. Su. A theory of al., 2008; Wang et al., 2008]. One major difference of forgetting in logic programming. In Proc. 20th AAAI, pages 682– 687. AAAI Press, 2005. our work from them is that we investigate forgetting for KBs while [Kontchakov et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2008] are [Wang et al., 2008] Z. Wang, K. Wang, R. Topor, and J. Z. Pan. only restricted to TBoxes. Such an extension (from TBoxes Forgetting concepts in DL-Lite. In Proc. 5th ESWC2008, pages 245–257, 2008. to KBs) is non-trivial because the involvement of ABoxes 12
  • 13. ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes AGM Revision in Description Logics∗ M´ rcio Moretto Ribeiro and Renata Wassermann a Department of Computer Science University of S˜ o Paulo a {marciomr, renata}@ime.usp.br Abstract closed under logical consequence. The consequence operator Cn is assumed to be tarskian, compact, satisfy the deduction The AGM theory for belief revision cannot be di- theorem and supraclassicality. We will sometimes refer to rectly applied to most description logics. For con- these properties as the AGM-assumptions. Three operations traction, the problem lies on the fact that many log- are defined: expansion, contraction and revision. Given a be- ics are not compliant with the recovery postulate. lief set K and a formula α, the expansion K + α is defined as For revision, the problem is that several interesting K + α = Cn(K ∪ {α}). Contraction consists in removing logics are not closed under negation. some belief from the belief set and revision consist in adding In this work, we present solutions for both prob- a new belief in such a way that the resulting set is consis- lems: we recall a previous solution proposing to tent. Contraction and revision are not uniquely defined, but substitute the recovery postulate of contraction by are constrained by a set of rationality postulates. The AGM relevance and we present a construction for revision basic postulates for contraction are: that does not depend on negation, together with a set of postulates and a representation theorem. (closure) K − α = Cn(K − α) (success) If α ∈ Cn(∅) then α ∈ K − α / / 1 Introduction (inclusion) K − α ⊆ K The development of Semantic Web technologies has atracted (vacuity) If α ∈ K then K − α = K / the attention of the artificial intelligence community to the (recovery) K ⊆ K − α + α importance to represent conceptual knowledge in the web. This development has reached a peak with the adoption of (extensionality) If Cn(α) = Cn(β) then K − α = K − β OWL as the standard language to represent ontologies on the Of the six postulates, five are very intuitive and widely ac- web. Since knowledge on the web is not static, another area cepted. The recovery postulate has been debated in the lit- has gained popularity in the past few years: ontology evo- erature since the very beginning of AGM theory [Makinson, lution. The main challenge of ontology evolution is to study 1987]. Nevertheless, the intuition behind the postulate, that how ontologies should behave in a dynamic environment. Be- unnecessary loss of information should be avoided, is com- lief revision theory has been facing this challenge for propo- monly accepted. sitional logic for more than twenty years and, hence, it would In [Alchourr´ n et al., 1985], besides the postulates, the au- o be interesting to try to apply these techniques to ontologies. thors also present a construction for contraction (partial-meet In this work we apply the most influential work in belief contraction) which, for logics satisfying the AGM assump- revision, the AGM paradigm, to description logics. First, in tions, is equivalent to the set of postulates in the following section 2, an introduction to AGM theory is presented. In sense: every partial-meet contraction satisfies the six postu- section 3, we show how to adapt the AGM postulates for con- lates and every operation that satisfies the postulates can be traction so that they can be used with description logics. In constructed as a partial-meet contraction. section 4, we present a construction for AGM-style revision The operation of revision is also constrained by a set of six that does not depend on the negation of axioms. Finally we basic postulates: conclude and point towards future work. (closure) K ∗ α = Cn(K ∗ α) 2 AGM Paradigm (success) α ∈ K ∗ a In the AGM paradigm [Alchourr´ n et al., 1985], the beliefs o (inclusion) K ∗ α ⊆ K + α of an agent are represented by a belief set, a set of formulas (vacuity) If K + α is consistent then K ∗ α = K + α ∗ The first author is supported by FAPESP and the second author (consistency) If α is consistent then K ∗ α is consistent. is partially supported by CNPq. This work was developed as part of FAPESP project 2004/14107-2. (extensionality) If Cn(α) = Cn(β) then K ∗ α = K ∗ β 13
  • 14. ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes In AGM theory, usually revision is constructed based on negation of axioms. In [Ribeiro and Wassermann, 2008] we contraction and expansion, using the Levi Identity: K ∗ α = have proposed such constructions for belief bases (sets not (K − ¬α) + α. The revision obtained using a partial-meet necessarily closed under logical consequence). In this sec- contraction is equivalent to the six basic postulates for revi- tion we define a construction for revision without negation sion. that can be used for revising belief sets. Satisfying the AGM postulates for revision is quite easy. 3 AGM Contraction and Relevance For example if we get K ∗ α = K + α if K + α is consistent and K ∗α = Cn(α) otherwise, we end up with a construction Although very elegant, the AGM paradigm cannot be applied that satisfies all the AGM postulates for revision. to every logic. [Flouris et al., 2004] define a logic to be AGM- This happens because there is no postulate in AGM revi- compliant if it admits a contraction operation satisfying the sion that guaranties minimal loss of information We can de- six AGM postulates. fine a minimality criterium for revision using a postulate sim- The authors also showed that the logics behind OWL ilar to the relevance postulate for contraction: (SHIF(D) and SHOIN (D) ) are not AGM-compliant. For this reason it was proposed in [Flouris et al., 2006] that a new (relevance) If β ∈ K K ∗ α then there is K such that set of postulates for contraction should be defined. A con- K ∩ (K ∗ α) ⊆ K ⊆ K and K ∪ {α} is consistent, but traction satisfying this new set of postulates should exist in K ∪ {α, β} is inconsistent. any logic (existence criteria) and this new set of postulates In order to define a construction that satisfies relevance, should be equivalent to the AGM postulates for every AGM- we will use the definition of maximally consistent sets with compliant logic (AGM-rationality criteria). respect to a sentence, which are the maximal subsets of K In [Ribeiro and Wassermann, 2006] we have shown a set of that, together with α, are consistent: postulates that partially fulfills these criteria, the AGM postu- lates with the recovery postulate exchanged by: Definition 4.1 (Maximally consistent set w.r.t α) [Del- grande, 2008] X ∈ K ↓ α iff: i.X ⊆ K. ii. X ∪ {α} is (relevance) If β ∈ K K − α, then there is K s. t. consistent. iii. If X ⊂ X ⊆ K then X ∪{α} is inconsistent. K − α ⊆ K ⊆ K and α ∈ Cn(K ), but α ∈ Cn(K ∪ {β}). A selection function chooses at least one element of this set: The relevance postulate was proposed in [Hansson, 1989] in order to capture the minimal change intuition, i.e. to avoid Definition 4.2 (Selection function) [Alchourr´ n et al., o unnecessary loss of information. We have proven the follow- 1985] A selection function for K is a function γ such that: ing result: If K ↓ α = ∅, then ∅ = γ(K ↓ α) ⊆ K ↓ α, otherwise, γ(K ↓ α) = {K}. Representation Theorem 3.1 [Ribeiro and Wassermann, 2006] For every belief set K closed under a tarskian and We define partial-meet revision without negation by the in- compact logical consequence, − is a partial meet contraction tersection of the elements chosen by the selection function operation over K iff − satisfies closure, success, inclusion, followed by an expansion by α: vacuity, extensionality and relevance. Definition 4.3 (Revision without negation) From this theorem, it follows that the existence criteria for K ∗γ α = γ(K ↓ α) + α this set of postulates is valid for tarskian and compact logics. Corollary 3.2 [Ribeiro and Wassermann, 2006] Every The revision presented above satisfies the six AGM postu- tarskian and compact logic is compliant with the AGM pos- lates for revision plus relevance: tulates if recovery is substituted by relevance. Theorem 4.4 K ∗γ α satisfies the six basic AGM postulates Furthermore, since partial meet contraction is equivalent for revision and relevance. to the AGM postulates for every logic that satisfies the AGM Proof: Closure, success and inclusion follow directly assumptions [Hansson, 1999], we have the following weaker from the construction. Vacuity follows from the fact that if version of the AGM-rationality criteria: K + α is consistent then K ↓ α = {K}. Extensional- ity follows from the fact that if Cn(α) = Cn(β) then for Corollary 3.3 For every logic that satisfies the AGM as- all sets X, X ∪ {α} is inconsistent iff X ∪ {β} is also in- sumptions relevance is equivalent to recovery in the presence consistent. To prove consistency, assume that α is consis- of the other AGM postulates. tent and that γ(K ↓ α) + α is inconsistent. Then since γ(K ↓ α) ⊆ X ∈ K ↓ α, by monotonicity X ∪ {α} is in- 4 AGM Revision without Negation consistent, which contradicts the definition. For relevance, let In [Ribeiro and Wassermann, 2008] we pointed out that the β ∈ K K ∗γ α. Then there exists X ∈ γ(K ↓ α) such that main problem to apply AGM revision to description logics is β ∈ X + α. We also know that for all X ∈ γ(K ↓ α), / the absence of negation of axioms in some logics, since con- it holds that γ(K ↓ α) + α ⊆ X + α and hence, structions for revision are usually based on the Levi identity. K ∩ ( γ(K ↓ α) + α) ⊆ K ∩ (X + α). This holds in For example: there is not a consensus on which should be particular for X as above. Take K = K ∩ (X + α). the negation of R S in SHOIN (D) . For this reason we It also satisfies a postulate that for classical logics follows should try to define constructions that do not depend on the from the AGM postulates, but not in the general case: 14
  • 15. ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes (uniformity) If for all K ⊆ K, K ∪ {α} is inconsistent Otherwise, K ∩ (K ∗ α) ⊆ X for every X ∈ γ(K ↓ α). It iff K ∪ {β} is inconsistent then K ∩ K ∗ α = K ∩ K ∗ β follows that K ∩ (K ∗ α) ⊆ γ(K ↓ α). By monotonicity, (K ∩ (K ∗ α)) + α ⊆ γ(K ⊥α ) + α and by Lemma 4.7, In order to prove the representation theorem, we need to K ∗ α ⊆ K ∗γ α. make use of two properties of consequence operations: To prove that K ∗γ α ⊆ K ∗ α, we will show that γ(K ↓ 1. Inconsistent explosion: Whenever K is inconsistent, α) ⊆ K ∗ α. Let β ∈ γ(K ↓ α) K ∗ α. Since γ(K ↓ then for all formulas α, α ∈ Cn(K) α) ⊆ K, by relevance, there is K such that K ∩ (K ∗ α) ⊆ K ⊆ K and K ∪ {α} is consistent, but K ∪ {α, β} is 2. Distributivity: For all sets of formulas X, Y and W , inconsistent. Since K ⊆ K and K ∪ {α} is consistent, by Cn(X ∪ (Cn(Y ) ∩ Cn(W ))) = Cn(X ∪ Y ) ∩ Cn(X ∪ Lemma 4.5 we know that there is X such that β ∈ X, K ⊆ / W) X ∈ K ↓ α. Since K ∩ (K ∗ α) ⊆ X, by the construction of We also need the following lemmas: γ, X ∈ γ(K ↓ α) and hence, β ∈ γ(K ↓ α). / Lemma 4.5 For any monotonic and compact logic if X ⊆ K and X ∪ {α} is consistent then there is X s.t. X ⊆ X ∈ 5 Conclusion and Future Work K ↓ α.1 Although it is not possible to apply the AGM paradigm di- rectly to description logics, it is possible to adapt it. In the Lemma 4.6 [Delgrande, 2008]K ↓ α = K ↓ β iff for all case of the contraction, that means a small change in the pos- X ⊆ K, X ∪ {α} is inconsistent iff X ∪ {β} is inconsistent. tulates. In the case of the revision, we need to adapt both Lemma 4.7 If Cn satisfies distributivity and * satisfies suc- construction and postulates. cess, inclusion and consistency, then (K ∩ K ∗ α) + α = As future work we plan to compare our set of postulates for K +α∩K ∗α+α=K ∗α contraction with the one proposed in [Flouris et al., 2006] and study the relation between the contraction and revision oper- The representation theorem states the equivalence between ators proposed. We also plan to apply the solution for con- the construction and a set of postulates: traction and revision to other logics where negation is prob- Representation Theorem 4.8 (Revision without negation) lematic, such as Horn logic. For any monotonic and compact logic that satisfies incon- sistent explosion and distributivity, a revision operator ∗ References is a revision without negation γ(K ↓ α) + α for some [Alchourr´ n et al., 1985] C. Alchourr´ n, P. G¨ rdenfors, and o o a selection function γ if and only if it satisfies closure, success, D. Makinson. On the logic of theory change. J. of Sym- inclusion, consistency, relevance and uniformity. bolic Logic, 50(2):510–530, 1985. Proof: (construction ⇒ postulates): [Delgrande, 2008] J. P. Delgrande. Horn clause belief The AGM postulates and relevance are satisfied, as shown change: Contraction functions. In G. Brewka and J. Lang, in Theorem 4.4. For uniformity, note that if it holds that for all editors, Proceedings of KR2008, pages 156–165. AAAI K ⊆ K, K ∪{α} is inconsistent iff K ∪{β} is inconsistent, Press, 2008. then by Lemma 4.6, K ↓ α = K ↓ β, and hence, γ(K ↓ [Flouris et al., 2004] G. Flouris, D. Plexousakis, and G. An- α) = γ(K ↓ β). toniou. Generalizing the AGM postulates. In J.P. Del- (postulates ⇒ construction): grande and T. Schaub, editors, Proceedings of (NMR-04), Let ∗ be an operator satisfying the six postulates and let pages 171–179, 2004. γ(K ↓ α) = {X ∈ K ↓ α|K ∩ (K ∗ α) ⊆ X} if α is consistent and γ(K ↓ α) = {K} otherwise. We have to [Flouris et al., 2006] G. Flouris, D. Plexousakis, and G. An- prove that: 1) γ(K ↓ α) is a selection function and 2) K ∗γ toniou. On generalizing the AGM postulates. In Proceed- α = K ∗ α. ings of STAIRS, 2006. 1. First we need to prove that γ is well defined, i.e., that if [Hansson, 1989] S. O. Hansson. New operators for theory K ↓ α = K ↓ β then γ(K ↓ α) = γ(K ↓ β). This follows change. Theoria, 55:114–132, 1989. directly from Lemma 4.6 and uniformity. [Hansson, 1999] S. O. Hansson. A Textbook of Belief Dy- To prove that γ is a selection function we need to prove namics. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999. that if K ↓ α = ∅, then ∅ = γ(K ↓ α) ⊆ K ↓ α. If α is consistent then it follows from consistency that K ∗ α [Makinson, 1987] D. Makinson. On the status of the postu- is consistent. In this case, because of closure and success late of recovery in the logic of theory change. Journal of (K ∗ α) + α is consistent. It follows that (K ∩ K ∗ α) ∪ {α} Philosophical Logic, 16:383–394, 1987. is consistent and by Lemma 4.5 there is X s.t. K ∩ (K ∗ α) ⊆ [Ribeiro and Wassermann, 2006] M. M. Ribeiro and X ∈ K ↓ α. Hence X ∈ γ(K ↓ α). R. Wassermann. First steps towards revising ontologies. 2. If α is inconsistent, it follows from closure, success, and In Proceedings of WONTO, 2006. inconsistent explosion that both K ∗ α and K ∗γ α are the [Ribeiro and Wassermann, 2008] M. M. Ribeiro and unique inconsistent belief set. R. Wassermann. Base revision for ontology debugging. 1 This is a generalization of the Upper Bound Property used in Journal of Logic and Computation, to appear, 2008. [Alchourr´ n et al., 1985] o 15
  • 16. ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes First Steps in EL Contraction∗ Richard Booth Thomas Meyer Ivan Jos´ Varzinczak e Mahasarakham University Meraka Institute, CSIR and Meraka Institute Thailand School of Computer Science CSIR, South Africa richard.b@msu.ac.th University of Kwazulu-Natal ivan.varzinczak@meraka.org.za South Africa tommie.meyer@meraka.org.za Abstract Amputation-of-Finger as being subsumed by the con- cept Amputation-of-Arm. Finding a solution to prob- In this work we make a preliminary investigation of lems such as these is known as repair in the DL commu- belief contraction in the EL family of description nity [Schlobach and Cornet, 2003], but it can also be seen logics. Based on previous work on propositional as the problem of contracting by the subsumption statement Horn logic contraction, here we state the main defi- Amputation-of-Finger Amputation-of-Arm. nitions for contraction in a description logic extend- The scenario also illustrates why we are concerned with ing it, and point out the main issues involved when belief contraction of belief sets (logically closed theories) and addressing belief set contraction in EL. not belief base contraction [Hansson, 1999]. In practice, on- tologies are not constructed by writing DL axioms, but rather 1 Motivation using ontology editing tools, from which the axioms are gen- erated automatically. Because of this, from the knowledge Belief change is a subarea of knowledge representation con- engineer’s perspective, it is the belief set and not the axioms cerned with describing how an intelligent agent ought to from which the theory is generated that is important. change its beliefs about the world in the face of new and pos- sibly conflicting information. Arguably the most influential 2 Classical Belief Contraction work in this area is the so-called AGM approach [Alchourr´ n o et al., 1985; G¨ rdenfors, 1988] which focuses on two types a Before establishing our constructions, we give a very brief of belief change: revision, in which an agent has to keep its summary of classical belief contraction. For that we assume set of beliefs consistent while incorporating new information the reader is familiar with Classical Propositional Logic. into it, and contraction, in which an agent has to give up some Given a finitely generated propositional language LP , if X ⊆ of its beliefs in order to avoid drawing unwanted conclusions. LP , the set of sentences logically entailed by X is denoted by Our primary reason for focusing on this topic is be- Cn(X). A belief set is a logically closed set, i.e., for a belief cause of its application to constructing and repairing set X, X = Cn(X). ontologies in description logics (DLs) [Baader et al., AGM [Alchourr´ n et al., 1985] is the best-known approach o 2003]. A typical scenario involves an ontology en- to contraction. It gives a set of postulates characterizing all gineer teaming up with an expert to construct an on- rational contraction functions. The aim is to describe belief tology related to the domain of expertise of the latter contraction on the knowledge level of how beliefs are repre- with the aid of an ontology engineering tool such as sented. Belief states are modelled by belief sets in a logic with SWOOP [http://code.google.com/p/swoop] or a Tarskian consequence relation including classical proposi- Prot´ g´ [http://protege.stanford.edu]. An ex- e e tional logic. The expansion of K by ϕ, K + ϕ, is defined ample of this is the medical ontology SNOMED [Spackman as Cn(K ∪ {ϕ}). Contraction is intended to represent sit- et al., 1997], whose formal substratum is the less expressive uations in which an agent has to give up information from description logic EL [Baader, 2003]. its current beliefs. Formally, belief contraction is a (partial) One of the principal methods for testing the quality of function from P(LP ) × LP to P(LP ): the contraction of a a constructed ontology is for the domain expert to inspect belief set by a sentence yields a new set. and verify the computed subsumption hierarchy. Correct- The AGM approach to contraction requires that the follow- ing such errors involves the expert pointing out that cer- ing set of postulates characterize basic contraction. tain subsumptions are missing from the subsumption hi- (K−1) K − ϕ = Cn(K − ϕ) erarchy, while others currently occurring in the subsump- tion hierarchy ought not to be there. A concrete exam- (K−2) K − ϕ ⊆ K ple of this involves SNOMED, which classifies the concept (K−3) If ϕ ∈ K, then K − ϕ = K / ∗ This paper is based upon work supported by the National Re- (K−4) If |= ϕ, then ϕ ∈ K − ϕ / search Foundation under Grant number 65152. (K−5) If ϕ ≡ ψ, then K − ϕ = K − ψ 16
  • 17. ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes (K−6) If ϕ ∈ K, then (K − ϕ) + ϕ = K Given EL concepts C, D, C D is a general concept Various methods exist for constructing basic AGM contrac- inclusion axiom (GCI for short). C ≡ D is an abbreviation tion. In this paper we focus on the use of remainder sets. for both C D and D C. An EL-TBox T is a set of GCIs. An interpretation I satisfies an axiom C D (noted I |= Definition 2.1 For a belief set K, X ∈ K ↓ ϕ iff (i) X ⊆ K, C D) iff C I ⊆ DI . I |= C ≡ D iff C I = DI . (ii) X |= ϕ, and (iii) for every X s.t. X ⊂ X ⊆ K, X |= ϕ. An interpretation I is a model of a TBox T (noted I |= We call the elements of K ↓ ϕ remainder sets of K w.r.t. ϕ. T) iff I satisfies every axiom in T. An axiom C D is a Remainder sets are belief sets, and K ↓ ϕ = ∅ iff |= ϕ. AGM consequence of a TBox T, noted T |= C D, iff for every presupposes the existence of a suitable selection function for interpretation I, if I |= T, then I |= C D. Given a TBox choosing between possibly different remainder sets. T, Cn(T) = {C D | T |= C D}. An EL belief set is Definition 2.2 A selection function σ is a function from then a TBox T = Cn(T). P(P(LP )) to P(P(LP )) such that σ(K ↓ ϕ) = {K}, if For more details on EL, the reader is referred to the work K ↓ ϕ = ∅, and ∅ = σ(K ↓ ϕ) ⊆ K ↓ ϕ otherwise. by Baader [2003]. Selection functions provide a mechanism for identifying the remainder sets judged to be most appropriate, and the result- 4 EL Contraction ing contraction is then obtained by taking the intersection of In this section we give the basic definitions for contraction the chosen remainder sets. in EL. The presentation follows that for Horn contraction by Definition 2.3 For σ a selection function, −σ is a partial Delgrande [2008] and Booth et al. [2009]. meet contraction iff K −σ ϕ = σ(K ↓ ϕ). We want to be able to contract an EL TBox T with a set of One of the fundamental results of AGM contraction is a repre- GCIs Φ. The goal of contracting T with Φ is the removal of at sentation theorem which shows that partial meet contraction least one of the axioms in Φ. For full propositional logic, con- corresponds exactly with the six basic AGM postulates. traction with a set of sentences is not particularly interesting Theorem 2.1 ([G¨ rdenfors, 1988]) Every partial meet con- a since it amounts to contracting by their conjunction. For EL it traction satisfies (K 1)–(K 6). Conversely, every contraction − − is interesting though, since the conjunction of the axioms in Φ function satisfying (K 1)–(K 6) is a partial meet contraction. − − is not always expressible as a single EL axiom. Our starting point for defining contraction is in terms of remainder sets. Two subclasses of partial meet deserve special mention. Definition 2.4 Given a selection function σ, −σ is a maxi- Definition 4.1 (EL Remainder Sets) For a belief set T, X ∈ choice contraction iff σ(K ↓ ϕ) is a singleton set. It is a full T ↓EL Φ iff (i) X ⊆ T, (ii) X |= Φ, and (iii) for every X s.t. meet contraction iff σ(K ↓ ϕ) = K ↓ ϕ whenever K ↓ ϕ = ∅. X ⊂ X ⊆ T, X |= Φ. We refer to the elements of T ↓EL Φ as the EL remainder sets of T w.r.t. Φ. Clearly full meet contraction is unique, while maxichoice contraction usually is not. EL remainder sets exist since EL is compact [Sofronie- Stokkermans, 2006] and has a Tarskian consequence relation. It is easy to verify that all EL remainder sets are belief sets. 3 The Description Logic EL Also, T ↓EL Φ = ∅ iff |= Φ. The language of EL (LEL ) is a sublanguage of the descrip- tion logic ALC [Baader et al., 2003] built upon a set of We now proceed to define selection functions to be used atomic concept names {A, B, . . .} and a set of role names for EL partial meet contraction. {R, S, . . .}, together with the constructors and ∃. Among Definition 4.2 (EL Selection Functions) A partial meet EL the concept names are the distinguished concepts and ⊥. selection function σ is a function from P(P(LEL )) to Complex concepts are denoted by C, D, . . . and are con- P(P(LEL )) s.t. σ(T ↓EL Φ) = {T} if T ↓EL Φ = ∅, and structed according to the rule ∅ = σ(T ↓EL Φ) ⊆ T ↓EL Φ otherwise. C ::= A | |⊥|C C | ∃R.C Using these selection functions, we define partial meet EL contraction. The semantics of EL is the standard set theoretic Tarskian semantics. An interpretation is a structure I = ΔI , ·I , Definition 4.3 (Partial Meet EL Contraction) Given a where ΔI is a non-empty set called the domain, and ·I is an partial meet EL selection function σ, −σ is a partial meet interpretation function mapping concept names A to subsets EL contraction iff T −σ Φ = σ(T ↓EL Φ). AI of ΔI and mapping role names R to binary relations RI We also consider two special cases. over ΔI × ΔI : Definition 4.4 (EL Maxichoice and Full Meet) Given a AI ⊆ ΔI , RI ⊆ ΔI × ΔI , partial meet EL selection function σ, −σ is a maxichoice EL I contraction iff σ(T ↓EL Φ) is a singleton set. It is a full meet = ΔI , ⊥I = ∅ EL contraction iff σ(T ↓EL Φ) = T ↓EL Φ when T ↓EL Φ = ∅. Given an interpretation I = ΔI , ·I , ·I is extended to Example 4.1 Let T = Cn({A B, B ∃R.A}). Then interpret complex concepts in the following way: T ↓EL {A ∃R.A} = {T1 , T2 }, where T1 = Cn({A B}), (C I D) = C I ∩ DI , and T2 = Cn({B ∃R.A, A ∃R.A B}). So contract- ing with {A ∃R.A} yields either T1 , T2 , or T1 ∩ T2 = I Cn({A ∃R.A B}). (∃R.C) = {a ∈ ΔI | ∃b.(a, b) ∈ RI and b ∈ C I } 17
  • 18. ARCOE-09 Workshop Notes As pointed out by Booth et al. [2009], maxichoice contrac- (T − 7) If |= Φ, then T − Φ = T tion is not enough for logics that are less expressive than full Postulates (T −1)–(T −5) are analogues of (K−1)–(K−5), propositional logic, like e.g. Horn logic. The same argument while (T − 6) states that all sentences removed from T dur- holds here for EL, as the following example shows. ing a contraction of Φ must have been removed for a reason: Example 4.2 Recalling Example 4.1, when contracting adding them again brings back Φ. (T − 7) simply states that {A ∃R.A} from T = Cn({A B, B ∃R.A}), full contracting with a (possibly empty) set of tautologies leaves meet yields Tf m = Cn({A ∃R.A B}), while maxi- the initial belief set unchanged. We remark that (T − 3) is choice yields either Tmc = Cn({A B}) or Tmc = actually redundant in the list, since it can be shown to follow Cn({B ∃R.A, A ∃R.A B}). Now consider the belief mainly from (T − 6). set Ti = Cn({A ∃R.A B, A B ∃R.A}). Clearly Theorem 5.1 Every EL contraction satisfies (T−1)–(T−7). Tf m ⊆ Ti ⊆ Tmc , but no partial meet yields Ti . Conversely, every contraction function satisfying (T − 1)– Our contention is that EL contraction should include cases (T − 7) is an EL contraction. such as Ti above. Given that full meet contraction is deemed to be appropriate, it stands to reason that any belief set Ti big- 6 Concluding Remarks ger than it should also be seen as appropriate, provided that Here we have laid the groundwork for contraction in the EL Ti does not contain any irrelevant additions. But since Ti is family of description logics by providing a formal account of contained in some maxichoice contraction, Ti cannot contain basic contraction of a TBox with a set of GCIs. any irrelevant additions. After all, the maxichoice contrac- tion contains only relevant additions, since it is an appropriate Here we focus only on basic contraction. For future work form of contraction. Hence Ti is also an appropriate result of we plan to investigate EL contraction for full AGM contrac- EL contraction. tion, obtained by adding the extended postulates. We also plan to pursue our future investigations on repair in more ex- Definition 4.5 (Infra-Remainder Sets) For belief sets T pressive DLs. and X, X ∈ T ⇓EL Φ iff there is some X ∈ T ↓EL Φ s.t. ( T ↓EL Φ) ⊆ X ⊆ X . We refer to the elements of T ⇓EL Φ as the infra-remainder sets of T w.r.t. Φ. References [Alchourr´ n et al., 1985] C. Alchourr´ n, P. G¨ rdenfors, and o o a Note that all remainder sets are also infra-remainder sets, D. Makinson. On the logic of theory change: Partial meet and so is the intersection of any set of remainder sets. Indeed, contraction and revision functions. J. of Symbolic Logic, the intersection of any set of infra-remainder sets is also an 50:510–530, 1985. infra-remainder set. So the set of infra-remainder sets con- tains all belief sets between some remainder set and the inter- [Baader et al., 2003] F. Baader, D. Calvanese, D. McGuin- section of all remainder sets. ness, D. Nardi, and P. Patel-Schneider, editors. Descrip- tion Logic Handbook. Cambridge University Press, 2003. Definition 4.6 (EL Contraction) An infra-selection func- tion τ is a function from P(P(LEL )) to P(LEL ) s.t. [Baader, 2003] F. Baader. Terminological cycles in a de- τ (T ⇓EL Φ) = T whenever |= Φ, and τ (T ⇓EL Φ) ∈ T ⇓EL Φ scription logic with existential restrictions. In Proc. IJCAI, otherwise. A contraction function −τ is an EL contraction iff 2003. T −τ Φ = τ (T ⇓EL Φ). [Booth et al., 2009] R. Booth, T. Meyer, and I. Varzinczak. Next steps in propositional Horn contraction. In Proc. IJ- 5 A Representation Result CAI, 2009. Our representation result makes use of EL versions of all of [Delgrande, 2008] J. Delgrande. Horn clause belief change: the basic AGM postulates, except for the Recovery Postulate Contraction functions. In Proc. KR, pages 156–165, 2008. (K − 6). It is easy to see that EL contraction does not satisfy [G¨ rdenfors, 1988] P. G¨ rdenfors. Knowledge in Flux: Mod- a a Recovery. As an example, take T = Cn({A C}) and let eling the Dynamics of Epistemic States. MIT Press, 1988. Φ = {A B C}. Then T−Φ = Cn(∅) and so (T−Φ)+Φ = [Hansson, 1999] S. Hansson. A Textbook of Belief Dynamics. Cn({A B C}) = T. In place of Recovery we have a postulate that closely resembles Hansson’s [1999] Relevance Kluwer, 1999. Postulate, and a postulate handling the case when trying to [Schlobach and Cornet, 2003] S. Schlobach and R. Cornet. contract with a tautology. Non-standard reasoning services for the debugging of DL terminologies. In Proc. IJCAI, pages 355–360, 2003. (T − 1) T − Φ = Cn(T − Φ) [Sofronie-Stokkermans, 2006] V. Sofronie-Stokkermans. In- (T − 2) T − Φ ⊆ T terpolation in local theory extensions. In Proc. IJCAR, (T − 3) If Φ ⊆ T, then T − Φ = T 2006. (T − 4) If |= Φ, then Φ ⊆ T − Φ [Spackman et al., 1997] K.A. Spackman, K.E. Campbell, (T − 5) If Cn(Φ) = Cn(Ψ), then T − Φ = T − Ψ and R.A. Cote. SNOMED RT: A reference terminology for health care. Journal of the American Medical Infor- (T − 6) If α ∈ T (T − Φ), then there is a T such that matics Association, pages 640–644, 1997. (T ↓EL Φ) ⊆ T ⊆ T, T |= Φ, and T + {α} |= Φ 18