高醫認知心理學20120406

1. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Chapter 5:
Memory: Models and
Research Methods

2. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
你想像得到嗎…
沒有記憶的日子會變成什麼模樣
?

3. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Understanding Memory

4. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Some Questions of Interest
• 研究記憶的作業有哪些？
• 記憶的結構是什麼？過去的理論模
型？

5. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
記憶是 …
• The mechanism we
use to create,
maintain, and
retrieve information
about the past

6. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
記憶的三個歷程
• 訊息處理理論 Information processing model
登錄 (encode) 將外在的物理輸入轉譯為記憶可接受的編
碼或表徵，並將此表徵「放在」記憶中
儲存 (storage) 保留（或儲存）已經編碼的表徵
提取 (retrieval) 從記憶系統提取訊息

7. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5

8. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Methods Used to Study
Memory
• Which type of memory test would
you rather have?
– 申論題？選擇題？
– 回憶？再認？

9. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Methods Used to Study
Memory
• Serial recall （序列式回想）
– Recall the names of all previous presidents in the
order they were elected
– Need to recall order as well as item names
• Free recall （自由回想）
– Recall all the words you can from the list you saw
previously
• Cued recall （線索回想）
– Recall everything you can that is associated with
the cued item
– Participants are given a cue to facilitate recall

10. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Recognition Tasks
• Circle all the words you previously
studied
• Indicate which pictures you saw
yesterday
• Participants select from a list of
items they have previously seen

11. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Implicit vs. Explicit Memory Tasks
• Explicit memory tasks
– Involve conscious recollection
– Participants know they are trying to retrieve
information from memory
• Implicit memory tasks
– Require participants to complete a task
– The completion of the task indirectly
indicates memory

12. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Implicit Memory Tasks
Participants are Participants then
exposed to a word list complete word puzzles;
they are not aware this is
a type of memory test
Tiger
Lion Word fragment
completion:
Zebra C_E_TA_
Panda E_E_ _A_ N_
Leopard _E_RA
Elephant Word stem completion:
Mon _____
After a delay… Pan_____

13. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Procedural Memory
• Knowing how to do something
– Ride a bike
– Skateboard
– Ski

14. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Methods to Assess Procedural
Memory
• Rotary-pursuit task
– Keep stylus on a dot
on a rotating disk
• Mirror-tracing task
– Watch mirror image
to trace a figure

15. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Models of Memory
• Represent ways that memory has been
conceptualized
– Atkinson & Shiffrin’s three-stage model
– Craik & Lockhart’s level of processing
model
– Baddeley’s working memory model
– Tulving’s multiple memory systems model
– McClelland & Rumelhart’s connectionist
model

16. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Traditional Model of Memory
• Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) three-
stage model

17. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
感官記憶 Sensory memory
• 特性 :
1. 自動發生，因此不需要耗費資源
2. 容量極大
3. 瞬間即逝而易被干擾
4. 訊息只能持續很短時間
5. 只有少部分感覺儲存訊息會得到注意
而從感覺儲存庫被傳送到短期儲存庫
• 後像 (afterimage) 、餘音 (echo)

18. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
人究竟能記得多少呢？
請隨手拿個筆和紙，我們準備開始！
記憶大考驗 I

19. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Whole Report
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X

20. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
B 5 Q T
2 H S 9
X
O 4 M Y

21. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
請寫出剛剛畫面中呈現的所有字
母

22. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
B 5 Q T
2 H S 9
O 4 M Y

23. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Partial Report – No Delay
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X

24. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
2 V 9 R
Q X 7 L
M
> K H 5 F <

25. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
2 V 9 R
Q M 7 L
> K H 5 F <

26. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
請寫出剛剛畫面中 > < 所指到的
字母

27. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Sperling (1960) Iconic Memory
Research
• Whole report procedure
– Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds
– Identify as many letters as possible
– Participants typically remember 4 letters
• Partial report procedure
– Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds
– Participants are told to report bottom row
– Participants were able to report any row
requested

28. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Sperling Sensory Memory
Demonstration
• A matrix of 12 letters and numbers
briefly flash on the next few slides
• As soon as you see the
information, write down everything
you can remember in its proper
location

29. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Sperling’s Results

30. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Sensory Stores
• Iconic store or visual sensory register
– Holds visual information for 250 msec
longer
– Capacity: up to 12 items
– Information fades quickly
• Econ or auditory sensory register
– Holds auditory information for 2-3 seconds
longer to enable processing

31. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
全現遺覺記憶 Photographic memory
• 「照像式」的記憶能力
• 非常罕見（ < 10% 的人擁有）
• 常在小孩身上發現，但往隨著年齡
增長而消失
• 與感官記憶十分相關

32. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
全現遺覺記憶
Photographic memory

33. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
全現遺覺記憶 Photographic memory
• 能夠擁有這項能力是不是看似非常幸運 ?
但…
• 擁有 Photographic memory 的缺點 :
d. 記太多不相關的細節
e. 不夠有效率
f. 有些人甚至忘也忘不掉那些自己不想記的
g. 一種自閉症 (Autism) 的症狀

34. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Short-term memory
短期記憶

35. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Short-Term Memory
Rehearsal
• Attention
– Attend to
information in the
Short-Term
sensory store, it
Memory
moves to STM (STM)
• Rehearsal
– Repeat the
information to keep
maintained in STM Attention
Storage &
• Retrieval Retrieval
– Access memory in
LTM and place in
STM

36. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Research on Short-Term
Memory
• Miller (1956)
– Examined memory capacity
– 7+/- 2 items or “chunks”
– 電話號碼的編制
• Cowan (2001)
– 認為短期記憶的限制大概是 4 個單位
• Jonides (2009)
– 其實只有 1 個…

37. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
人究竟能記得多少呢？
請隨手拿個筆和紙，我們準備開始！
記憶大考驗 II

38. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
1. 英文題

39. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
準備好了嗎 ……

40. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
DADNCKUMITANTFBIETORNBA

41. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
請依序寫出剛剛畫面中的所有字
母

42. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
2. 數字題

43. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
準備好了嗎 ……

44. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
77088088252521314520

45. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
請依序寫出剛剛畫面中的所有數
字

46. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
記憶廣度的限制
• 若將大量且複雜的訊息組織成較
小而有意義的單位 (chunking) ，則
可以記得較多的訊息 !
• Chunk 的愈好愈有效率就能記得愈多
愈牢

47. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
記憶廣度的限制
• 若採取 保持性的複誦 (maintenance
rehearsal) ，也可以使訊息保留在
記憶中較久

48. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
記憶廣度的限制
個體以自己的方式解讀、組織、安排
訊息，使訊息得以長久保存
•例如：
– 對新訊息加以分析、處理
– 將新訊息和舊有的知識、經驗作聯結
– 找出新訊息彼此間的關係

49. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
解答時間 !!!!!
1. 英文題
– DADNCKUMITANTFBIETORNBA
– DAD NCKU MIT ANT FBI ET OR
NBA
2. 數字題
– 77088088252521314520
– 770 880 8825252 1314 520
– 親親你 抱抱你 爸爸餓我餓我餓 一生
一世 我愛你

50. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
How to train your memory
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pyVxD
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V8S8

51. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Storage Capacity of STM
• Vogel,
Woodman, &
Luck (2001)
• Used colors
and
orientations

52. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Vogel, Woodman, & Luck
Results (2001)
• Can retain 3-4 colors or
orientations
• Store integrated objects, not just
features

53. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Working memory
工作記憶

54. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
不歇息的記憶活動
 Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
 工作記憶和短期記憶一
樣是負責暫時記憶訊息
 但和短期記憶不同 :
 有不同的機制來負責不同
種類訊息的記憶
 有監控機制
Graham Alan
Hitch Baddeley

55. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Baddeleys’ Working Memory
Model (1986)

56. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Working Memory Model
• Phonological Loop （語音迴路）
– Used to maintain information for a short time
and for acoustic rehearsal
• Visuo-spatial sketch pad （視覺空間模
板）
– Used for maintaining and processing visuo-
spatial information
• Episodic buffer （情節緩衝系統）
– Used for storage of a multimodal code, holding
an integrated episode between systems using
different codes

57. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Working Memory Model
• Central executive （中央執行系統）
– Focuses attention on relevant items and
inhibits irrelevant ones
– Plans sequence of tasks to accomplish
goals, schedules processes in complex
tasks, often switches attention between
different parts
– Updates and checks content to
determine next step in sequence

58. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Working Memory Model Support
• Baddeley (1986)
– Participants studied two different list types
– 1 syllable: wit, sum, harm, bay, top
– 5 syllables: university, opportunity,
aluminum, constitutional, auditorium
• Reading rate seemed to determine
recall performance
• Supports conceptualization of an
articulatory loop

59. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Working Memory Model Support
• Visuo-spatial sketch pad
– Dual-task paradigm
– Sketchpad can be disrupted by
requiring participants to repeatedly
tap a specified pattern of keys or
locations while using imagery at the
same time

60. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Long-term memory
長期記憶

61. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
長期記憶系統
• 特性 :
– 保存時間從數分鐘、數年甚至終生
– 如果短期記憶是電腦的 RAM ，則長期
記憶是電腦的硬碟
– 記憶容量極大，甚至似乎沒有限制
• Shepard (1967)
– 600 張圖片，一小時後仍能辨識 99%
• Standing et al. (1970)
– 2500 張圖片，一小時後仍能辨識 90%

62. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Long-Term Memory
• Capacity
Long-Term
– Thus far limitless Memory
(LTM)
• Duration
– Potentially
permanent

63. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Tulving’s Multiple-Memory
Systems Model
• Semantic memory
– General knowledge
– Facts, definitions, historical dates
• Episodic memory
– Event memories (first kiss, 6th birthday)

64. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
長期記憶系統

65. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Multiple-Memory Systems Model
Support
• Nyberg, Cabeza, & Tulving (1996)
– PET technology to look at episodic and
semantic memory
– Asked people to engage in semantic or episodic
memory tasks while being monitored by PET
• Results
– Left (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially
active in encoding (both) and in semantic
memory retrieval
– Right (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially
active in retrieval of episodic memory

66. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Levels of processing model

67. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Levels of Processing Model of
Memory
• Craik & Lockhart (1972)
– Different ways to process information lead to
different strengths of memories
– Deep processing leads to better memory
• Elaborating according to meaning leads to a strong
memory
– Shallow processing emphasizes the physical
features of the stimulus
• The memory trace is fragile and quickly decays
– Distinguished between maintenance rehearsal
and elaborative rehearsal

68. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Support for Levels of
Processing
• Craik & Tulving (1975)
– Participants studied a list in three different
ways
• Structural: Is the word in capital letters?
• Phonemic: Does the word rhyme with dog?
• Semantic: Does the word fit in this sentence?
“The ______ is delicious.”
– A recognition test was given to see which
type of processing led to the best memory

69. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Craik & Tulving (1975) Results
1
Case
0.9
Rhyme
0.8
0.7 Sentence
Recognized
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Yes No
Sentence Type

70. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Self-Reference Effect
• Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1977)
– Encoding with respect to oneself
increases memory
Capital Rhymes Means the Describes
letters? with? same as? you?

71. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Criticisms of LOP Model
•Circular definition of levels
•Transfer appropriate processing effect
– Morris, Bransford, & Franks (1977)
– Two processing tasks: semantic vs. rhyme
– Two types of tests: standard yes/no recognition vs. rhyme
test
– Memory performance also depends on the match
between encoding processes and type of test
Recognitio
Encoding Task n Rhyme
Semantic 0.83 0.31
Rhyme 0.62 0.49

72. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Connectionist Perspective
• Parallel distributed
processing model
– Memory uses a network
– Meaning comes from
patterns of activation
across the entire network
– Spreading activation
network model
– Supported by priming
effects

73. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
失憶症的記憶

74. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Deficient Memory
• Amnesias
– Retrograde amnesia
• Loss of memory for events that occurred
before the trauma
– Infantile amnesia
• Inability to recall events of young
childhood
– Anterograde amnesia
• No memory for events that occur after
the trauma

75. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
失憶症的記憶
• 失憶症的主要症狀是完全無法記得
每天的事件，因此無法獲取新的事
實訊息
息順向失憶症（ anterograde amnesia ）
• 失憶症的第二種症狀是無法記得受
傷或生病前發生的事件
件逆向失憶症（ retrograde amnesia ）

76. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
失憶症的記憶
• 失憶症患者在記憶、學習知覺與動作技能時則
沒有困難。外顯和內隱記憶分別負責事實和技
能的編碼，屬於不同的記憶系統。
• 失憶症患者仍然保留的技能包括動作技能及知
覺技能。
• 失憶症患者和一般人的促發程度完全相同，表
示其內隱記憶正常，但是外顯記憶比一般人更
差。

77. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
失憶症患者是幫助心理學家了解記
憶系統的重要份子！
• Clive Wearing
– 上次課堂中提到的
• A.T.
– 記憶廣度很小，剛呈現的訊息無法立即正確回憶
– 但對以前發生的事情都記得很清楚
• H.M. ( 科學史上最有名的病人之一 )
– 幼時騎車摔倒後常有癲癇發作
– 接收顳葉切除的手術治療
– 癲癇症狀消失但是導致嚴重的失憶症
症長期記憶與短期記憶的區分

78. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
鏡描作業
Mirror-Tracing Task
• H.M’s performance

79. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
童年失憶症和幼兒失憶症 Chapter 5
Childhood amnesia & Infantile
amnesia

80. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
童年失憶症和幼兒失憶症 Chapter 5
Childhood amnesia & Infantile
amnesia
– 每個人都有的現象
• 沒有人能回憶生命中最初幾年的事情
• 大多數人的最初記憶發生在 3 歲之後，少數
人可以回溯至 1 歲 歲但回憶的正確與否也
無法確定

81. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
童年失憶症和幼兒失憶症 Chapter 5
Childhood amnesia & Infantile
amnesia
– 原因
• 成人使用分類與基模 (Schema) 來建構記憶
，但是兒童在編碼時不會多加修飾或連到相
關事件
• 從生理原因來看，由於海馬迴大約到 1 、 2
歲才會成熟，因此童年初期的事件無法充分
凝固，導致後來無法回想
• 其他心理原因包括認知因素，特別是語言發
展和入學。語言和學校的思考方式提供組織
經驗的新方法

82. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Alzheimer’s Disease
• Leads to memory loss and dementia in
older population
• Over the age of 65 are labeled “late
onset”
• “Early onset” is rare but can affect those
in their mid 30s and in middle age

83. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Alzheimer’s Disease and the
Brain
• Atrophy of the cortical tissue
– Alzheimer’s brains shows abnormal fibers that
appear to be tangles of brain tissue and senile
plaques (patches of degenerative nerve endings)
– The resulting damage of these conditions may
lead to disruption of impulses in neurons

84. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Alzheimer’s Disease
• Symptoms (gradual, continuous, and
irreversible)
– Memory loss
– Problems doing familiar tasks
– Problems with language
– Trouble knowing the time, date, or place
– Poor or decreased judgment
– Problems with abstract thinking
– Misplacing things often, such as keys
– Changes in mood, behavior, and personality
• These symptoms could be an early sign of
Alzheimer’s when it affects daily life

85. Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Hippocampus and Memory
• Hippocampus
– Critical for integration and consolidation
– Essential for declarative memory
– Without the hippocampus, only the
learning of skills and habits, simple
conditioning, and the phenomenon of
priming can occur
INSERT VIDEO #20, The Brain and
Memory