Sesion 5 Las Externalidades, Mercado de Factores y la Distribucion de la Renta
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Sesion 5 Las Externalidades, Mercado de Factores y la Distribucion de la Renta
- 1. Las externalidades. Mercado de factores y la distribución de la renta
- 7. Cantidad de contaminación socialmente óptima. Coste marginal social, ingreso marginal social. Cantidad de emisiones contaminantes (toneladas) Q OPT 0 $200 Coste marginal social de la contaminación O Cantidad de contaminación socialmente óptima Punto socialmente óptimo Ingreso marginal social de la contaminación
- 9. Por qué produce demasiada contaminación una economía de mercado Q eq T Qh Qopt 0 $400 300 200 100 O Ingreso marginal social correspondiente a Qeq Cantidad de contaminación determinada por el mercado El resultado del mercado es ineficiente: el coste marginal social de la contaminación es mayor que el ingreso marginal social Coste social marginal, ingreso social marginal Cantidad de emisiones contaminantes (toneladas ) Cantidad de contaminación socialmente óptima Impuesto pigouviano óptimo sobre la contaminación Coste marginal social correspondiente a Qeq
- 13. Externalidades negativas. Impuestos a la producción. Ej. Canon a la cría de cerdos Cte Mg Social S 1 D Q Opt 1 PMkt Q S D Q Opt Q E E O O (a) Externalidad negativa (b) Impuesto óptimo Precio Cantidad Precio Cantidad Coste externo Precio que pagan los consumidores impuesto incluido Impuesto óptimo Precio que reciben los productores después de impuestos Mkt Mkt PCMgS P Opt
- 14. El consumo de tabaco genera importantes problemas de salud que conllevan un elevado coste de atención para la sanidad pública. El fumador, a la hora de tomar sus decisiones de compra, no tiene en cuenta este coste que tendrá que ser asumido por toda la sociedad. Por ello, el Estado puede intervenir fijando un impuesto sobre la cajetilla. La curva de demanda se desplazará hacia abajo. O D D E (a) Externalidad negativas Q 1 P 1 P 2 Q 2 O Precio Impuesto Cantidad 1 2 Externalidades negativas .Impuestos al consumo. Ej.Impuesto al consumo de tabaco
- 16. Externalidades positivas . Subvenciones al consumo. Ej. Subvención a la instalación de placas solares O D D O (a) Externalidad positiva Precio Q Opt P Opt P Mkt Q Mkt O D O Cantidad Q Opt Q Mkt (b) Subsidio pigouviano óptimo E E Precio Precio de los productores con el subsidio Subsidio pigouviano óptimo Precio de los consumidores con el subsidio Beneficio externo Cantidad 2 1 PBMgS
- 18. Externalidades positivas. Subvención a la formación en las empresas. O1 O 2 D Q 1 2 P Q O E (a) Externalidad positiva Precio Cantidad Subvención 2 Si una empresa prepara a sus empleados invirtiendo en formación, esto genera una externalidad positiva: esta formación beneficia al trabajador y a la empresa mientras el trabajador permanezca en la misma, pero cuando cambie de trabajo esta mayor formación beneficia a la sociedad en su conjunto al disponer de una mano de obra más cualificada. El gobierno puede favorecer esta externalidad positiva subvencionando parte de los costes de formación de las empresas. Esta subvención reduciría el coste de producción de esta empresa desplazando su curva de oferta hacia abajo. El punto de equilibrio se desplazará hacia la derecha, lo que implica un aumento del volumen de transacciones P 1
- 19. Mercado de factores y la distribución de la renta
- 26. La función de producción en la granja de Jorge y Marta PMgT 7 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 19 17 15 13 11 9 7 5 Producto marginal del trabajo (fanegas por trabajador) 7 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 100 80 60 40 20 Cantidad de trigo (fanegas) (a) Producto total (b) Producto marginal del trabajo PT Cantidad de trabajo (trabajadores) Cantidad de trabajo (trabajadores)
- 29. El valor del producto marginal Cantidad de trabajo L (obreros) Cantidad de Trigo Q (quintal) Producto Marginal del trabajo PMgL = Q / L (quintal por obrero) Empleo y producción de la granja de Jorge y Marta
- 31. Curva del valor del producto marginal VPMgT A 0 1 2 3 4 8 7 6 5 $400 300 200 100 Salario, Valor del producto marginal del trabajo Número de trabajadores que maximiza el beneficio Punto óptimo Salario de mercado Cantidad de trabajo (trabajadores)
- 33. Desplazamientos de la curva de demanda de un factor. A B 2 0 8 5 $200 VPMgT 1 VPMgT 2 A C 0 5 $200 VPMgT 3 VPMgT 1 (a) Un aumento en el precio del trigo (b) Una caída en el precio del trigo Cantidad de trabajo (trabajadores) Cantidad de trabajo (trabajadores) Salario Salario Salario de mercado
- 37. Todos los productores se enfrentan al mismo salario 5 0 $200 Salario Salario de mercado 7 $200 VPMT trigo VPMT maíz VPMT de Jones = P x PMT = P maíz x PMT maíz (a) El granjero Jones (b) El granjero Smith Número óptimo de trabajadores VPMT de Smith trigo trigo Salario Cantidad de trabajo (trabajadores) Cantidad de trabajo (trabajadores) Número óptimo de trabajadores
- 39. Equilibrio en el mercado de trabajo Curva de oferta de trabajo del mercado E Curva de demanda de trabajo del mercado L* W* Nivel de empleo de equilibrio Valor del producto marginal del trabajo en el equilibrio Cantidad de trabajo (trabajadores) Salario
- 40. Equilibrio en el mercado de la tierra y del capital. Cantidad (a) El mercado de la tierra Cantidad (b) El mercado del capital Renta D Tierra R* Capital O Capital O Tierra D Capital Q* Tierra Q* Capital R* Tierra Alquiler
- 42. Media de las ganancias por sexo y etnia 2002 en USA Hispanos (hombres y mujeres) Afroamericanos (hombres y mujeres) Mujeres (todas las etnias) $45,722 $27,337 $24,893 $29,166 45,000 $50,000 40,000 35,000 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 Hombres blancos Remuneración anual media 2006
- 44. Diferencias salariales por educación, sexo y etnia. Hombres blancos $70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 Remuneración anual media 2006 Mujeres blancas Hombres afro-americanos Sin bachillerato Bachillerato Título universitario Mujeres afro-americanas Hombres hispanos Mujeres hispanas
- 50. Curva de oferta de trabajo individual 50 40 0 $20 10 40 0 $20 10 30 (a) Domina el efecto sustitución Cantidad de trabajo (horas) (b) Domina el efecto renta Salario Salario Cantidad de trabajo (horas)
- 52. Gracias.
Notas del editor
- El ingreso marginal social de la contaminación es el ingreso que obtiene la sociedad en su conjunto debido a que hay una unidad adicional de contaminación. (ahorro en factores productivos por producir una tonelada más de contaminación que se pueden destinar a otros fines)
- Figure Caption: Figure 17-1: The Socially Optimal Quantity of Pollution Pollution yields both costs and benefits. Here the curve MSC shows how the marginal cost to society as a whole from emitting one more ton of pollution emissions depends on the quantity of emissions. The curve MSB shows how the marginal benefit to society as a whole of emitting an additional ton of pollution emissions depends on the quantity of pollution emissions. The socially optimal quantity of pollution is QOPT; at that quantity, the marginal social benefit of pollution is equal to the marginal social cost, corresponding to $200.
- Figure Caption: Figure 17-2: Why a Market Economy Produces Too Much Pollution In the absence of government intervention, the quantity of pollution will be QMKT, the level at which the marginal social benefit of pollution is zero. This is an inefficiently high quantity of pollution: the marginal social cost, $400, greatly exceeds the marginal social benefit, $0. An optimal Pigouvian tax of $200, the value of the marginal social cost of pollution when it equals the marginal social benefit of pollution, can move the market to the socially optimal quantity of pollution, QOPT.
- Figure Caption: Figure 17-5: Negative Externalities and Production Livestock production generates external costs, so the marginal social cost curve, MSC, of livestock, corresponds to the supply curve, S, shifted upward by the marginal external cost. Panel (a) shows that without government action, the market produces the quantity QMKT. It is greater than the socially optimal quantity of livestock production, QOPT, the quantity at which MSC crosses the demand curve, D. At QMKT, the market price, PMKT, is less than PMSC, the true marginal cost to society of livestock production. Panel (b) shows how an optimal Pigouvian tax on livestock production, equal to its marginal external cost, moves the production to QOPT, resulting in lower output and a higher price to consumers.
- Figure Caption: Figure 17-4: Positive Externalities and Consumption Consumption of flu shots generates external benefits, so the marginal social benefit curve, MSB, of flu shots, corresponds to the demand curve, D, shifted upward by the marginal external benefit. Panel (a) shows that without government action, the market produces QMKT. It is lower than the socially optimal quantity of consumption, QOPT, the quantity at which MSB crosses the supply curve, S. At QMKT, the marginal social benefit of another flu shot, PMSB, is greater than the marginal benefit to consumers of another flu shot, PMKT. Panel (b) shows how an optimal Pigouvian subsidy to consumers, equal to the marginal external benefit, moves consumption to QOPT by lowering the price paid by consumers.
- Figure Caption: Figure 17-4: Positive Externalities and Consumption Consumption of flu shots generates external benefits, so the marginal social benefit curve, MSB, of flu shots, corresponds to the demand curve, D, shifted upward by the marginal external benefit. Panel (a) shows that without government action, the market produces QMKT. It is lower than the socially optimal quantity of consumption, QOPT, the quantity at which MSB crosses the supply curve, S. At QMKT, the marginal social benefit of another flu shot, PMSB, is greater than the marginal benefit to consumers of another flu shot, PMKT. Panel (b) shows how an optimal Pigouvian subsidy to consumers, equal to the marginal external benefit, moves consumption to QOPT by lowering the price paid by consumers.
- Figure Caption: Figure 17-5: Negative Externalities and Production Livestock production generates external costs, so the marginal social cost curve, MSC, of livestock, corresponds to the supply curve, S, shifted upward by the marginal external cost. Panel (a) shows that without government action, the market produces the quantity QMKT. It is greater than the socially optimal quantity of livestock production, QOPT, the quantity at which MSC crosses the demand curve, D. At QMKT, the market price, PMKT, is less than PMSC, the true marginal cost to society of livestock production. Panel (b) shows how an optimal Pigouvian tax on livestock production, equal to its marginal external cost, moves the production to QOPT, resulting in lower output and a higher price to consumers.
- Figure Caption: Figure 20-2: The Production Function for George and Martha’s Farm Panel (a) shows how the quantity of output of wheat on George and Martha’s farm depends on the number of workers employed. Panel (b) shows how the marginal product of labor depends on the number of workers employed.
- Figure Caption: Figure 20-3: The Value of the Marginal Product Curve This curve shows how the value of the marginal product of labor depends on the number of workers employed. It slopes downward because of diminishing returns to labor in production. To maximize profit, George and Martha choose the level of employment at which the value of the marginal product of labor is equal to the market wage rate. For example, at a wage rate of $200 the profit-maximizing level of employment is 5 workers, shown by point A. The value of the marginal product curve of a factor is the producer’s individual demand curve for that factor.
- Figure Caption: Figure 20-4: Shifts of the Value of the Marginal Product Curve Panel (a) shows the effect of an increase in the price of wheat on George and Martha’s demand for labor. The value of the marginal product of labor curve shifts upward, from VMPL1to VMPL2. If the market wage rate remains at $200, profit-maximizing employment rises from 5 workers to 8 workers, shown by the movement from point A to point B. Panel (b) shows the effect of a decrease in the price of wheat. The value of the marginal product of labor curve shifts downward, from VMPL1to VMPL3. At the market wage rate of $200, profit-maximizing employment falls from 5 workers to 2 workers, shown by the movement from point A to point C.
- Figure Caption: Figure 20-5: All Producers Face the Same Wage Rate Although Farmer Jones grows wheat and Farmer Smith grows corn, they both compete in the same market for labor and so must pay the same wage rate, $200. Each producer hires labor up to the point at which VMPL= $200: 5 workers for Jones, 7 workers for Smith.
- Figure Caption: Figure 20-6: Equilibrium in the Labor Market The market labor demand curve is the horizontal sum of the individual labor demand curves of all producers. Here the equilibrium wage rate is W*, the equilibrium employment level is L*, and every producer hires labor up to the point at which VMPL= W*. So labor is paid its equilibrium value of the marginal product, the value of the marginal product of the last worker hired in the labor market as a whole.
- Figure Caption: Figure 20-7: Equilibria in the Land and Capital Markets Panel (a) illustrates equilibrium in the market for land; panel (b) illustrates equilibrium in the market for capital. The supply curve for land is relatively steep, reflecting the high cost of increasing the quantity of productive land. The supply curve for capital, in contrast, is relatively flat, due to the relatively high responsiveness of savings to changes in the rental rate for capital. The equilibrium rental rates for land and capital, as well as the equilibrium quantities transacted, are given by the intersections of the demand and supply curves. In a competitive land market, each unit of land will be paid the equilibrium value of the marginal product of land, R*Land. Likewise, in a competitive capital market, each unit of capital will be paid the equilibrium value of the marginal product of capital, R*.
- Figure Caption: Figure 20-8: Median Earnings by Gender and Ethnicity, 2006 The U.S. labor market continues to show large differences across workers according to gender and ethnicity. Women are paid substantially less than men; African-American and Hispanic workers are paid substantially less than White male workers.
- Figure Caption: Figure 20-9: Earnings Differentials by Education, Gender, and Ethnicity, 2006 It is clear that, regardless of gender or ethnicity, education pays: those with a high school diploma earn more than those without one, and those with a college degree earn substantially more than those with only a high school diploma. Other patterns are evident as well: for any given education level, White males earn more than every other group, and males earn more than females for any given ethnic group.
- Figure Caption: Figure 20-10: The Individual Labor Supply Curve When the substitution effect of a wage increase dominates the income effect, the individual labor supply curve slopes upward, as in panel (a). Here a rise in the wage rate from $10 to $20 per hour increases the number of hours worked from 40 to 50. But when the income effect of a wage increase dominates the substitution effect, the individual labor supply curve slopes downward, as in panel (b). Here the same rise in the wage rate reduces the number of hours worked from 40 to 30.