1. METHODS OF DISCOVERY
Week 4: Chapter 13

2. OBJECTIVES
• Describe differences between
commonsense ways of knowing
and systematic ways of knowing.
• List the characteristics of
scholarly research.
• Explain the five common tasks in
communication enquiry

3. OBJECTIVES
• Define briefly the nine research
methodologies outlined in the text.
• Explain the purpose of rhetorical
criticism and identify some
contemporary critical approaches.
• Explain the purpose and methods
used in ethnographic research.

4. OBJECTIVES
• Describe the steps in conducting
a survey.
• Describe the nature and steps in
experimental research.
• Understand the goals and
methods of performance
research.

5. COMMONSENSE WAYS OF KNOWING
• Our everyday models of human behaviour are
often models of our own behaviour.
• Our everyday models of human behaviour
may also be models of what we wish were
true rather than what is true.
• Our everyday models of human behaviour are
based on simplistic thinking.

6. SYSTEMATIC WAYS OF KNOWING: The
Characteristics of Scholarly Research
• Question Oriented
• Methodological
• Replicable
• Self-Critical
• Cumulative and Self-Correcting
• Cyclical

7. COMMUNICATION ENQUIRY
 TASK 1: Formulate a research question
 TASK 2: Choose a research methodology
 TASK 3: Design a sampling strategy
 TASK 4: Gather and analyze data
 TASK 5: Interpret data and share results

8. TASK 1: Research question
• It should be specific and clear
• Define key concepts and terms
Conceptual: explains the meaning in a general
abstract way
Operational: how the term will be measured
in the study

9. TASKS 2-5: Research
Popular Research Methododologies:
Rhetorical Criticism Survey Research
Content Analysis Experimental Research
Conversation Analysis Performance Research
Ethnography Mixed Methods
Unobtrusive methods …

10. RHETORICAL CRITICISM
• It is an extension and refinement of the
everyday critical impulse; it is a systematic
way of describing, analyzing, and
evaluating a given act of communication.
• The rhetorical critic’s goal is to increase
understanding and appreciation of a
rhetorical act. They must demonstrate that
they understand the context and structure
of the rhetorical act being judged and
provide support for critical claims.

11. RHETORICAL CRITICISM cont.
Neo-Aristotelion Criticism: Social Movement Studies:
Evaluates a speaker’s rhetorical Analyses how a social cause gains
choices adherents, how members communicate
to the public and its impact on culture at
large
Genre Criticism: Cultural Ideological Criticism:
Discusses how a message fits into a Examines acts for political messages
genre or specific type of
communication
Burkean Dramatistic Analysis: Social Values Criticism:
Views symbolic acts as “drama” Looks at the way cultural products
represent a culture’s basic values
Fantasy Theme Analysis:
Examines the implicit narrative
structure of rhetoric acts

12. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
• Ethnographers learn from observation.
They want to understand how members of
other cultures interpret their world.
• To achieve this goal the researcher must
make direct contact with the individuals
he/she wishes to observe.

13. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH cont.
Covert Role The researcher goes “under-cover”
Overt Role The researcher enters the field as a scientist
and people know they are being observed
Field Notes A record of critical events and behaviours and
the researcher’s self-observations, feelings and
interpretations
Informant A member of the culture who is willing to
show the researcher around and answer
questions and set up interviews with others
Presuppositionless research Research where the researcher’s own
prejudices, norms and values are set aside

14. SURVEY RESEARCH
 STEP 1: Choose a sample of people to question
 STEP 2: Decide what to ask
 STEP 3: Decide how to ask it (Interview or questionnaire)
 STEP 4: Code responses and look for meaningful patterns
 STEP 5: Draw conclusions from the data

15. SURVEY RESEARCH cont.
Probability sampling Allows generalizations as it assures the
researcher that the sample is representative.
Simple random sampling Each member of the population has an equal
chance of being in the sample.
Nonprobability sampling Some members of the population may virtually
have no chance of being included whereas
others may be overrepresented.
Accidental sampling Uses the most convenient people available
Double-barreled questions Asking several questions at once
Leading questions Questions that indicate a preferred response
Close-ended questions Choose from a finite list of answers
Open-ended questions Respondent is free to answer in their own
words

16. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
 STEP 1: Conduct a pretest
 STEP 2: Decide how the treatment is to be administered
 STEP 3: Decide when the dependent variable is to be
measured
 STEP 4: Conduct a posttest
 STEP 5: Draw conclusions from the data

17. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH cont.
Dependent variable The expected effect
Independent variable The expected cause
Pretest The measurement of the dependent variable
before the treatment
Posttest The measurement of the dependent variable
after the treatment
Control group Equivalent to the first group but it does not
receive the experimental treatment
Reliable It must consistently yield the same results
Valid It must actually measure the dependent
variable

18. PREFORMANCE AS RESEARCH
 STEP 1: Selecting – identifying a communication act or text
 STEP 2: Playing – experiments with ways of interpreting
 STEP 3: Testing – interpretation tested against evidence
 STEP 4: Choosing – picks a way of performing that conveys
meaning to an audience
 STEP 5: Repeating – rehearse until there is a natural flow
 STEP 6: Presenting – displays to others his/her
understanding

19. COMMUNICATION STUDY
• You can take formal communication courses.
• You can explore other subject areas:
– Psychology and sociology
– Literary criticism and liguistics
– History and politics
• Reading novels and watching plays or films.
• Observing human interaction
• Develop your curiosity

20. FIELDS OF COMMUNICATION STUDY
Interpersonal Communication: Mass Communication:
The study of verbal and non-verbal The study of mediated messages created for
exchanges in everyday interaction. a wide public audience.
Small-group/Organizational Language and Semiotic Systems:
Communication: The study of code systems used to create
The study of how communication helps messages in any of the contexts listed in this
people in groups accomplish goals and table.
maintain group identity. Also the study of
how communication operates in complex
organizations.
Public Communication: Intercultural Communication:
The study of communication in face-to-face, The study of communication across cultural
one-to-many communication settings boundaries.
Performance Studies:
The study of ways people perform personal,
cultural, or artistic scripts before audiences.

21. HOMEWORK
Day Task
Monday Continue working through revision sheet for chapters 1, 2 and
12. These will end up being your study notes for the first
exam – so make sure you complete this to your best ability!
Tuesday Preview and start taking notes for Chapter 13: Methods of
Discovery (Text pp348-377)
Wednesday Take notes for the first 5 objectives for Chapter 13.
Thursday Take notes for objectives 6-9 for Chapter 13. Find the
meanings of key words (located on p377) and add to your
vocab lists for this subject.
Friday Complete reading log #3 and email to Danni.
Make any final corrections to reading log #2 for final
submission [This means Reading Logs #1 and #2 should be
ready to send to SLU]
xiaoshan_danni@hotmail.com