1. Advanced English
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
Background of the History of English Language
In this chapter I have tried to conclude the historical background and the importance
of English language. Here this objective for making an understanding particularly the basic
knowledge about history and the importance of English language in briefly description.
The history of the English language really started with the arrival of three Germanic
tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th
century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons
and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea from what today is Denmark and northern Germany. At
that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language. But most of the Celtic speakers
were pushed west and north by the invaders - mainly into what is now Wales, Scotland and
Ireland. The Angles came from "Englaland" and their language was called "Englisc" - from
which the words "England" and "English" are derived.
1
Language is a conventional, arbitrary system of sounds used for communication in a
human linguistic community. Language is a system at many levels, including the following:
2
Phonemic: Phonemes are the smallest meaningless components that
constitute the sound system of a language.
Morphemic: Morphemes are the smallest meaningful components of a
language. For example, the word cats consists of two morphemes, {cat} and {-
s}. Morphemes can be grammatical (having dictionary definitions) or lexical (affixes
and function words). They can be free (able to stand alone) or bound (complete only
when combined with other morphemes. Bound lexical morphemes (or affixes) can be
either derivational (used to create new words) or inflectional (used to signal
grammatical relationships).
1 a b
Shore, Thomas William (1906), Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race – A of the Settlement of England and the Tribal Origin
of the English People (1nd ed.), London, pp. 3, 393.
2
All notes are loosely drawn from Pyles and Algeo's The Origins and Development of the English Language, 5th
edition,
Harcourt Brace College Publishers, New York, 2005. Please see Sources, which can be accessed from the main
lobby, for a complete list of references.
2. Advanced English
2
Syntactic: Syntax governs the way words come together to create
sentences. The syntax of English has become less synthetic (grammatical structures
are signaled primarily by inflectional endings) and more analytic (grammatical
structures are signaled primarily by word order and function words).
Semantic: Semantics concerns the meaning of words, including but not
limited to etymologies.
Lexical: Lexicology includes spelling, the formation and use of words.
F. Stylistic: Linguistic choice and options.
Language is a human activity. Though animals can communicate in a primal way,
they do not have innate language abilities that allow for an unlimited number of novel
utterances. Though some apes have been taught to use sign language (a paralanguage, or
parallel system of communication), the breadth of ideas that they express are limited.
Language is arbitrary. Aside from echoic words, there is no intrinsic relationship between
words and the objects or concepts that they represent. Language is conventional. Language is
passed down from one generation to the next. It is the nature of language to change. Notions
of absolute correctness are imposed by writers, linguists, scholars, etc. and may slow down
but do not prevent the natural process of language evolution. Language is sound. Linguists
are primarily concerned with speech. Writing is a secondary activity. The English language
is one that most widely spread around the world in around the world in using as a universal
language.
English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects
brought to Britain by Germanic invaders and/or settlers from various parts of what is now
northwest Germany and the Netherlands. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of
dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain. One of these
dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually became predominant.
The English language underwent extensive change in the middle Ages. Written Old
English of AD 1000 is similar in vocabulary and grammar to other old Germanic languages
such as Old High German and Old Norse, and completely unintelligible to modern speakers,
while the modern language is already largely recognizable in written Middle English of AD
1400. The transformation was caused by two further waves of invasion: the first by speakers
3. Advanced English
3
of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized
parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th
centuries; the second by the Normans in the 11th
century,
who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-
Norman. A large proportion of the modern English vocabulary comes directly from Anglo-
Norman.
English is a member of the Germanic family of languages. Germanic is a
branch of the Indo-European language family. Creative diagram by
http://www.englishclub.com/english-language-history.htm
Close contact with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical
simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English. However, these
changes had not reached South West England by the 9th
century AD, where Old English was
developed into a full-fledged literary language. The Norman invasion occurred in 1066, and
when literary English rose anew in the 13th
century, it was based on the speech of London,
much closer to the centre of Scandinavian settlement. Technical and cultural vocabulary was
largely derived from Old Norman, with particularly heavy influence in the church, the courts,
and government. With the coming of the Renaissance, as with most other developing
European languages such as German and Dutch, Latin and Ancient Greek supplanted
Norman and French as the main source of new words. Thus, English developed into very
much a "borrowing" language with an enormously disparate vocabulary.
3
The Importance of English Language
Modern English, sometimes described as the first global lingua franca,
4
is the
dominant language or in some instances even the required international language of
3 a b
Shore, Thomas William (1906), Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race – A of the Settlement of England and the Tribal Origin
of the English People (1nd ed.), London, pp. 3, 393.
4
http://www. "Global English: gift or curse?". Retrieved 4 April 2005. a b c d
David Graddol (1997). ―The Future of
4. Advanced English
4
communications, science, information technology, business, seafaring, aviation,
entertainment, radio and diplomacy.
5
Its spread beyond the British Isles began with the
growth of the British Empire, and by the late 19th
century its reach was truly global.
6
Following British colonization from the 16th
to 19th
centuries, it became the dominant
language in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The growing economic
and cultural influence of the US and its status as a global superpower since World War II
have significantly accelerated the language's spread across the planet.
7
English replaced
German as the dominant language of science Nobel Prize laureates during the second half of
the 20th century. English equal and may have surpassed French as the dominant language of
diplomacy during the last half of the 19th century.
A working knowledge of English has become a requirement in a number of fields,
occupations and professions such as medicine and computing; as a consequence over a billion
people speak English to at least a basic level (see English as a foreign or second language). It
is one of six official languages of the United Nations.
8
One impact of the growth of English is the reduction of native linguistic diversity in
many parts of the world. Its influence continues to play an important role in language
attrition. Conversely, the natural internal varieties of English along with creoles and pidgins
have the potential to produce new distinct languages from English over time.
9
Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a "world
language", the lingua franca of the modern era,
10
and while it is not an official language in
most countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a foreign language. It is, by
English” (PDF). The British Council. Retrieved 15 April 2007.
5
http://www."FAQ – Language proficiency requirements for licence holders – In which languages does a licence holder
need to demonstrate proficiency?". International Civil Aviation Organization – Air Navigation Bureau. Retrieved 2
June 2011.
6
McGrath, Charles (2007-05-17). "Magazine Suspends Its Run in History". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-03-08.
7
http://www. a b c d
David Graddol (1997). "The Future of English?" (PDF). The British Council. Retrieved 15 April 2007.
8
"UN official languages". UN.org.
9
Cheshire, Jenny (1991). English Around The World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives. Cambridge University Press.
doi:10.2277/0521395658. ISBN 0-521-39565-8.
10
http://www.a b c d
David Graddol (1997). "The Future of English" (PDF). The British Council. Retrieved 15 April 2007.
5. Advanced English
5
international treaty, the official language for aeronautical
11
and maritime
12
communications.
English is an official language of the United Nations and many other international
organizations, including the International Olympic Committee.
English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in the European
Union, by 89% of schoolchildren, ahead of French at 32%, while the perception of the
usefulness of foreign languages among Europeans is 68% in favour of English ahead of 25%
for French.
13
Among some non-English-speaking EU countries, a large percentage of the
adult population claims to be able to converse in English – in particular: 85% in Sweden,
83% in Denmark, 79% in the Netherlands, 66% in Luxembourg and over 50% in Finland,
Slovenia, Austria, Belgium, and Germany.
14
Books, magazines, and newspapers written in English are available in many countries
around the world, and English is the most commonly used language in the sciences
15
with
Science Citation Index reporting as early as 1997 that 95% of its articles were written in
English, even though only half of them came from authors in English-speaking countries.
This increasing use of the English language globally has had a large impact on many
other languages, leading to language shift and even language death,
16
and to claims of
linguistic imperialism.
17
English itself has become more open to language shift as multiple
regional varieties feed back into the language as a whole.
18
11
http://www."ICAO Promotes Aviation Safety by Endorsing English Language Testing". International Civil Aviation
Organization. 13 October 2011.
12
http:www."IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases". International Maritime Organization. Archived from the
original on 27 December 2003.
13
2006 survey by Eurobarometer, in the Official EU languages website
14
http://www."IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases". International Maritime Organization. Archived from the
original on 27 December 2003.
15
http://www.a b c d
David Graddol (1997). "The Future of English" (PDF). The British Council. Retrieved 15 April 2007.
16
David Crystal (2000) Language Death, Preface; viii, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
17 a b
Jambor, Paul Z. 'English Language Imperialism: Points of View', Journal of English as an International Language,
April 2007 – Volume 1, pages 103–123 (Accessed in 2007)
18
Ibid.p.115.
6. Advanced English
6
Chapter 2
Sentence Structure
Basic Sentence Structure
According to my own experiences in learning English grammar mostly it is not
difficult as many learners feared or worried about. Every word in a sentence serves a specific
purpose within the structure of that particular sentence. According to rules of grammar,
sentence structure can sometimes be quite complicated. For the sake of simplicity, however,
the basic parts of sentences will discussed here can be made easier to all learner English
grammar as follows:
Sentence Structure
There are five basic patterns around which most English sentences are built. They are
as follows:
19
S-V Subject-Verb Yota sleeps.
Joy is eating.
Job will arrive next week.
S-V-O Subject-Verb- Object I like rice.
Joy loves her job.
Job's eating an orange.
S-V-Adj Subject-Verb-Adjective He is good.
They are lazy.
She seems angry.
S-V-Adv Subject-Verb-Adverb Jay is here.
Plants are everywhere.
19
Omaggio, Alice C. 1986. Teaching Language in Context: Proficiency-oriented instruction. Boston: Heinle and Heinle.
479pp
7. Advanced English
7
Nothing was there.
S-V-N Subject-Verb-Noun She is my girlfriend.
These women are doctors.
Mr. Yota is the teacher.
Note: At the heart of every English sentence is the Subject-Verb relationship. Other
elements can be added to make a sentence more interesting, but they are not essential to its
formation.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V pattern.
She sleeps. Core sentence
She sleeps soundly. An adverb is added to describe how she
sleeps.
She sleeps on the sofa. A prepositional phrase is added to tell
where she sleeps.
She sleeps every afternoon. A time expression is added to tell when
she sleeps.
She is sleeping right now. Verb tense is changed, but S-V
relationship remains the same.
Mary will sleep later. Subject is named and another tense is
used.
The dogs are sleeping in the garage. New subject may require a different form
of the verb.
Note: Any action verb can be used with this sentence pattern. The following
sentences are examples of the S-V-O pattern.
They like rice. Core sentence
8. Advanced English
8
The people like rice. Specific subject
The friendly people like rice. Subject modified with an adjective
The people in the restaurant like rice. Subject modified with an adjective
The people like boiled rice. Object modified with an adjective
The people like hot, white rice. Object modified with more than one
adjective
Note: Only transitive action verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adj. pattern.
He is fine. Basic sentence with "be" verb
He seems happy. Basic sentence with another linking verb
Yota is tall, black & white and handsome. Series of adjectives
He appears very comfortable. Adverb or intensifier added
George became sick last night. Different tense and linking verb
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adv pattern.
The teacher is here. Basic sentence
The teacher is over there. Using an adverb phrase
Teachers are everywhere. Plural noun and verb used
The teachers are in the lobby. Prepositional phrase functioning as
adverb
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.
The following sentences are examples of the S-V-N pattern.
The man is a doctor. Basic sentence
9. Advanced English
9
The women are doctors. Using plural noun and verb
My father is a nice guy. Modified subject and complement
My grandparents are senior citizens. Modified plural subject and complement
Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern. Other, less common
structures are dealt with in another unit. See also: parts of sentences: subject, predicate, direct
object, indirect object, complements.
There are many different ways of organizing words into sentences. (Or we might say,
Words can be organized into sentences in many different ways.)
20
For this reason, describing
how to put a sentence together isn't as easy as explaining how to bake a cake or assemble a
model plane. There are no easy recipes, no step-by-step instructions. But that doesn't mean
that crafting an effective sentence depends on magic or good luck.
Experienced writers understand that the basic parts of a sentence can be combined and
arranged in countless ways. So as we work to improve our writing, it's important to
understand what these basic structures are and how to use them effectively.
We'll begin by introducing the traditional parts of speech and the most common
sentence structures. For practice in shaping these words and structures into strong sentences,
follow examples, and expanded discussions. The two most basic parts of a sentence are the
subject and predicate
Subjects and Predicates
Subject
The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is
performing the action of the sentence. The subject represents what or whom
the sentence is about. The simple subject usually contains a noun or pronoun
and can include modifying words, phrases, or clauses.
The monk . . .
Predicate
20
Cheshire, Jenny (1991). English around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press.
10. Advanced English
10
The predicate expresses action or being within the sentence. The
simple predicate contains the verb and can also contain modifying words,
phrases, or clauses.
The monk / builds a pagoda.
The subject and predicate make up the two basic structural parts of any
complete sentence. In addition, there are other elements, contained within the
subject or predicate, that add meaning or detail. These elements include the
direct object, indirect object, and subject complement. All of these elements
can be expanded and further combined into simple, compound, complex, or
compound/complex sentences.
Direct Object
The direct object receives the action of the sentence. The direct object
is usually a noun or pronoun.
The monk builds a pagoda.
The monk builds it.
Indirect Object
The indirect object indicates to whom or for whom the action of the
sentence is being done. The indirect object is usually a noun or pronoun.
The monk builds his temple a pagoda.
The monk builds it a pagoda.
Subject Complement
A subject complement either renames or describes the subject, and
therefore is usually a noun, pronoun, or adjective. Subject complements occur
when there is a linking verb within the sentence (often a linking verb is a form
of the verb to be).
The monk is a good person. ( person = noun which renames the subject)
The monk seems kind. ( kind = adjective which describes the subject)
Note: As an example of the difference between parts of speech and parts of a
sentence, a noun can function within a sentence as subject, direct object, indirect object,
object of a preposition, or subject complement.
11. Advanced English
11
Summary of Sentence Pattern
1. Basic Sentence Patterns
Subject + Verb
I swim. Joe swims. They swam.
Subject + Verb + Object
I drive a car. Joe plays the guitar. They ate dinner.
Subject + Verb + Complement
I am busy. Joe became a doctor. They look sick.
Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object
I gave her a gift. She teaches us English.
Subject + Verb + Object + Complement
I left the door open. We elected him president. They named her Jane.
2. Tenses
Present Continuous
I am swimming. Joe is sleeping. They are jogging.
Present Simple
I play tennis. He swims every day. I usually swim for two hours.
Present Perfect
I have eaten. He has just come home. They've already gone.
Past Simple
I rested. He played tennis yesterday. They drove to Boston.
Past Continuous
I was sleeping. She was cooking a while ago. They were talking.
Past Perfect
I had already seen it. He had played tennis.
12. Advanced English
12
3. Other
Possession
I have a camera. He owns a car. This house belongs to them.
Location
I am here. He swims in the river. They live in the mountains.
It's fun to swim. (Using adjectives similar to fun.)
It isn't healthy to smoke. Smoking is dangerous.
They agreed to swim. (Using verbs similar to agree.)
He didn't desire to work. They like to play.
They asked him to swim. (Using verbs similar to ask.)
He didn't advise me to work. They often encourage me to work harder.
They enjoy swimming. (Using verbs similar to enjoy.)
He didn't advise me to work. They often encourage me to work harder.
Exercise
1.1 Please build the sentense following the abbreviate forms below.
S-V
S-V-O
S-V-
Adj
S-V
Adv
S-V-N
1.2 Please write these sentences to be abbreviate forms
He is fine.
He seems happy.
Jordan is tall, dark and handsome.
13. Advanced English
13
He appears very comfortable.
George became sick last night.
1.3 Please translate these Thai sentenses into English sentenses
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
....................................................................
1.4. Please change these English sentenses to be the breviate structural forms (Ex.
s+V+N)
1. "
I
go to
school.
..................................................................................................
..
2. I
go home.
..................................................................................................
..
3. Happy
birthday
to you.
..................................................................................................
.
4.
He passed
by.
..................................................................................................
.
(Subject)
+
(Verb)
+
Object)
3
(Vocabulary)
+
(Grammar) = Sentence)
14. Advanced English
14
+
Collocation
1.5 Please translate these English sentences into Thai sentences
A : How many brothers and sisters do you have?
B : I have an older sister and two younger brothers.
A : Do you live with your parents?
B : Yes, I do. What about you? How many people are there in your family?
A : There are six people in my family; my dad, my mom, my older brother, my younger
sister, my twin and I.
B: How are your family members?
A : My parents have got a cold, but the others are fine.
B : Hope your parents get well soon.
A : Thank you
15. Advanced English
15
Chapter 3
Sentence Patterns
Basically in learning process of every language, the understanding of sentence
patterns is one of important thing that all learner need for. The knowledge of how groups of
words function to convey units of thought further enhances our ability to communicate
clearly. This is why we need to know about sentence patterns, the fundamentals of how those
units of thought that we call sentences are constructed. Just about all sentences in the English
language fall into ten patterns determined by the presence and functions of nouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs.
21
Verb of Being Patterns
The patterns are most easily classified according to the type of verb used:
22
Verb of being patterns (1, 2, 3) use a form of the verb to be as the main verb in the
sentence.
is are was were
has been have been had been
Linking Verb Pattern
Linking verb patterns (4, 5) use one of the linking verbs as the main verb in the
sentence. The linking verb is followed by a noun or adjective functioning as a subjective
complement.
smell taste look feel seem become appear grow etc.
Action Verb Pattern
21
http://www.englishmistakeswelcome.com/sentence_patterns.htm retrieved on 12/2/2012
22
http://www.lovekraw.blogspot.com/2012/09/sentence-patterns-1.html retrieved on 4/9/2012
16. Advanced English
16
Action verb patterns (6, 7, 8, 9,10) use one of the many action verbs as the main verb
in the sentence. The action verb may be either transitive (take a direct object) or intransitive
(not take a direct object).
see jump embrace write imagine buy plummet
think etc.
Terms used to identify various parts of each sentence pattern include the following:
NP = noun phrase
This abbreviation refers to a headword noun and its modifiers ("noun phrase")
functioning as a subject, direct object, indirect object, subjective complement, or objective
complement.
NP1, NP2, NP3, etc. = designations for different noun phrase functions
Numbers in sequential order are used with each NP to designate its difference from or
similarity to other NPs before and after it.
V-be = verb of being
LV = linking verb
V-int = intransitive verb
V-tr = transitive verb
ADV/TP = adverbial of time or place
ADJ = adjective
The Ten Sentence Patterns
1. NP1 + V-be + ADV/TP
The verb of being is followed by an adverb indicating where or when.
See more information on subjects form
17. Advanced English
17
The adverbial indicating where or when may be a prepositional phrase.
2. NP1 + V-be + ADJ
The verb of being is followed by an adjective that functions as the subjective complement.
See more information on subjective complements form
The adjectival functioning as the subjective complement may be a prepositional
phrase.
3. NP1 + V-be + NP1
The verb of being is followed by a noun that functions as the subjective complement.
Note: The second NP receives the same numerical designation as the first NP because
the second NP, the subjective complement, is the same as the subject (Mr. James = teacher).
4. NP1 + LV + ADJ
18. Advanced English
18
The linking verb is followed by an adjective functioning as a subjective complement.
The adjectival functioning as the subjective complement may be a prepositional
phrase.
5. NP1 + LV + NP1
The linking verb is followed by a noun functioning as a subjective complement.
Note: The second NP receives the same numerical designation as the first NP
because the second NP, the subjective complement, is the same as the subject (Joan =
Buddhist).
6. NP1 + V-int
The action verb takes no direct object.
19. Advanced English
19
Even if the action verb is followed by a prepositional phrase, the verb is still
intransitive as long as it does not take a direct object.
7. NP1 + V-tr + NP2
The action verb is followed by a direct object.
See more-information on direct objects form
Note: The second NP, the direct object, receives a different numerical designation
(NP2) because it is not the same as the subject (NP1).
8. NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + NP3
The action verb is followed by an indirect object and then a direct object.
See more information on indirect objects
Note: The indirect object and the direct object each receive a new numerical
designation because each is different from the other and both are different from the subject.
20. Advanced English
20
9. NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + ADJ
The action verb is followed by a direct object. The direct object is followed by an
adjective functioning as an objective complement.
See more information on objective complements form
Note: The second NP, the direct object, receives a different numerical designation
(NP2) because it is not the same as the subject (NP1).
10. NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + NP2
The action verb is followed by a direct object. The direct object is followed by a noun
functioning as an objective complement.
Note: The second NP, the direct object, receives a different numerical designation
(NP2) because it is not the same as the subject (NP1). The third NP, the objective
complement, receives the same numerical designation as the direct object (NP2) because it is
the same as the direct object (Jacobsen = friend).
Exercise
3.1. Please build the sentences by use the whole kinds of verb as follows:
is are was were
has been have been had been
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
21. Advanced English
21
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
smell taste look feel seem become
appear grow
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
see jump embrace write imagine buy think
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
3.2 Please write the whole kinds of verb of being or (V. to be)as follows:
V-be = verb of being
....................................................................................................................................
LV = linking verb
....................................................................................................................................
V-int = intransitive verb
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
V-tr = transitive verb
....................................................................................................................................
ADV/TP = adverbial of time or place
....................................................................................................................................
ADJ = adjective
....................................................................................................................................
24. Advanced English
24
Adverb
modifies a verb, adjective, or other
adverb
softly, lazily, often
Preposition shows a relationship between a noun (or
pronoun) and other words in a sentence
up, over, against, by, for
Conjunction joins words, phrases, and clauses and, but, or, yet
Interjection expresses emotion ah, whoops, ouch
See more details about English grammar in part of speech
Note: Though some traditional grammars have treated articles (the, a[n]) as a distinct
part of speech, contemporary grammars more often include articles in the category of
determiners.
A noun or pronoun functions as the sentence subject when it is paired with a verb
functioning as the sentence predicate. Every sentence has a subject and predicate.
24
Subject
A subject can be a noun or pronoun that is partnered with an action verb.
Example:
24
Learn English Network. ―English Grammar – Simple Sentence Construction.‖ Learn English: LEO Network. (2007). See
more details: http://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/sentencetext.htm#Object.
25. Advanced English
25
Sometimes a verb will express being or existence instead of action.
Example:
Sometimes we use sentences in which a subject is not actually stated, but is,
nevertheless, understood in the meaning.
Example:
A sentence like this gives an order or a request to someone.
Because we use such statements when we are talking directly to someone, we omit the
word you. It is understood in the sentence. Therefore, in statements like this one, we say the
subject is
You (understood).
This kind of sentence is an imperative sentence.
Predicate
26. Advanced English
26
A predicate is a verb that expresses the subject's action or state of being.
Example:
Sometimes the predicate will be composed of two or three verbs that fit together - the main
verb preceded by one or more auxiliary (helping) verbs.
Note: To be a predicate, a verb that ends in -ing must always have a helping verb
with it. An -ing verb without a helping verb cannot be a predicate in a sentence. A subject
and predicate may not always appear together or in the normal order, as the following
examples show:
27. Advanced English
27
Phrases
A phrase is a group of related words that
1. does not express a complete thought
2. does not have a subject and predicate pair
One type of phrase is a prepositional phrase.
Examples:
Another kind of phrase is a verbal phrase.
Examples:
Even though these phrases contain nouns (pronouns) and/or verb forms, none of the
nouns/pronouns/verbs are subjects or predicates. None of them work as a partnership.
Also, these phrases do not express complete thoughts.
Clauses
Words and phrases can be put together to make clauses.
A clause is a group of related words that contain a subject and predicate. Note
the difference between phrases and clauses in the following examples:
Only one of the clauses is a sentence.
Clause #1 gives a thought or an idea that is complete, that can stand by itself,
independent of other words.
29. Advanced English
29
Phrases
Clauses
When entire independent clauses (simple sentences) are joined this way, they become
compound sentences.
Avoiding Fragments
A complete sentence needs only two elements:
a subject - predicate unit and a complete thought
In other words, a simple sentence is actually the same thing as an independent
clause.
Dependent clauses or phrases are called fragments because they are missing
one or more parts needed to make a sentence. Therefore, they are only pieces or
fragments of complete sentences.
30. Advanced English
30
Look at these examples:
Avoiding Comma Splices and Fused Sentences
Sometimes two independent clauses (simple sentences) can be joined to form another
kind of sentence: the compound sentence.
26
Two major errors can occur when constructing
compound sentences.
Error #1: The Comma Splice
Writers make this error when they try to separate the two independent clauses in a
compound sentence with a comma alone. A comma is not a strong enough punctuation mark
to separate the two independent clauses by itself; thus, using it causes the clauses to be
spliced together.
Example of a comma splice:
27
This sentence can be repaired in three ways:
26
The New Fowler's Modern English Usage edited by R.W. Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 1996. Used with
the permission of Oxford University Press.
27
Longman Guide to English Usage,Practical English Usage The Oxford Companion to the English Language,This message
has been edited. Last edited by: PromegaX, March 09, 2005.
32. Advanced English
32
2. By placing a semicolon between the two clauses
3. By adding the needed punctuation and an appropriate conjunctive adverb
Another way to repair a comma splice or fused sentence is to make each independent
clause into a simple sentence.
Sentence Types and Punctuation
A sentence may be one of four kinds, depending upon the number and type(s)
of clauses it contains.
An independent clause contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.
A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but no complete thought.
A Simple Sentence has one independent clause.
33. Advanced English
33
Punctuation note: NO commas separate compound elements (subject, verb, direct
object, indirect object, subjective complement, etc.) in a simple sentence.
29
A Compound Sentence
A Compound Sentence has two independent clauses joined by
A. a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so),
B. a conjunctive adverb (e.g. however, therefore), or
C. a semicolon alone.
Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, and C above):
A. Independent clause, coordinating conjunction independent
clause
B. Independent clause; conjunctive adverb, independent clause.
C. Independent clause; independent clause.
A Complex Sentence
A Complex Sentence has one dependent clause (headed by a subordinating
conjunction or a relative pronouns) joined to an independent clause.
29
Fries Charles, Carpenter. (1952). The Structure of English; an introduction to the construction of English sentences, New
York: Harcourt, Brace.
34. Advanced English
34
Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, C and D above):
A. Dependent clause, independent clause
B. Independent clause dependent clause
C. Independent, nonessential dependent clause, clause.
D. Independent essential dependent clause clause.
A Compound-Complex Sentence
A Compound-Complex Sentence has two independent clauses joined to one or more
dependent clauses.
Punctuation Patterns:
Follow the rules given above for compound and complex sentences.
A compound-complex sentence is merely a combination of the two.
Connectors-Compound and Complex Sentences
Two independent clauses may be joined by
1. Coordinating conjunctions (Fanboys) Ic, and ic
35. Advanced English
35
2. Conjunctive adverbs Ic; therefore, ic.
A dependent (subordinate) Clause may be Introduced by
1. Subordinating conjunctions (Adverb Clause) Dc, ic. Or Ic
dc.
2. Relative pronouns (Adjective Clause) I, dc, c. or I
dc c.
3. Relative pronoun, subordinating conjunctions, or adverbs (Noun
Clause)
Punctuations
Adverb clause:
Examples:
Because she was sick, she didn‘t come to attend the
speech.
She didn‘t come to attend the speech because she was
sick.
An adverb clause may precede or follow an
independent clause.
A comma is used if the adverb clause comes first.
Preposition
Because of her sickness, she didn‘t come to attend the speech.
She didn‘t come to attend the speech because of her sickness.
A preposition is followed by a noun, not by a subject and verb.
A comma is usually used if the prepositional phrase precedes the subject
and verb of the independent clause.
Conjunction
She was sick, so she didn‘t come to attend the speech.
36. Advanced English
36
A conjunction comes between two independent clauses.
Usually a comma is used immediately in front of a conjunction.
Transition
He worked very hard. (;) Therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. (;) He, therefore, he passed his exams.
He worked very hard. (;) He passed his exams, therefore.
Either a period or a semicolon may be used between the two dependent clauses. A
comma may not be used to separate the clauses.
Commas are usually used to set the transition off from the rest of the sentence.
Review: Punctuation Marks
Apostrophes
Colons
Commas
Dashes
Italics
Parentheses
Quotation Marks
Semicolons
Apostrophe
1. To show ownership (to form the possessive case of nouns)
Examples
37. Advanced English
37
2. To show joint ownership with nouns
Example
3. To show individual ownership with nouns
Example
4. To show ownership with indefinite pronouns
Examples
Note: Do not use an apostrophe to form the possessive case of the personal possessive
pronoun its.
Example
Do use an apostrophe with its to mean it is or it has
Correct
38. Advanced English
38
5. To form the plural of letters, numbers, and signs, and of words referred to as
words.
Examples
Parentheses
1. To enclose interrupting elements that added information or identification
Examples
2. To enclose figures or letters when used for enumeration within a sentence
Example
Dash
To set off parenthetical matter
Example
39. Advanced English
39
Note: Unlike parentheses, which minimize the importance of the parenthetical
material, dashes emphasize parenthetical material.
Notice the different emphasis in each sentence.
Italics (underlining)
1. For words, letters, and figures referred to as such
Examples
2. For foreign, technical (including mathematical expressions), or unusual words
and phrases.
Examples
3. For titles of books, newspapers, magazines, journals, plays, movies, radio programs,
40. Advanced English
40
TV programs, long musical works, long poems, works of art, names of ships and airplanes.
Examples
Quotation Marks
1. To enclose titles of minor works: articles, essays, poems, songs, chapters of books,
short stories, episodes of radio/TV programs.
Examples
2. To enclose words used ironically or where the term so-called could be inserted.
Examples
3. To enclose a direct quotation: a person's exact words
Example
Note: Do not use quotation marks to enclose indirect quotations.
Incorrect
Correct
41. Advanced English
41
If the quotation within another quotation is a question or an exclamation, place
appropriate punctuation next to the item concerned.
Examples
Question quotation inside statement
Quotation:
Statement quotation inside question quotation
Question quotation inside question quotation
Exclamation quotation inside question quotation or Question quotation
inside exclamation quotation
Note: Punctuation is the system of symbols (. , ! - : etc) that we use to separate
sentences and parts of sentences, and to make their meaning clear. Each symbol is called a
"punctuation mark".
30
The Value of Punctuation
30
Robbins, Sonia Jaffe. ―Punctuation: A Brief History.‖ Editing Workshop, Journalism Department. New York University,
Journalism Department, NYU Web (2005, January 16) See more
http://www.englishclub.com/writing/punctuation.htm retrieved on 5/18/2012.
42. Advanced English
42
An English teacher wrote these words on the board:
31
Woman without her man is nothing.
The teacher then asked the students to punctuate the words correctly. The men
wrote the top line. The women wrote the bottom line.
Table Chart of Punctuation Marks
Punctuation Mark Name Example
full stop or
period I like English.
comma I speak English, French and Thai.
semi-colon
I don't often go swimming; I
prefer to play tennis.
31
Robbins, Sonia Jaffe. ―Punctuation: A Brief History.‖ Editing Workshop, Journalism Department. New York University,
Journalism Department, NYU Web (2005, January 16).
http://www.nyu.edu/classes/copyXediting/Punctuation.html#history,―A Grammar Toolkit (10.).‖ The American
Heritage Book of English Usage: A Practical and Authoritative Guide to Contemporary English [Electronic
version]. (1996). http://www.bartleby.com/64/10.html
43. Advanced English
43
colon
You have two choices: finish the
work today or lose the contract.
hyphen This is a rather out-of-date book.
dash
In each town—London, Paris and
Rome—we stayed in youth
hostels.
question
mark Where is Shangri-La?
exclamation
mark
exclamation
point (AmE)
"Help!" she cried. "I'm
drowning!"
slash,
forward slash
or oblique
Please press your browser's
Refresh/Reload button.
backslash C:UsersFilesjse.doc
double
quotation
marks
"I love you," she said.
single
quotation
marks 'I love you,' she said.
44. Advanced English
44
apostrophe This is John's car.
underline Have you read War and Peace?
underscore bin_lad@cia.gov
round
brackets
I went to Bangkok (my favourite
city) and stayed there for two
weeks.
square
brackets
The newspaper reported that the
hostages [most of them French]
had been released.
ellipsis mark
One happy customer wrote: "This
is the best program...that I have
ever seen."
The Table of Summary of Punctuation Marks By http://www.englishclub.com
English Tips
Although there are general rules for English punctuation, there are differences of style
between, for example, British and American English, some publishers and some writers.
Anyone seeking guidance at an advanced level is recommended to consult a style guide
(often included in good dictionaries) for their particular variety of English or editorial style.
Exercise
Writing Skill in Grammar Structures
45. Advanced English
45
Directions: Please write these abbreviate words to be full word and give two
examples by writing the full sentence
:
2
Ex. S. = Subject I, You, We, They, He, She, It
1. N.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
2. NP.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
3. VP. Or Gerund ing. To
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
4. Nprop. Obarma
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
..
5. Ncom. bird
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
6. Ncount.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
48. Advanced English
48
Predicate =
4. Two beautiful goldfish in the pond were eating the insects on the top of the water.
Subject =
Predicate =
5. Until that last telephone call, I was having a wonderful day.
Subject =
Predicate =
6. Last week's fire was started by an arsonist from a nearby town.
Subject =
Predicate =
7. Her latest statement to the press was carefully worded.
Subject =
Predicate =
8. Novels by E. L. Doctorow are my favorite.
Subject =
Predicate =
9. The farmers in that part of the county are planting their fields this week.
Subject =
Predicate =
10. You eat your food slowly.
Subject =
Predicate =
Answer Key
Identifying Subjects and Predicates - Exercise 1
The correct answers are given below. For help with subjects and predicates,
49. Advanced English
49
1. Four young soldiers led the troops into battle.
Subject = soldiers Predicate = led
Your answers: subject= predicate=
2. In less than two hours, the entire cake had been eaten.
Subject = cake Predicate = had been eaten
Your answers: subject= predicate=
3. For most of his career, Jim has ridden his bicycle to his office.
Subject = Jim Predicate = has ridden
Your answers: subject= predicate=
4. Two beautiful goldfish in the pond were eating the insects on the top of the water.
Subject = goldfish Predicate = were eating
Your answers: subject= predicate=
5. Until that last telephone call, I was having a wonderful day.
Subject = I Predicate = was having
Your answers: subject= predicate=
6. Last week's fire was started by an arsonist from a nearby town.
Subject = fire Predicate = was started
Your answers: subject= predicate=
7. Her latest statement to the press was carefully worded.
Subject = statement Predicate = was worded
Your answers: subject= predicate=
8. Novels by E. L. Doctorow are my favorite.
Subject = novels Predicate = are
Your answers: subject= predicate=
50. Advanced English
50
9. The farmers in that part of the county are planting their fields this week.
Subject = farmers Predicate = are planting
Your answers: subject= predicate=
10. Eat your food slowly.
Subject = "you" understood Predicate = eat
Your answers: subject= predicate=
Chapter 5
Expansion of Phrases to Clauses
This chapter I would like to give you understanding the definition of phrases and
clauses, how can we identify phrases and clauses included with explaining and giving the
example about the structure of simple sentences throughout guiding to phrases and clauses,
here we‘ll continue what are phrases and clauses.
What are Phrases and Clauses?
Phrases and clauses are groups of related words that serve as building blocks of
sentences on a larger scale than parts of speech. A clause contains both a subject and a verb
whereas a phrase does not. Understanding phrases and clauses and knowing how to recognize
them help writers create varied sentences and avoid problems such as run-on sentences,
fragments, and punctuation errors.
32
How Can We Identify Phrases and Clauses?
A phrase, which generally consists of multiple parts of speech, behaves as a unit like a
single part of speech. In the following examples, note how phrases take on the roles of nouns,
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. (Phrases that begin with a preposition—called ―prepositional
phrases‖—can fulfill various functions, particularly as adjective phrases, adverb phrases, or
part of noun phrases.
33
)
Noun phrases name a person, place, thing, or idea.
Buying a home can be a stressful ordeal.
My elegant Aunt Ida adores that mangy one-eyed mutt of hers.
32
http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/gram_clauses_n_phrases.htmlCopyright Dr. L. Kip Wheeler 1998-2012. Permission is granted
for non-profit, educational, and student reproduction. Last updated 2 January, 2013
33
http://www.eslgold.com/grammar/clauses_phrases.html/Last updated: 15 February, 2010.
52. Advanced English
52
(When Laney scratched off the final number on the lottery ticket,) she
remembered the reason for her nickname, Luckless Laney.
The movie (that I saw last weekend) wasn’t nearly as good as the popcorn.
Mr. Wu will not visit tomorrow (unless he can get his car repaired this
afternoon).
Five Basic Structures of Simple Sentences
Recognizing the five basic structures of simple sentences can be helpful as you later
begin to identify subordinate structures that expand these simple structures. At the heart of
any complete sentence, you will find one or more of these basic patterns. Sometimes the
patterns are not obvious as they appear when listed together. However, as you become
familiar with these structures, you will become skilled in recognizing and expanding them
with subordinate structures.
Basic Pattern Pattern Example
1. Subject/Verb Edward laughed.
The baby crawls and coos.
Spring rain and flowers abound.
2. Subject/Verb/Direct Object Margaret recalled a memory.
Susan shovels snow.
President Obama gave a speech.
3. Subject/Verb/Complement The consultant seemed pleasant.
All applicants were UM graduates.
Our house is sturdy.
4. Subject/Verb/Indirect Object/ The new candidate give me hope.
Direct Object I offered the candidate my
support.
He gave the child a stern look.
5. Subject/Verb/Direct Object/ The girl thinks herself intelligent.
Object Complement The children made David ―it.‖
Squirrels drove the dogs mad.
53. Advanced English
53
You will notice that these basic sentence types can be expanded by dependent
(subordinate) structures like dependent adverbial clauses, dependent relative clauses, and the
variety of phrases made up of dependent prepositional, participial, appositive, and absolute
phrases. These are all strategies of sentence expansion.
Samples of Patterns Expanded with Clauses and Phrases
Subject/Verb expanded with a prepositional phrase:
A herd of elk gathered (beside the stream.)
New students arrive (at the end of August).
Subject/Verb expanded with a dependent relative clause and a prepositional
phrase:
The house, (which was originally built in the 1920s), stood (next to an old
mill).
Her computer, (which was donated by a colleague), crashed (during a data
analysis).
Subject/Verb/Object expanded with a participial phrase:
(Hearing a loud clap of thunder), the campers gathered their gear.
(Intending to garner support for his campaign), the politician delivered his
speech.
Subject/Verb/Object expanded with a dependent adverbial clause:
The campers packed their gear (while rain soaked the ground).
(Although the forecast calls for freezing temperatures), she planted her garden.
Subject/Verb/Object expanded with a dependent relative clause:
The athlete, (who knew her own prowess), scored a goal.
Her father, (who could hardly contain his excitement), let loose a cheer.
Subject/Verb/Object expanded with all of the above:
(Using all her strength), the athlete, (who knew her own prowess), scored a
goal (while her father cheered from the stands).
The other three basic sentence patterns can also be expanded in the same
manner.
A Guide to Phrases and Clauses
Phrases
1. Prepositional phrases (over the rainbow)
54. Advanced English
54
a. as adjectives
b. as adverbs
2. Adjectival phrases (free from government control)
3. Verbal –ing phrase [present participle] (running five miles each
day)
a. as adjective
b. as noun
c. as adverb (sometimes)
4. Verbal –ed phrase [past participle] (written in 2001)
a. as adjective
5. Verbal to phrase [infinitive] (to win the game)
6. Truncated clause [subordinating conjunction + five structures {adj
phrase, -ing phrase, -ed phrase, prepositional phrase, noun} ] (when in Rome)
7. Noun absolute [noun or pronoun + five structures] (his knees
shaking)
8. Noun appositive (the reserve catcher)
Clauses
9. Dependent adjectival clause (she slept in the barn)
a. as a restrictive that clause
b. as a nonrestrictive which clause
c. as a restrictive and nonrestrictive who/whom/whose clause
10. Dependent adverbial clause (because he enjoyed the special
effects)
11. Dependent noun clause (that he would prevail)
See more concerned details in chapter 4 pp.19-25.
Exercise
Using the examples as a guide, expand each sentence or word group below by adding
an appropriate adjective clause.
55. Advanced English
55
Examples:
(1) I admire the person who _____.
Sample sentence #1: I admire the person who first dared to eat a tomato.
Sample sentence #2: I admire the person who has the courage to speak her mind.
(2) The house in which _____ was run down and smelled like boiled cabbage.
Sample sentence #1: The house in which my teacher lived was run down and
smelled like boiled cabbage.
Sample sentence #2: The house in which the body was found was run down and
smelled like boiled cabbage.
A simple sentence may be converted into a complex sentence by expanding a word
or phrase into a subordinate noun clause, adjective clause or adverb clause.
Study the following examples
By expanding a noun into a noun clause
A noun may be expanded into a noun clause.
He admitted his mistake.
He admitted that he had made a mistake. (Here the noun mistake is expanded into
the noun clause ‗that he had made a mistake‘.)
We heard of his death. (Simple)
We heard that he had died. (Complex)
A noun phrase can also be expanded into a noun clause.
He seems to be a fool. (Simple)
It seems that he is a fool. (Complex. Here we expand the phrase ‗a fool‘ into the
clause ‗that he is a fool‘.)
I would like to know the secret of your success. (Simple)
I would like to know how you succeed. (Complex)
By expanding a word or phrase into an adverb clause
A word or phrase can be expanded into an adverb clause.
It is too hot to go out without an umbrella. (Simple)
It is so hot that we cannot go out without an umbrella. (Complex)
57. Advanced English
57
To Create the Transformation,
1. Make the direct object into the subject,
2. Add the "be" auxiliary and the -en ending to the main verb, and
3. Place the original doer of the action into a prepositional phrase beginning
with by.
Examples:
Note: Do not change verb tense when transforming sentences from active to passive.
Ate = was eaten
Gave = was given
58. Advanced English
58
Consider = is considered
Made = was made
Transform to the Expletive there is / there are
This transformation requires using a sentence with a verb of being as the main verb.
The sentence pattern must be
NP1 + V-be + ADV/TP. A fly is on the wall.
Two dogs were at the park.
To Create the Transformation,
1. Place there at the beginning of the sentence and
2. Reverse positions of the subject and verb.
Examples:
Note: Do not change verb tense when creating the there is / there are transformation.
is = there is
is = There was
are = there
were = there were
59. Advanced English
59
Transform to Cleft/Divide
This transformation allows the writer to emphasize the sentence subject or object.
This transformation may be used with any of the sentence patterns. There are two ways to
create this transformation.
Method 1
1. Begin the sentence with It and the appropriate number and tense of the verb
of being,
2. Focus on either the subject or direct object, and
3. Create a second half for the sentence that begins with who, whom, or
that.
Examples:
In the above example, the first cleft transformation emphasizes the subject, dog, using
three words to refer to the dog: it, dog, and that.
The second cleft transformation emphasizes the direct object, bone, using three words
to refer to the bone: it, bone, and that.
60. Advanced English
60
In the above example, the first cleft transformation emphasizes the direct object, Joe,
using three words to refer to Joe: it, Joe, and whom.
The second cleft transformation emphasizes the subject we, using three words to refer
to us it, we, and who.
Method 2
1. Begin the sentence with What,
2. Follow with the subject and verb, and
3. Insert the appropriate tense of the verb of being and follow with
the direct object.
Examples:
In the above example, the cleft transformation emphasizes the direct object, bone,
using two words to refer to bone: what and bone.
This cleft transformation emphasizes the direct object, ring, using two words to refer
to the ring: what and ring.
Note: Do not change verb tense when creating the cleft transformation.
Past Tense:
The dog ate the bone.
It was the dog who ate the bone.
61. Advanced English
61
It was the bone that the dog ate.
What the dog ate was the bone.
Present Tense:
We consider Joe intelligent.
It is Joe whom we consider Intelligent.
Past Tense:
Joe gave Mary a ring.
What Joe gave Mary was a ring.
Transform to Negative
This transformation may be used with any of the sentence patterns.
To Create the Negative Transformation
1. with a verb of being as the main verb: Add not to the verb.
Example
2. with an action or linking verb that has an auxiliary verb (have or be): Add not to
the verb
Example - action verb
62. Advanced English
62
Example - linking verb
3. With an action or linking verb that does not have an auxiliary verb: Add not and
the appropriate number and tense of do.
Example - action verb
Example - linking verb
Transform to Interrogative with yes-no answer
This transformation may be used with any of the sentence patterns. To transform
sentences into the interrogative with yes-no answer,
1. with a verb of being as the main verb: Transpose the position of the subject and
the verb
63. Advanced English
63
2. with an action or linking verb that has an auxiliary verb (have or be): Transpose
the position of the subject and the auxiliary verb
Example - action verb
Example - linking verb
3. With an action or linking verb that does not have an auxiliary verb: Add the
appropriate number and tense of do
Example - Action verb
Example - Linking verb
Transform to Interrogative
64. Advanced English
64
This transformation provides questions that will produce more than a yes/no answer.
It may be used with any of the sentence patterns.
To create the transformation,
1. Place an interrogative word at the beginning of the sentence,
2. Reverse positions of the subject and verb, and
3. Add do/does/did if needed (action or linking verb without auxiliary verb).
Interrogative Words:
how when where why what which who whom
Example - verb of being
Example - action verb with auxiliary verb
Example - linking verb with auxiliary verb
Example - action verb without auxiliary verb
65. Advanced English
65
Example - linking verb without auxiliary verb
Note: Sentences using which or whose to create the interrogative may not require
adding do/does/did or transposing the positions of the subject and verb.
Transform to Emphasis / Emphatic
This transformation may be used
With all sentence patterns except the verb-of-being patterns.
With action or linking verbs that do not have auxiliary verbs.
To make the emphatic transformation, place do, does, or did in front of the verb, as
tense and number dictate.
Examples
66. Advanced English
66
Transform to Imperative
This transformation creates a command. It may be used with all sentence patterns. To
make the imperative transformation, replace the sentence subject with you understood and
change the verb form to its infinitive form without to
Examples:
Note: There is only one tense, simple present, for the imperative transformation.
Transform to Exclamatory
This transformation creates a surprise statement. It may be used with all sentence
patterns. To make the exclamatory transformation,
place what or how at the beginning of the sentence
rearrange words in the sentence as needed
place an exclamation point at the end of the sentence
Examples:
In many cases, more than one transformation may be performed at a time on a given
sentence.
Example - passive and interrogative
67. Advanced English
67
Example - passive, negative, and interrogative yes-no
Example - cleft, emphasis, and interrogative yes-no
Answer the Question Active and Passive
Examples: Change the following active sentences into passive form.
She wrote a letter.
A letter was written by her.
1. Julia rescued three cats.
Three cats were rescued by Julia.
2. Steven has forgotten the books.
The books have been forgotten by Steven.
3. The teacher will not open the window.
The window will not (won’t) be opened by the teacher.
4. Susan is baking a cake.
A cake is being baked my Susan
5. Tim washed many cars.
Many cars were washed by Tim.
Examples: Change the following passive sentences into active form.
Pasta is being cooked by Jim.
Jim is cooking Pasta.
68. Advanced English
68
1. The words were explained by the teacher yesterday.
The teacher explained the words yesterday.
2. Many dishes were not washed by my little brother.
My little brother didn’t wash many dishes.
3. Photos are taken by me.
I take photos.
4. Housework is done by her.
She does housework.
5. Kevin asked Dennis a question.
Denis was asked a question by Kevin. here change Active to be
Passive)
Exercise
The Answer keys of Active and Passive
Exercise: Change the following active sentences into passive form.
0. She wrote a letter.
A letter was written by her.
1. Julia rescued three cats.
Three cats were rescued by Julia.
2. Steven has forgotten the books.
The books have been forgotten by Steven.
3. The teacher will not open the window.
The window will not (won’t) be opened by the teacher.
4. Susan is baking a cake.
A cake is being baked my Susan
5. Tim washed many cars.
Many cars were washed by Tim.
Exercise: Change the following passive sentences into active form.
0. Pasta is being cooked by Jim.
Jim is cooking Pasta.
69. Advanced English
69
1. The words were explained by the teacher yesterday.
The teacher explained the words yesterday.
2. Many dishes were not washed by my little brother.
My little brother didn’t wash many dishes.
3. Photos are taken by me.
I take photos.
4. Housework is done by her.
She does housework.
5. Kevin asked Dennis a question.
Denis was asked a question by Kevin. Active Passive)
Complete the correct verb form with the passive.
1. A song ..(sing)..........................by Ann now.
2. Rice (usually eat) .............................by Thai people nationwide.
3. English (teach).......................................by me for more than 20 years.
4. Two snakes (kill).................................by my dog yesterday.
5. My birthday party (hold) ...............................next Saturday.
71. Advanced English
71
Melt!
Ice melts.
The ice melts quickly.
The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the river melts quickly under
the warm March sun.
As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long -- it is a mistake to think that you
can tell a simple sentence from a compound sentence or a complex sentence simply by its
length.
The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it is the first kind which
children learn to speak, and it remains by far the most common sentence in the spoken
language of people of all ages. In written work, simple sentences can be very effective for
grabbing a reader's attention or for summing up an argument, but you have to use them with
care: too many simple sentences can make your writing seem childish.
When you do use simple sentences, you should add transitional phrases to connect
them to the surrounding sentences.
The Compound Sentence
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple
sentences) joined by co-ordinating conjunctions like "and," "but," and "or":
Simple
Canada is a rich country.
Simple
Still, it has many poor people.
Compound
Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people.
Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers -- small children learn to
use them early on to connect their ideas and to avoid pausing (and allowing an adult to
interrupt):
74. Advanced English
74
A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a compound sentence
because it makes clear which ideas are most important. When you write:
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
Or even
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
The reader will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most important to
you. When you write the subordinating conjunction "although" at the beginning of the first
clause, however, you make it clear that the fact that your friend invited you is less important
than, or subordinate, to the fact that you do not want to go.
Terminology
Capital letter - use capital letters:
To begin sentences
With the first person subject pronoun "I"
For all proper nouns including names, days of the week, month, names of
institutions, etc.
Nationality adjectives (i.e., Italian)
For the first letter in direct speech
Determiner: type - definite article
Subordinate clause - cannot stand alone
Main clause - can stand alone
Connective adverb - other examples include: firstly, finally, etc.
77. Advanced English
77
Obviously, the fish wasn‘t walking! But in this sentence walking must refer to fish, so
the whole thing is ungrammatical (as well as unscientific). Here we will start reduction of
adverb clauses to modifying Phrases as follows
Time: Since, After, and Before
General Rules
Rule 1: If the main verb of the adverb clause is the be verb, omit the
subject and the be verb.
While I was walking down the street, I came across a very strange guy.
While walking down the street, I came across a very strange guy.
Rule 2: If the main verb of the adverb clause is not the be verb, omit
the subject and change the verb to ~ing.
Before I go to school in the morning, I usually take a shower.
Before going to school in the morning, I usually take a shower.
Rule 3: The reduction is possible only when the subjects of the adverb clause
and the main clause are the same. (In very formal English, is sometimes possible to
use the different subjects.)
(Different subjects)
Before he came, I had already finished my homework.
[The adverb clause in this sentence cannot be reduced to a phrase.]
Since I came to the U.S.A., I have been studying English.
78. Advanced English
78
Since coming to the U.S.A., I have been studying English.
After I finished my homework, I went to the party. After I had finished my
homework, I went to the party.
After finishing my homework, I went to the party.
After having finished my homework, I went to the party.
Before I came to the U.S.A., I lived in Australia. I lived in Australia before I came to
the U.S.A.
Before coming to the U.S.A., I lived in Australia. I lived in Australia before coming
to the U.S.A.
Reduction of Adverb Clauses to Modifying Phrases (continuous)
Time: While (during the same time)
While I was watching TV, I heard someone knock on the door.
While watching TV, I heard someone knock on the door.
Watching TV, I heard someone knock on the door.
[While can be omitted.]
Cause and Effect
Because he wanted more money, he accepted the offer.
Wanting more money, he accepted the offer.
[Because is omitted.]
Because I didn‘t want to hurt her, I didn‘t tell her the truth.
Not wanting to hurt her, I didn‘t tell her the truth.
Because I (have) lived in the city before, I have many friends there.
Having lived in the city before, I have many friends there.
79. Advanced English
79
[The time in the adverb clause is before the main clause.]
Because I had read the book before, I didn‘t read it again.
Having read the book before, I didn‘t read it gain.
Because she was anxious to see them, she couldn‘t sleep that night.
Being anxious to see them, she couldn‘t sleep that night.
Anxious to see them, she couldn‘t sleep that night.
[Being can be omitted.]
Time + Cause & Effect: Upon -ing / On –ing
When she heard the news, Jennifer burst into tears.
[Immediately after she heard the news (and because she heard it), she
burst into tears.]
Upon hearing the news, Jennifer burst into tears.
On hearing the news, Jennifer burst into tears.
Adverb clauses
Part 1: Adverb Clauses
1. Introduction:
Examples:
When she was in Miami, she visited many
friends.
She visited many friends when she was in
Miami.
When she was in Miami: is an adverb clause.
She visited many friends: Independent clause.
80. Advanced English
80
The words used to introduce adverb clauses are called subordinating conjunction.
Time:
After, before, when, while, as by the time (that), whenever,
since, until, as soon as, once, as so long as.
Cause and effect:
Because, since, now that, as so long as, inasmuch as, so (that), in
order that.
Opposition:
Even though, although, though, whereas, while.
Condition:
If, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing (that),
provided (that), in case (that), in the event (that).
2. Time relationships with adverb clauses
Examples:
After she (had) came, she turned on the radio.
After she comes, she will turn on the radio.
Before she came, she (had) turned on the
radio.
Before she comes, she will turn on the radio.
The adverb clause contains a present tense while the independent
clause contains a future time.
When he came, she was turning on the radio.
When he came, she had already turned on the radio.
When he came, she turned on the radio.
When he was out, she turned on the radio.
When he comes tomorrow, she will turn on the radio.
While she was listening to the radio, he knocked at the door.
