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Management History - Issues and
Challenges



                              Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company.
                              All rights reserved.
   After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
       Justify the importance of history and theory to management
        and discuss pioneers to modern management theory.
       Summarize and evaluate the classical perspective on
        management, including scientific and administrative
        management, and note its relevance to contemporary
        managers.
       Summarize and evaluate the behavioral perspective on
        management, including the Hawthorne studies, human
        relations movement, and organizational behavior, and note
        its relevance to contemporary managers.
       Summarize and evaluate the quantitative perspective on
        management, including management science and
        operations management, and notes its relevance to
        contemporary managers.
                                                                 2–2
   After studying this chapter, you should be able
    to:
     Discuss  the systems and contingency approaches
      to management and explain their potential for
      integrating the other areas of management.
     Identify and describe contemporary management
      issues and challenges.




                                                   2–3
   The Role of Theory and
    History in Management
       The Importance of Theory and
                                             The Behavioral Management
        History                               Perspective (cont’d)
       Precursors to Management Theory          The Behavioral Management
                                                  Perspective Today
   The Classical Management
    Perspective
                                             The Quantitative
       Scientific Management
                                              Management Perspective
                                                 Management Science
       General Administrative
        Management                               Operations Management
       The Classical Management                 The Quantitative Management
        Perspective Today                         Perspective Today
   The Behavioral                           Contemporary Management
    Management Perspective                    Issues and Challenges
       The Hawthorne Studies                    Contemporary Applied Perspectives
       The Human Relations Movement             Contemporary Management Challenges
       The Emergence of Organizational
        Behavior
                                                                                  2–4
   Why Theor y?
     A theory is a conceptual framework for organizing
      knowledge and providing a blueprint for action.
     Management theories, used to build organizations, are
      grounded in reality. Most managers develop their own
      theories about how they should run their organizations.
   Why Histor y?
       An awareness and understanding of important
        historical developments in management are also
        important to contemporary managers in furthering the
        development of management practices and in avoiding
        the mistakes of others in the past.

                                                           2–5
   Management in Antiquity
                                                               D Greeks



                C Babylonians                                                                         G Venetians



         B Egyptians                                              E Romans



         A Sumerians                              F Chinese



    3000 B.C.    2500 B.C.    2000 B.C.     1500 B.C.     1000 B.C.   500 B.C.                   A.D.500      A.D.1000      A.D.1500



    A Used written rules and regulations for governance               E Used organized structure for communication and control


    B Used management practices to construct pyramids                 F Used extensive organization structure for government

                                                                         agencies and the arts
    C Used extensive set of laws and policies for governance

                                                                      G Used organization design and planning concepts to
    D Used different governing systems for cities and state
                                                                         control the seas
                                                                                                                                       2–6
   Robert Owen (1771–1858)
       British industrialist who was one of the first managers to
        recognize the importance of human resources.
       Implemented better working conditions, set a minimum age for
        child labor, provided meals, and reduced work hours.

   Charles Babbage (1792–1871)
       Noted English mathematician who focused on creating
        efficiencies of production through the division of labor,
        cooperation between management and labor, and the application
        of mathematics to management problems.
       Wrote “On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.”



                                                                       2–7
   Consists of two different viewpoints:
     Scientific    Management
        Concerned   with improving the performance of individual
         workers (i.e., efficiency).
        Grew out of the industrial revolution’s labour shortage at
         the beginning of the 20th century.

     General     Administrative Management
       A   theory that focuses on managing the total organization.




                                                                  2–8
   Frederick Taylor (1856–1915)
       Considered the “Father of Scientific Management.”

       Replaced old rule-of-thumb methods of how to do work with
        scientifically-based work methods to eliminate “soldiering”
        where employees deliberately worked at a pace slower than
        their capabilities.

       Believed in selecting, training, teaching, and developing
        workers.

       Used time studies of jobs, standards planning, exception
        rule of management, slide-rules, instruction cards, and
        piece-work pay systems to control and motivate employees.
                                                                    2–9
1                           2                           3                        4

                                                      Supervise employees

Develop a science         Scientifically select                                   Continue to plan
                                                      to make sure they

for each element of       employees and then                                      the work, but use
                                                      follow the prescribed

the job to replace old    train them to do the job                                workers to get the
                                                      methods for performing

rule-of-thumb methods     as described in step 1                                  work done
                                                      their jobs




                                                                                                      2–10
   Other Scientific Management Pioneers
     Frank    and Lillian Gilbreth
        Reduced  the number of movements in bricklaying, resulting
        in increased output of 200%.
     Henr y   Gantt
        Was an early associate of Fredrick Taylor.
        Developed other techniques, including the Gantt chart, to
         improve working efficiency through planning/scheduling.
     Harrington     Emerson
        Advocated job specialization in both managerial and
        operating jobs.

                                                                 2–11
   Administrative Management Theor y
     Focuses on managing the whole organization
     rather than individuals.
   Henri Fayol
     Wrote  “General and Industrial Management.”
     Helped to systematize the practice of
      management.
     Was first to identify the specific management
      functions of planning, organizing, leading, and
      controlling.
                                                        2–12
   Lyndall Urwick
       Integrated the work of previous management theorists.
   Max Weber
       His theory of bureaucracy is based on a rational set of
        guidelines for structuring organizations.
   Chester Barnard
     Wrote “The Functions of the Executive.”
     Proposed a theory of the acceptance of authority (by
      subordinates) as the source of power and influence for
      managers.


                                                              2–13
   Contributions
       Laid the foundation for later developments.
       Identified important management processes, functions, and
        skills.
       Focused attention on management as a valid subject of
        scientific inquiry.
   Limitations
       More appropriate approach for use in traditional, stable,
        simple organizations.
       Prescribed universal procedures that are not appropriate in
        some settings.
       In some cases, employees are viewed as tools rather than
        as resources.

                                                                 2–14
   Behavioral Management
     Emphasized individual attitudes and behaviors, and
      group processes.
     Recognized the importance of behavioral processes in
      the workplace.
   Hugo Munsterberg (1863–1916)
       A German psychologist, considered the father of
        industrial psychology, wrote “ Psychology and Industrial
        Efficiency,” a pioneering work in the practice of
        applying psychological concepts to industrial settings.


                                                              2–15
   The Hawthorne Studies
       Conducted by Elton Mayo and associates at Western
        Electric (1927–1935)
       Illumination study—changes in workplace lighting
        affected both the control group and the experimental
        group of production employees.
       Group study— the effects of a piecework incentive plan
        on production workers.
          Workers established informal levels of acceptable individual
           output.
          Over-producing workers were labeled “rate busters” and under-
           producing workers were considered “chiselers.”
       Interview program
            Confirmed the importance of human behavior in the
             workplace.

                                                                           2–16
   Human Relations Movement
       Grew out of the Hawthorne studies.
       Proposed that workers respond primarily to the social
        context of work, including social conditioning, group
        norms, and interpersonal dynamics.
       Assumed that the manager’s concern for workers would
        lead to increased worker satisfaction and improved
        worker performance.
   Abraham Maslow
       Advanced a theory that employees are motivated by a
        hierarchy of needs that they seek to satisfy.
   Douglas McGregor
       Proposed Theory X and Theory Y concepts of
        managerial beliefs about people and work.
                                                                2–17
Theory X             1. People do not like work and try to avoid it.
   Assump-
                        2. People do not like work, so managers have to control, direct, coerce,
   tions
                           and threaten employees to get them to work toward organizational
                           goals.
                        3. People prefer to be directed, to avoid responsibility, and to want
                           security; they have little ambition.

   Theory Y             1. People do not naturally dislike work; work is a natural part of their lives.
   Assump-
                        2. People are internally motivated to reach objectives to which they are
   tions
                           committed.
                        3. People are committed to goals to the degree that they receive personal
                           rewards when they reach their objectives.
                        4. People seek both seek responsibility and accept responsibility under
                           favorable conditions.
                        5. People have the capacity to be innovative in solving organizational
                           problems.
                        6. People are bright, but under most organizational conditions their
                           potentials are underutilized.


                                                                                                Table 2.2
Source: Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise, Copyright © 1960
by McGraw-Hill. Reprinted by permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies.
                                                                                                          2–18
   A contemporary field focusing on behavioral
    perspectives on management.
       Draws on psychology, sociology, anthropology,
        economics, and medicine.
   Important topics in organizational behavior
    research:
     Job satisfaction and job stress
     Motivation and leadership
     Group dynamics and organizational politics
     Interpersonal conflict
     The design of organizations



                                                        2–19
   Contributions
      Provided important insights into motivation, group dynamics,
       and other interpersonal processes.
      Focused managerial attention on these critical processes.

      Challenged the view that employees are tools and furthered
       the belief that employees are valuable resources.

   Limitations
      Complexity of individuals makes behavior difficult to predict.

      Many concepts not put to use because managers are reluctant
       to adopt them.
      Contemporary research findings are not often communicated
       to practicing managers in an understandable form.

                                                                      2–20
   Quantitative Management
      Emerged during World War II to help the Allied forces
       manage logistical problems.
      Focuses on decision making, economic effectiveness,
       mathematical models, and the use of computers to
       solve quantitative problems.
   Management Science
      Focuses on the development of representative
       mathematical models to assist with decisions.
   Operations Management
      Practical application of management science to
       efficiently manage the production and distribution of
       products and services.                                  2–21
   Contributions
       Developed sophisticated quantitative techniques to assist in
        decision making.
       Application of models has increased our awareness and
        understanding of complex processes and situations.
       Has been useful in the planning and controlling processes.
   Limitations
       Quantitative management cannot fully explain or predict the
        behavior of people in organizations.
       Mathematical sophistication may come at the expense of other
        managerial skills.
       Quantitative models may require unrealistic or unfounded
        assumptions, limiting their general applicability.


                                                                       2–22
   Systems Perspective
       A system is an interrelated set of elements functioning as a
        whole.
   Open system
       An organization that interacts with its external environment.
   Closed system
       An organization that does not interact with its environment.
   Subsystems
       The importance of subsystems is due to their
        interdependence on each other within the organization.


                                                                   2–23
Outputs into
Inputs from the         Transformation
                                               the environment:
environment:            process: technology,
                                               products/services,
material inputs,        operating systems,
                                               profits/losses,
human inputs,           administrative
                                               employee behaviors,
financial inputs, and   systems, and
                                               and information
information inputs      control systems
                                               outputs


                            Feedback




                                                          Figure 2.3
                                                                     2–24
   Synergy
       Subsystems are more successful working together in a
        cooperative and coordinated fashion than working alone.
       The whole system (subsystems working together as one
        system) is more productive and efficient than the sum of its
        parts.
   Entropy (Decay or degrading of system)
       A normal process in which an organizational system
        declines due to failing to adjust to change in its environment
       Entropy can be avoided and the organization re-energized
        through organizational change and renewal.


                                                                   2–25
   Universal Perspectives
     Include the classical, behavioral, and quantitative
      approaches.
     Attempt to identify the “one best way” to manage
      organizations.
   The Contingency Perspective
     Suggests  that each organization is unique.
     The appropriate managerial behavior for managing
      an organization depends (is contingent) on the
      current situation in the organization.
                                                            2–26
   An Integrative Framework
     Is a complementary way of thinking about theories
      of management.
     Involves the recognition of current system and
      subsystem interdependencies, environmental
      influences, and the situational nature of
      management.




                                                      2–27
Systems Approach                               Contingency Perspective
• Recognition of internal                      • Recognition of the situational
  interdependencies                              nature of management
• Recognition of                               • Response to particular
  environmental influences                       characteristics of situation

 Classical                   Behavioral                 Quantitative
 Management                  Management                 Management
 Perspectives                Perspectives               Perspectives
 Methods for                 Insights for moti-         Techniques for
 enhancing                   vating performance         improving decision
 efficiency and              and understanding          making, resource
 facilitating planning,      individual behavior,       allocation, and
 organizing, and             groups and teams,          operations
 controlling                 and leadership



                    Effective and efficient management


                                                                              Figure 2.4
                                                                                       2–28
The Emergence of Modern Management Perspectives
       The Classical Perspective

                                   The Behavioral Perspective

                                            The Quantitative Perspective

                                                      The Systems Perspective

                                                                The Contingency Perspective
                                                                                        Theory Z and the
                                                                                  Excellence Perspective
                                                                                  Contemporary Applied
                                                                                         Perspectives
                                                                                                Senge
                                                                                                Covey
                                                                                                Peters
                                                                                                Porter
                                                                                                Adams
                                                                                                Kotter
                                                                                                Hamel

1890   1900    1910      1920      1930    1940      1950       1960       1970    1980     1990      2000   2010


                                                                                                    Figure 2.5
                                                                                                               2–29
   Contemporar y Applied Perspectives
       William Ouchi’s “Theory Z,” Peters and Waterman’s “In Search of
        Excellence”
       Popular authors: Senge, Covey, Porter, Kotter, and Hamel

   Contemporar y Management Challenges
       Acute shortages of labor in high-technology job sectors
       Management of an increasingly diverse workforce
       Rapid and constant environmental and technological change
       Complex array of new ways of structuring organizations
       Increasing globalization of markets
       Renewed importance of ethics and social responsibility
       Quality as the basis for competition
       Shift to a predominately service-based economy                    2–30

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Management history

  • 1. Management History - Issues and Challenges Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
  • 2. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:  Justify the importance of history and theory to management and discuss pioneers to modern management theory.  Summarize and evaluate the classical perspective on management, including scientific and administrative management, and note its relevance to contemporary managers.  Summarize and evaluate the behavioral perspective on management, including the Hawthorne studies, human relations movement, and organizational behavior, and note its relevance to contemporary managers.  Summarize and evaluate the quantitative perspective on management, including management science and operations management, and notes its relevance to contemporary managers. 2–2
  • 3. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:  Discuss the systems and contingency approaches to management and explain their potential for integrating the other areas of management.  Identify and describe contemporary management issues and challenges. 2–3
  • 4. The Role of Theory and History in Management  The Importance of Theory and  The Behavioral Management History Perspective (cont’d)  Precursors to Management Theory  The Behavioral Management Perspective Today  The Classical Management Perspective  The Quantitative  Scientific Management Management Perspective  Management Science  General Administrative Management  Operations Management  The Classical Management  The Quantitative Management Perspective Today Perspective Today  The Behavioral  Contemporary Management Management Perspective Issues and Challenges  The Hawthorne Studies  Contemporary Applied Perspectives  The Human Relations Movement  Contemporary Management Challenges  The Emergence of Organizational Behavior 2–4
  • 5. Why Theor y?  A theory is a conceptual framework for organizing knowledge and providing a blueprint for action.  Management theories, used to build organizations, are grounded in reality. Most managers develop their own theories about how they should run their organizations.  Why Histor y?  An awareness and understanding of important historical developments in management are also important to contemporary managers in furthering the development of management practices and in avoiding the mistakes of others in the past. 2–5
  • 6. Management in Antiquity D Greeks C Babylonians G Venetians B Egyptians E Romans A Sumerians F Chinese 3000 B.C. 2500 B.C. 2000 B.C. 1500 B.C. 1000 B.C. 500 B.C. A.D.500 A.D.1000 A.D.1500 A Used written rules and regulations for governance E Used organized structure for communication and control B Used management practices to construct pyramids F Used extensive organization structure for government agencies and the arts C Used extensive set of laws and policies for governance G Used organization design and planning concepts to D Used different governing systems for cities and state control the seas 2–6
  • 7. Robert Owen (1771–1858)  British industrialist who was one of the first managers to recognize the importance of human resources.  Implemented better working conditions, set a minimum age for child labor, provided meals, and reduced work hours.  Charles Babbage (1792–1871)  Noted English mathematician who focused on creating efficiencies of production through the division of labor, cooperation between management and labor, and the application of mathematics to management problems.  Wrote “On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures.” 2–7
  • 8. Consists of two different viewpoints:  Scientific Management  Concerned with improving the performance of individual workers (i.e., efficiency).  Grew out of the industrial revolution’s labour shortage at the beginning of the 20th century.  General Administrative Management A theory that focuses on managing the total organization. 2–8
  • 9. Frederick Taylor (1856–1915)  Considered the “Father of Scientific Management.”  Replaced old rule-of-thumb methods of how to do work with scientifically-based work methods to eliminate “soldiering” where employees deliberately worked at a pace slower than their capabilities.  Believed in selecting, training, teaching, and developing workers.  Used time studies of jobs, standards planning, exception rule of management, slide-rules, instruction cards, and piece-work pay systems to control and motivate employees. 2–9
  • 10. 1 2 3 4 Supervise employees Develop a science Scientifically select Continue to plan to make sure they for each element of employees and then the work, but use follow the prescribed the job to replace old train them to do the job workers to get the methods for performing rule-of-thumb methods as described in step 1 work done their jobs 2–10
  • 11. Other Scientific Management Pioneers  Frank and Lillian Gilbreth  Reduced the number of movements in bricklaying, resulting in increased output of 200%.  Henr y Gantt  Was an early associate of Fredrick Taylor.  Developed other techniques, including the Gantt chart, to improve working efficiency through planning/scheduling.  Harrington Emerson  Advocated job specialization in both managerial and operating jobs. 2–11
  • 12. Administrative Management Theor y  Focuses on managing the whole organization rather than individuals.  Henri Fayol  Wrote “General and Industrial Management.”  Helped to systematize the practice of management.  Was first to identify the specific management functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. 2–12
  • 13. Lyndall Urwick  Integrated the work of previous management theorists.  Max Weber  His theory of bureaucracy is based on a rational set of guidelines for structuring organizations.  Chester Barnard  Wrote “The Functions of the Executive.”  Proposed a theory of the acceptance of authority (by subordinates) as the source of power and influence for managers. 2–13
  • 14. Contributions  Laid the foundation for later developments.  Identified important management processes, functions, and skills.  Focused attention on management as a valid subject of scientific inquiry.  Limitations  More appropriate approach for use in traditional, stable, simple organizations.  Prescribed universal procedures that are not appropriate in some settings.  In some cases, employees are viewed as tools rather than as resources. 2–14
  • 15. Behavioral Management  Emphasized individual attitudes and behaviors, and group processes.  Recognized the importance of behavioral processes in the workplace.  Hugo Munsterberg (1863–1916)  A German psychologist, considered the father of industrial psychology, wrote “ Psychology and Industrial Efficiency,” a pioneering work in the practice of applying psychological concepts to industrial settings. 2–15
  • 16. The Hawthorne Studies  Conducted by Elton Mayo and associates at Western Electric (1927–1935)  Illumination study—changes in workplace lighting affected both the control group and the experimental group of production employees.  Group study— the effects of a piecework incentive plan on production workers.  Workers established informal levels of acceptable individual output.  Over-producing workers were labeled “rate busters” and under- producing workers were considered “chiselers.”  Interview program  Confirmed the importance of human behavior in the workplace. 2–16
  • 17. Human Relations Movement  Grew out of the Hawthorne studies.  Proposed that workers respond primarily to the social context of work, including social conditioning, group norms, and interpersonal dynamics.  Assumed that the manager’s concern for workers would lead to increased worker satisfaction and improved worker performance.  Abraham Maslow  Advanced a theory that employees are motivated by a hierarchy of needs that they seek to satisfy.  Douglas McGregor  Proposed Theory X and Theory Y concepts of managerial beliefs about people and work. 2–17
  • 18. Theory X 1. People do not like work and try to avoid it. Assump- 2. People do not like work, so managers have to control, direct, coerce, tions and threaten employees to get them to work toward organizational goals. 3. People prefer to be directed, to avoid responsibility, and to want security; they have little ambition. Theory Y 1. People do not naturally dislike work; work is a natural part of their lives. Assump- 2. People are internally motivated to reach objectives to which they are tions committed. 3. People are committed to goals to the degree that they receive personal rewards when they reach their objectives. 4. People seek both seek responsibility and accept responsibility under favorable conditions. 5. People have the capacity to be innovative in solving organizational problems. 6. People are bright, but under most organizational conditions their potentials are underutilized. Table 2.2 Source: Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise, Copyright © 1960 by McGraw-Hill. Reprinted by permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies. 2–18
  • 19. A contemporary field focusing on behavioral perspectives on management.  Draws on psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, and medicine.  Important topics in organizational behavior research:  Job satisfaction and job stress  Motivation and leadership  Group dynamics and organizational politics  Interpersonal conflict  The design of organizations 2–19
  • 20. Contributions  Provided important insights into motivation, group dynamics, and other interpersonal processes.  Focused managerial attention on these critical processes.  Challenged the view that employees are tools and furthered the belief that employees are valuable resources.  Limitations  Complexity of individuals makes behavior difficult to predict.  Many concepts not put to use because managers are reluctant to adopt them.  Contemporary research findings are not often communicated to practicing managers in an understandable form. 2–20
  • 21. Quantitative Management  Emerged during World War II to help the Allied forces manage logistical problems.  Focuses on decision making, economic effectiveness, mathematical models, and the use of computers to solve quantitative problems.  Management Science  Focuses on the development of representative mathematical models to assist with decisions.  Operations Management  Practical application of management science to efficiently manage the production and distribution of products and services. 2–21
  • 22. Contributions  Developed sophisticated quantitative techniques to assist in decision making.  Application of models has increased our awareness and understanding of complex processes and situations.  Has been useful in the planning and controlling processes.  Limitations  Quantitative management cannot fully explain or predict the behavior of people in organizations.  Mathematical sophistication may come at the expense of other managerial skills.  Quantitative models may require unrealistic or unfounded assumptions, limiting their general applicability. 2–22
  • 23. Systems Perspective  A system is an interrelated set of elements functioning as a whole.  Open system  An organization that interacts with its external environment.  Closed system  An organization that does not interact with its environment.  Subsystems  The importance of subsystems is due to their interdependence on each other within the organization. 2–23
  • 24. Outputs into Inputs from the Transformation the environment: environment: process: technology, products/services, material inputs, operating systems, profits/losses, human inputs, administrative employee behaviors, financial inputs, and systems, and and information information inputs control systems outputs Feedback Figure 2.3 2–24
  • 25. Synergy  Subsystems are more successful working together in a cooperative and coordinated fashion than working alone.  The whole system (subsystems working together as one system) is more productive and efficient than the sum of its parts.  Entropy (Decay or degrading of system)  A normal process in which an organizational system declines due to failing to adjust to change in its environment  Entropy can be avoided and the organization re-energized through organizational change and renewal. 2–25
  • 26. Universal Perspectives  Include the classical, behavioral, and quantitative approaches.  Attempt to identify the “one best way” to manage organizations.  The Contingency Perspective  Suggests that each organization is unique.  The appropriate managerial behavior for managing an organization depends (is contingent) on the current situation in the organization. 2–26
  • 27. An Integrative Framework  Is a complementary way of thinking about theories of management.  Involves the recognition of current system and subsystem interdependencies, environmental influences, and the situational nature of management. 2–27
  • 28. Systems Approach Contingency Perspective • Recognition of internal • Recognition of the situational interdependencies nature of management • Recognition of • Response to particular environmental influences characteristics of situation Classical Behavioral Quantitative Management Management Management Perspectives Perspectives Perspectives Methods for Insights for moti- Techniques for enhancing vating performance improving decision efficiency and and understanding making, resource facilitating planning, individual behavior, allocation, and organizing, and groups and teams, operations controlling and leadership Effective and efficient management Figure 2.4 2–28
  • 29. The Emergence of Modern Management Perspectives The Classical Perspective The Behavioral Perspective The Quantitative Perspective The Systems Perspective The Contingency Perspective Theory Z and the Excellence Perspective Contemporary Applied Perspectives Senge Covey Peters Porter Adams Kotter Hamel 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Figure 2.5 2–29
  • 30. Contemporar y Applied Perspectives  William Ouchi’s “Theory Z,” Peters and Waterman’s “In Search of Excellence”  Popular authors: Senge, Covey, Porter, Kotter, and Hamel  Contemporar y Management Challenges  Acute shortages of labor in high-technology job sectors  Management of an increasingly diverse workforce  Rapid and constant environmental and technological change  Complex array of new ways of structuring organizations  Increasing globalization of markets  Renewed importance of ethics and social responsibility  Quality as the basis for competition  Shift to a predominately service-based economy 2–30

Notes de l'éditeur

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