Slides accompanying 2.008x* video module on Machining, Prof. John Hart, MIT, 2016. *Fundamentals of Manufacturing Processes on edX: https://www.edx.org/course/fundamentals-manufacturing-processes-mitx-2-008x

1. 2.008x
Machining
MIT 2.008x
Prof. John Hart

2. 2.008x

3. 2.008x
Machine shop in the DC printing office (1909)
National Photo Company Collection via wikimedia. This
work is in the public domain.
A present-­day CNC machine shop
“KIM_6446.” Kim Becker (CC BY 2.0) via Flickr
CNC Tools
“Drill bit set” via Pixabay.
This work is in the public domain.

4. 2.008x
What is the highest
volume CNC machined
part in history?

5. 2.008x
Manufacturing the Macbook ‘unibody’
(+ iPhone etc)
Excerpt from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sxbiIpXZfG8
about Jony Ive (Apple VP of Design): http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/02/23/shape-­things-­come

6. 2.008x
12” Macbook (released 2015)
Terraced CNC housing to hold 30% more battery volume;; single PCB
2.03 pounds, 0.51” thick (max), 9hrs using wifi at 75% brightness
http://www.apple.com/macbook/design/

7. 2.008x
What is machining?
§ … “a general term describing a group of
processes that consist of the removal of
material and modification of the surfaces
of a workpiece after it has been produced
by various methods.” (Kalpakjian and Schmid)
§ Traditional machining: a rotating cutter
containing several 'teeth' that removes
material from a local region of the part.
§ Other machining processes that use
different removal mechanisms and/or
energy sources include electron discharge
machining (EDM), laser machining, and
water jet cutting.
Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

8. 2.008x
Machined parts: from small to large
Brass fittings
Image from Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
iPhone 5 and 6
housings
Boeing 777 panel
outboard
Watch mechanism
https://pixabay.com/en/watch-­
time-­gears-­clock-­time-­clock-­
932693/

9. 2.008x
Diagram from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology.
Machining is good at flat and curved surfaces,
threads;; tolerances ~0.001”
0.5 mm
Brass fittings
Image from Pixabay. This work is
in the public domain.

10. 2.008x
2 mm

11. 2.008x
Agenda:
Machining
§ Tool-­material interaction
§ Cutting mechanics
§ Geometry and motion
§ Forces
§ Energy and power
§ Demonstration experiments!
§ Cutting forces
§ Tools, finish, and wear
§ Milling (+iPhone housing)
§ Design for machining
§ Conclusion

12. 2.008x
Machining:
2. Basics of
tool-­material
interaction

13. 2.008x
A lathe
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

14. 2.008x

15. 2.008x
CNC turning a chess rook (2X speed)
Turning
Video excerpt from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lcGHtI9Lql4
Diagrams adopted from Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Contour turning Facing
Boring
(internal turning)
Cutoff
(with saw)

16. 2.008x
Basic cutting (turning) nomenclature
§ Feed: axial distance tool moves per
spindle revolution
§ Depth of cut: amount of material
removed perpendicular to workpiece
§ Spindle speed: rotation speed of
workpiece [RPM]
à The cutting tool is set to a
certain depth of cut and travels
to the left with a certain
velocity as the workpiece
rotates (spindle speed)
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

17. 2.008x
Example: cutting speed and MRR
A 304 stainless steel rod is being turned on a lathe.
§ The rod is initially 2.0 cm diameter, and becomes 1.9 cm in a single cut.
§ The spindle rotates at N=300 rpm, and the tool is traveling at an axial speed of 20
cm/min.
§ The specific cutting energy is 4.0 W-­s/mm3
.
à What is the initial cutting speed? (tangential velocity)
à What is the initial material removal rate (MRR)?

18. 2.008x
Example: cutting speed and MRR
à What is the initial cutting speed? (tangential
velocity)
m/min18.8m/s31.0 === NDV oc π

19. 2.008x
Example: cutting speed and MRR
à What is the initial material removal rate (MRR)?
fdVNfdDMRR c== 1π
cm/rev0.067==
N
V
f a
cm0.05
2
=
−
=
fo DD
d

20. 2.008x
Example: cutting speed and MRR
à What is the initial material removal rate (MRR)?
fdVNfdDMRR c== 1π
cm/rev0.067==
N
V
f a
cm0.05
2
=
−
=
fo DD
d
/mincm.301 3
== fdVMRR c -­-­-­-­
correct:
6.3 cm3/min

21. 2.008x
Material removal = controlled failure
Excerpt from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRuSYQ5Npek
Material is removed (and a chip is produced) at the
head of the tool by plastically deforming and
continuously shearing the material

22. 2.008x
What do the tool and material experience
during cutting?
§ Force
§ Motion (sliding, vibration)
§ Heating
à These lead to deformation
of the workpiece and wear
of the tool
à All of these are coupled
and influence part quality!

23. 2.008x
How we’ll understand cutting mechanics
Step II:
Forces
Step I:
Motion &
Deformation
Step III:
Energy &
Power

24. 2.008x
Machining:
3. Tool motion and
material deformation

25. 2.008x
We assume a 2D (orthogonal)
cutting path
Orthogonal (2D)
Provides insight for understanding
Oblique (3D)
Realistic, yet difficult to analyze
x
y
z
x
y
z

26. 2.008x
2D model: angles and assumptions
Three important angles:
§ Rake angle α
§ Shear angle φ
§ Relief angle ε
Shear plane
Tool
Workpiece
+-­
α
φ
ε
Chip
Assumptions:
§ The tool is perfectly sharp
§ The tool moves at a
constant V and t0
§ A continuous chip is
produced

27. 2.008x
Excerpt from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRuSYQ5Npek
What type of deformation do you see?
α
φ ε

28. 2.008x
Shear model of
orthogonal cutting
In reality the ‘pages’ are very thin and
related to the microstructure of the
material being cut: ~0.001-­0.01 mm
(10-­3-­10-­4 in)
Tool
Workpiece
Chip
tc
tc
t0

29. 2.008x
Analysis of shear
strain
φ
( ) ( )αφφγ
γ
−+=
+
=
Δ
=
tancot
ac
cdbc
A
x

30. 2.008x
What do we learn?
§ φ ↓ = γ ↑ or α ↓ = γ ↑
§ γ ∼2-­4 (very large!)
à Think of the material
‘turning the corner’
( ) ( )αφφγ −+= tancot
Shear plane
Tool
Workpiece
+-­
α
φ
ε
Chip
Analysis of shear strain

31. 2.008x
(Tesla video)
Here, digital image correlation (DIC) is used to map the strain field
NIST high speed videos of tool/chip/material interaction: http://www.nist.gov/el/isd/sbm/hsds-­machining-­videos.cfm
Mapping shear strains during cutting

32. 2.008x
Machining:
4. Cutting forces

33. 2.008x
Why do we study
cutting forces?
§ Forces are related to the
material and cut geometry
§ Forces cause the tool and
workpiece to deform
§ Forces (and speed)
determine the power
required for cutting
à The coupling of motion
and force at the cutting
interface influences quality,
tool life, and productivity!

34. 2.008x
Cutting force (FC)
Workpiece
+-­
α
φ
Chip
FC

35. 2.008x
Demo #1: Measuring cutting force

36. 2.008x
Measuring cutting force

37. 2.008x
Cut Feedrate
[in/rev]
Spindle
[RPM]
Rake angle
[deg]
Depth of cut
[in]
Diameter
[in]
Force
[lb]
1 0.0042 140 60 0.03 2 0.43
2 0.0147 140 60 0.03 2 0.90
3 0.0147 140 0 0.03 2 1.83
4 0.0147 330 0 0.03 2 2.03
5 0.0147 330 0 0.06 2 3.87
6 0.0147 330 0 0.06 1 3.38
!
Cutting force data from
video
Tool
Workpiece
+-­
α
φ
ε
Chip

38. 2.008x
Cutting force data for aluminum (AA2014)
à Here too, cutting force depends strongly on feed (f) but not on speed (Vc)
Gokkaya, “The Effects of Machining Parameters on Cutting Forces,Surface Roughness, Built-­Up Edge (BUE) and Built-­Up Layer
(BUL) During Machining AA2014 (T4) Alloy”, Journal of Mechanical Engineering 56(2010)9, 584-­593

39. 2.008x
Merchant’s relationship: relating the angles
(reference slides to be posted)
is derived assuming that the shear angle (φ) self-­adjusts to
minimize the required cutting energy
Tool
Workpiece
+-­
α
φ ε
Chip
à if rake angle ↓ or friction angle ↑: shear angle ↓
à consequences of smaller shear angle:
§ chip thickness ↑
§ energy dissipation via shear ↑
§ heat generation ↑
§ temperature ↑
224
αβπ
φ +−= [radians]
β = friction angle (µ = tan β)

40. 2.008x
Validating Merchant’s equation
Chart adapted from: Metal Cutting Theory and Practice,
Stephenson and Agapiou
224
αβπ
φ +−=
Key assumptions:
§ Slow, orthogonal cutting
§ Constant material properties
with temperature
§ Simple sliding friction
§ No strain hardening
α
φ ε

41. 2.008x
Machining:
5. Field trip to IMTS

42. 2.008x

43. 2.008x
Regular CNC machines
Haas DT1 drill-­tap center
https://www.haascnc.com/mt_spec1.asp?id=DT-­1&webID=DRILL_TAP_VMC#gsc.tab=0

44. 2.008x
Giant machines (25 ton table capacity)

45. 2.008x
Lots of tools

46. 2.008x
Lots of tools

47. 2.008x

48. 2.008x
And tool mascots!

49. 2.008x
And chip management systems

50. 2.008x
And chip management systems

51. 2.008x
Machining:
6. Tools, finish, and
wear

52. 2.008x
Cutting tools
Monolithic tool (e.g., HSS or Carbide)
Tooling with inserts
Diagrams from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

53. 2.008x
Demo #2: Tools, finish, and wear

54. 2.008x
Tool
Material
Speed
[RPM]
Depth of cut
[in]
Feed
[in/rev]
MRR
[in3/min]
HSS
90 0.05 0.007 0.40
140 0.05 0.007 0.62
330 0.05 0.007 1.45
Carbide
330 0.05 0.014 2.90
385 0.05 0.014 3.29
585 0.05 0.014 5.15
Demo #2: Data

55. 2.008x
Tool hardness, temperature rise
Tmean
∝V a
f b
max
Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
speed V and feed f;; a
and b are constants
that depend on the tool
and part

56. 2.008x
Tool wear
Depth of cut
Flank wear
Crater
wear
Flank
wear
Crater wear
on
W
t
Crater Wear
on the Rake
Face
Wear on
the Flank
Face
Deposition
causing a
“Built Up
Edge”
Thermal
Cracking
Images from Figure 23.2 Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition) by Groover. (c) Wiley (2010).
Wear schematics from: http://www.sandvik.coromant.com/en-­us/knowledge/milling/troubleshooting/tool_wear

57. 2.008x
Chips from demo: carbide tool, 385 RPM
Crater
wear
Flank
wear
à Examine both sides

58. 2.008x
Chip types (selected)
Continuous chip (narrow primary shear zone)
§ Ductile materials @ high speed
§ Entanglement bad (use chip breakers)
Continuous chip with built up edge (BUE)
§ Bad for surface finish and tool wear
Discontinuous chip (good)
§ Brittle materials;; very low or very high cutting
speeds
Continuous chip
Continuous with BUE
Discontinuous
Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology.

59. 2.008x
What determines surface roughness of
machined parts?

60. 2.008x
Surface
roughness
Figure 7.44 from "Product Design for Manufacture and Assembly (2nd Edition)" by
Marinescu, Boothroyd. © Marcel Dekker Publishing (2002)

61. 2.008x
Taken using Zygo profilometer

62. 2.008x
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology.
Figure 21-­8 from DeGarmo's Materials & Processes in Manufacturing (10th Edition) by Black and Kohser, © Wiley (2008).
Improved tool materials à higher cutting speed
Layers: 2-­20 μm thick
TiN: low friction
TiCN: wear resistance
Al2O3: high thermal
stability
Carbide: hardness and
fracture toughness
Rate = 200x faster in
100 years
à ~5% increase per
year, (1.05)100
à Machine
requirements?

63. 2.008x
Machining:
7. Cutting energy and
power

64. 2.008x
Step II:
Forces
Step I:
Motion &
Deformation
Step III:
Energy &
Power

65. 2.008x
A simple estimate of cutting force
FC ~b t0 S
b = depth of cut (d in turning)
t0 = feed (f in turning)
S = strength
Material UTS* (MPa)
Wax 0.86
Aluminum 110
Aluminum 6061-­T6 310
Steel (high strength alloy)
ASTM A-­514
760
Titanium alloys 900
*UTS = Ultimate Tensile Strength
Shear strength ~0.5*UTS
Workpiece
+-­
α
φ
Chip
FC

66. 2.008x
What other forces are present?
§ Thrust: Ft
§ Cutting: Fc
§ Friction: Ff (µ = Ff/N)
§ Tool normal: N
§ Shear: Fs
§ Chip Normal: Fn
R
Fc
Ft
Fn
Fs N
Ff

67. 2.008x
Estimating the cutting power
Power input = Power out + Power dissipated
Power input:
§ Machine: Pc = Fc * V
Power dissipation:
§ Shear: Ps = Fs * Vs
§ Friction: Pf = Ff * Vc
Vs V
Vc
Fs
Not deformed
Plastically
Deformed
Fc
Fc
α
φ
Chip
-­ +
NOTE
Vc = velocity of chip
V = cutting velocity
(denoted VC earlier)

68. 2.008x
Contributions to cutting energy
à specific energy = power/MRR
*Kalpakjian
neglects Units =
Power/(volume/time)
[W*s/mm3]
Shear + Friction + Others = TOTAL
Vs V
Vc
Fs
Not deformed
Plastically
Deformed
Fc
Fc
α
φ
Chip
-­ +

69. 2.008x
Let’s estimate the cutting power and force
§ A SS rod is initially 2.0 cm diameter, and
becomes 1.9 cm in a single cut (full rotation).
§ The spindle rotates at N=400 rpm, and the tool
is traveling at an axial speed of 20 cm/min.
§ The specific cutting energy is 4.0 W-­s/mm3
.
à How much power is required?
MRR = Vfd = πD1Nfd
à
p
d
CKalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

70. 2.008x
Let’s estimate the cutting power and force
§ A SS rod is initially 2.0 cm diameter, and
becomes 1.9 cm in a single cut (full rotation).
§ The spindle rotates at N=400 rpm, and the tool
is traveling at an axial speed of 20 cm/min.
§ The specific cutting energy is 4.0 W-­s/mm3
.
à How much power is required?
drive
t
drive
spindle
input
tspindle
MRRuP
P
MRRuP
ηη
==
= MRR = Vfd = πD1Nfd
à
p
d
C
P = 0.6 kW
with efficiency = 0.7
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

71. 2.008x
Let’s estimate the cutting power and force
§ A SS rod is initially 2.0 cm diameter, and
becomes 1.9 cm in a single cut (full rotation).
§ The spindle rotates at N=400 rpm, and the tool
is traveling at an axial speed of 20 cm/min.
§ The specific cutting energy is 4.0 W-­s/mm3
.
à What is the approximate cutting force?
MRR = Vfd = πD1Nfd
fdu
V
Vfdu
V
MRRu
F
MRRuVFP
t
tt
c
tcspindle
===
==
à
p
d
C
F = 1 kN
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

72. 2.008x
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Material-­dependent cutting energies
à Also see ‘machinability rating’

73. 2.008x
What did we learn so far? (summary)
§ Cutting removes material from a workpiece by (severe) plastic
deformation.
§ Using a 2D approximation (applied to turning) we can relate the
geometry and motion of the tool to the cutting force and power
required.
§ Tool-­material interaction is dominated by shear and friction,
causing deformation and heating.
§ Commercial machine tools easily exert many kN of force at
many kW of power.
§ Recommended cutting parameters are stated based on
material and tool limits.
à Now let’s talk about milling.

74. 2.008x
Machining:
8. Milling

75. 2.008x
How are milling and turning different?
Excerpt from Ingersoll
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IUBQN1JfY80
Feed per tooth (f)
v = velocity of tool or workpiece
N = rotational speed
n = number of teeth (‘flutes’)
Diagrams from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

76. 2.008x
3-­axis milling machine

77. 2.008x
Climb milling versus
Conventional milling
6061-­T6 Aluminum with ¼” endmill
Spindle Speed: 4000rpm
Feed: 20.0ipm
Depth of cut: .400”
Width of cut: .070”
Diagrams from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

78. 2.008x
Common milling operations
Diagram from Kalpalkian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology.

79. 2.008x
End$mill
Face$millFly$cutter$
(single$point$for$making$
smooth$surfaces)

80. 2.008x
Front-facing
camera
Faceplate
Screen
(flipped)
Camera
Battery
Logic board
Housing
iPhone 6 chassis assembly
Modified from: https://d3nevzfk7ii3be.cloudfront.net/igi/DSCkX6EfcARJYOHa.hug
iPhone 6 teardown
Type
of
joint Number
Bolted 44
Adhesive 5
Clip 8
Threaded inserts 46
Counted from teardown sequence

81. 2.008x
iPhone 6 housing: What do we notice?
‘Straight’
tool path
‘Curved’
tool path
Plastic insert
Press-­fit
threaded
insert
T-­slot
endmill

82. 2.008x

83. 2.008x
Feature sizes
0.5 mm
0.5 mm
6 mm
2 mm

84. 2.008x
Tool paths
Contour-­parallel tool path
https://en.wikipedia.or g/wiki /CNC _po
cket_milling
Zig-­zag tool path

85. 2.008x
How the toolpath for each area is designed
Add finishing passes
where needed
Generate the pocket cutting paths
Contour-­parallel tool path Direction-­parallel tool path
Begin with offset elements
of the contour to generate
cutting paths
Step inwards or outwards
for subsequent passes
Select reference line and mill along
parallel lines
Zig milling: Feed along spindle
direction
Zig-­zag: Both directions (includes
significantly fewer tool retractions)
Finishing pass around features
Contour parallel path
Diagrams from M. Held, On the Computational Geometry of Pocket Machining;; Lecture Notes in Computer Science;; Springer Berlin Heidelberg: Berlin,
Heidelberg, 1991;; Vol. 500.
Evaluate the shape of material to be removed
Boundary contours pf the pocket
Contours of drilled holes and features such
as bosses

86. 2.008x
Optimization for
cost or time?
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Cost of machining =
§ Machine use ($/time)
§ Tool cost
§ Tool change cost ($/time)
§ Nonproductive cost ($ for
load/unload operations
etc)
Time (1/rate) of machining =
§ Machining time
§ Tool change time
§ Nonproductive time
(load/unload etc)
Taylor’s equation
V*(Tool_life)n = Constant

87. 2.008x
iPhone housing: 4 à 5 à 6
§ Materials?
§ Advantages / disadvantages of each design?
§ Other notable differences?

88. 2.008x
4/5/6 back

89. 2.008x
5-­axis machining
3-­axis 5-­axis
Photo from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CqePrbeAQoM
Diagrams fromhttp://www.awea.com/awea_en/milling/5-­axes/fmv/overview.htm

90. 2.008x
Video excerpt from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mudofisRCjA
5-­axis machining

91. 2.008x
Machining:
9. Design guidelines
for Machining

92. 2.008x
Design for
Manufacturing (DFM):
The process of designing
parts/products to enable
easier* and more robust**
manufacturing.
*fewer steps, lower cost
**more reliable, better quality

93. 2.008x
From Otto and Wood, Product Design: Techniques in Reverse Engineering and New Product Development
Design for Machining
Use standard dimensions
D = 0.627” D = 0.625”
Don’t Do
DoDon’t
Provide access for tools
Avoid long, narrow holes
Avoid long, thin sections that
cause vibration
Do
Don’t Difficult to
fixture
Easier to
hold
Design parts that are easy to
fixture
Impossible
DoDon’t
Radius smaller
than ¼”
Use ¼ -­ ½”
radius
Design for reasonable internal
pockets radii
Impossible

94. 2.008x
DFM: what’s wrong with this part?
§ Sharp internal corners are
impossible!
§ Avoid thin sections à
(deformation, poor surface
finish).
also
§ Minimize the number of tool changes, while considering overall
machining time (e.g., rough removal versus fine finishing).
§ Know the limits of tooling available (e.g. minimum size, maximum depth)!
§ Consider fixturing (how you will hold the part, and reference it if re-­
fixtured)

95. 2.008x
Machining:
10. Conclusion

96. 2.008x
How is machining
advancing now?
§ Higher speed machining, largely
driven by tool materials/coatings
à lower cost and higher
throughput!
§ Growing demand for machining
of advanced materials, e.g.,
titanium, composites, etc.
§ Networked machines enabling
remote process monitoring and
optimization à toolpath, cutting
speed, tool life, surface quality,
etc.

97. 2.008x
Excerpt from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Lh600hVyt8
Figure adopted from 20.31, Degarmo, Materials and Processes in Manufacturing
High-­speed machining: chip carries the heat away
Total heat generated
% to
workpiece
% to
tool
% to
chip
Cutting speed
Low High
0
50%
100%
Heat generated

98. 2.008x
Conclusion: performance of machining
Machining
Rate Low-­Medium
Quality Good!
Cost Wide range, depends on design, material,
production volume
Flexibility High (within machine
constraints)

99. 2.008x
References
1 Introduction
Photo of CNC Mill by Roland Josch on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
Photo of Machine Shop in DC Printing Office by National Photo Company from U.S. Library of
Congress. This work is in the public domain.
Photo of CNC Machine Shop by Kim Becker via Flickr (CC BY) 2.0
Photo of Drill Bit Set by Michael Schwarzenberger on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
Video of MacBook Pro Manufacturing © Apple Inc.
Image of MacBook Pro Exploded View © 2016 Apple Inc.
Machining Processes: Figure 1.5e "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (6th Edition)" by
Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2010).
Photo of Mechanical Watch Mechanism by User: tookapic on Pixabay. This work is in the public
domain.
Photo of Brass Fittings by Ingbert Merz on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
Machined Part: Figure IV.3 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by
Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).

100. 2.008x
References
2 Basics of Tool-­Material-­Interaction
Lathe Picture: Figure 23.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Video of Rook Machining © 2016 Glacern Machine Tools
Lathe Cutting Operations: Figure 23.1 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (6th Edition)"
by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2009).
Turning Schematic: Figure 21.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Videos of Iscar Chip Formation © Rick Steinard.
3 Tool Motion and Material Interaction
Video of Iscar Chip Formation © Rick Steinard.
Video of Titanium machining example, by NIST of the U.S. Dept. of Commerce 2009.
Photo of CNC Mill by Roland Josch on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.

101. 2.008x
References
4 Cutting Forces
Graphs by Gokkaya, “The Effects of Machining Parameters on Cutting Forces, Surface Roughness, Built-­Up
Edge (BUE) and Built-­Up Layer (BUL) During Machining AA2014 (T4) Alloy”, Journal of Mechanical
Engineering 56(2010)9, 584-­593
Shear Angle Chart adapted from: Metal Cutting Theory and Practice, Stephenson and Agapiou
6 Tools and Wear
Lathe Cutting Tool: Figure 21.10 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Tooling with Insert: Figure 22.3 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Temperature Distribution: Figure 21.12 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by
Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Hardness Chart: Figure 22.1 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).

102. 2.008x
References
Crater Wear: Figure 23.2 from "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th Edition)" by Groover. © John
Wiley & Sons Inc. (2010)
Wear schematics images © 2000 Sandvik AB
Chip Types: Figures 21.5 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Machining Time: Figure 22.6 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Coating Cross-­Section: Figure 22.8 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by
Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Insert: Figure 21-­8 from "DeGarmo's Materials & Processes in Manufacturing (10th Edition)" by Black and
Kohser, © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2008).
7 Cutting Energy and Power
Turning Schematic: Figure 21.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Cutting Energies: Table 21.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).

103. 2.008x
References
8 Milling
Video of Face Milling Slow-­Motion © Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company
Parts Produced by Milling: Figure 24.1 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by
Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Milling Operation Parameters: Figure 24.3 b) from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)"
by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Conventional vs. Climbing: Figure 24.3 a) from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by
Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Milling Operations: Figure 24.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Image of iPhone 6 © 2000-­2016 GSMArena.com
Image of iPhone 6 Exploded View © 2016 iFixit
Image of T-­Slot End Mill Cutter © 2003 Bewise Inc. All Rights Reserved
Image of Tool Paths by Kangkan iitd on Wikimedia. (CC BY-­SA) 3.0
Pocket Machining: Figure 1.3 from "On the Conceptual Geometry of Pocket Machining" by Held © Springer-­
Verlag (1991).

104. 2.008x
References
Toolpaths: Figure 1.4 from "On the Conceptual Geometry of Pocket Machining" by Held © Springer-­Verlag
(1991).
Cost Optimization: Figure 25.17 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian,
Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Diagrams of Advantages of 5-­Axis Milling Machines © AWEA Mechatronic Co. LTD. 2016. All Rights
Reserved.
Image of 5-­Axis Vertical Machining Center © Okuma America Corporation.
Video of Mazak Variaxis i700 © John Hart Pty Ltd.
9 Design for Manufacturing
DFM Practice Diagram: Figure 14.10 from "Product Design: Techniques in Reverse Engineering and New
Product Development" by Otto and Wood, © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2001)
10 Conclusion
Image of Datron M8Cube © 2016 DATRON Dynamics, Inc.
Heat vs. Speed Diagram: Figure 20-­31 from "DeGarmo's Materials & Processes in Manufacturing (10th
Edition)" by Black and Kohser, © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2008).