2. Second Language Acquisition Theories
Behind every teaching approach is
some kind of a theory of language
learning/acquisition
Second language acquisition
theories are intrinsically related to a
wide variety of disciplines such as
applied linguistics, sociolinguistics,
psychology, neurology, and
education.
Various theories and models have
been emerged over the years to
study the process of language
acquisition.
3. Behaviorism (Skinner's Behaviorist Theory)
Innatism (Chomsky's Innatist Theory).
Krashen's Monitor Model/Monitor Theory
Three main schools of thought provide theoretical
paradigms in language acquisition:
4. Behaviorism (1940s-1950s)
•F.B Skinner (based on I.P. Pavlov's
research).
•Tabula Rasa (a blank slate) means there
is nothing when a baby is born. Skinner
said, "give me a child, and I will shape
him into anything" (T.V. interview, 1960).
5. Behaviorism (1940s-1950s)
•Behaviorism is a precursor to cognitive learning.
•Language:
-is behavior defined as a set of habits.
-can be taught/learned as any other behavior
•Teaching:
-should be done through conditioning.
-consequences determine behavior (e.g. reward or
successful communication).
6. Behaviorism (Cont)
According to B.F. Skinner's Behaviorist Theory,
learning is the result of
Imitation (word-for-word repetition of someone's else
utterances).
Practice (repetitive manipulation of form).
Feedback on success(positive reinforcement).
habit formation.
7. The nature of Language Learning According to The
Behaviorist Theory
8. Audio-Lingual Method and Behaviorism
It was a method for teaching foreign languages
popular in 1950s and 1960s.
It is supported by the behaviorist theory of Skinner.
It does not use mother tongue to explain vocabulary
or grammar.
Students drilled in the use of grammar in the target
language.
English is taught through discussion, conversation,
and reading in the second language.
Students learned language through a series of drills
involving imitation, repetition and practice (Richards
& Rodgers, 2001)
10. Chomsky refuted the audio- lingual method that is based
on the behaviorist theory of language learning for the
following reasons:
It could not function as a model of how humans learn
languages.
Learning is not imitated behavior.
Sentences are not learned by imitation and repetition,
but "generated" from the learners' underlying
"competence."
Language is creative and generative, not a habit
(Richards& Rodgers, 2001).
Noam Chomsky and Audio-Lingual Method
11. o Language is an innate capacity. A child's brain contains
special language learning mechanism at birth.
o Every child has a" language acquisition devise"
(Traxler, 2012).
o Children need only minimum language exposure to
prime the LAD.
o Human brain is ready innately for language in the sense
when children are exposed to speech, certain principles
for discovering and formulating language,
automatically starts to operate.
Noam Chomsky's Theory of Innatism (1959)
12. The LAD Theory
Chomsky asserted that children were born with a
hard-wired language acquisition device.
Chomsky asserted that children were born with the
instinct or "innate facility" for acquiring language.
The LAD is a postulated organ in the brain
supposed to function as a congenital device for
language acquisition.
LAD encodes the major principles of a language
and its grammatical structure into the child's brain.
This theory contradicted B.F. Skinner' theory of
behaviorism and operant conditioning.
14. Stephen Krashen' Theory of Second Language
Acquisition
"Language acquisition does not require
extensive use of conscious grammatical
rules, and does not require tedious
drill."(Stephen Krashen, 1987)
"Acquisition requires meaningful
interaction in the target language -
natural communication - in which
speakers are concerned not with the form
of their utterances but with the messages
they are conveying and
understanding." (Stephen Krashen, 1987)
15. Krashen's theory of second language acquisition
consists of five main hypotheses:
The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis
The Monitor hypothesis
The Natural Order hypothesis
The Input hypothesis
The Affective Filter hypothesis
16. According to Krashen, there are two independent
systems:
•The acquired system is the product of a
subconscious process. It requires meaningful
interaction in the target language.
•The learned system is the product of formal
instruction and learning. It involves a conscious
process which results in conscious knowledge
about the target language
1- Learning Vs. Acquiring
17. 2-The Monitor Hypothesis
Conscious learning is limited in SLA.
Acquisition has the central role.
Learning functions as a Monitor.
The Monitor acts in planning, editing, and correcting
function.
Three specific conditions needed to use Monitor:
Sufficient time
Focus on form
Know the rule
When Monitor is not used, errors are natural
20. 4- The Input Hypothesis
The input hypothesis is only concerned with acquisition,
not learning.
The L2 learners improve when they receive L2 'input'.
"Human acquires language in only way-by understanding
messages or by receiving comprehensible input"
(Krashen, 1987).
Comprehensible input: understanding of input language,
that contains 'a bit beyond' the current level of
competence. (i+1)
Speech will 'emerge' once the acquirer has built up enough
comprehensible input (Krashen, 1987).
21. 5-The Filter Hypothesis
A number of
attitudinal variables
affect SLA:
•Motivation
•Self Confidence
•Anxiety
22. References
Herrera, S.G.,& Murry, K.G. (2011). Mastering ESL and Bilingual
Methods. (2nd ed.). U.S.A: Pearson Education, Inc.
Richards, J.C.,& Rodgers, T.S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in
Language Teaching. [Online]. Cambridge Language Teaching
Library. (2nd ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved
from: Cambridge Books Online
<http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667305>
Krashen, Stephen D. Principles and Practice in Second Language
Acquisition. Prentice-Hall International, 1987.
Oxford Seminars. (1992). TESOL/TESL Certification Course: Training
Manual. Oxford University Press.
23. References
Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal Behavior. Acton, MA:
Copley Publishing Group.
Traxler, M.J. (2011). Introduction to psycholinguistics:
Understanding Language Science. Wiley- Blackwell.
Retrieved from
http://ca.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-
EHEP002301.html
Wikipedia. (2015). Tabula Rasa . Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_rasa
Editor's Notes
In a communicative ESL classroom setting, it is essential for teachers to apply the appropriate theory of second language acquisition on the adult ESL classroom. All teaching approaches are based on either first or second language acquisition theories such as Behaviorism, Innatism, Cognitive Theory, Social Interactionist Theory, and Connectionist Models. Each language teaching approach has its pros and cons depending on the teaching style, curriculum, instructional methods, and students’ needs.
-Behaviorism, theorized by American psychologist B. F. Skinner, is a theory that views learning as a process of reinforcing and rewarding behaviors. According to this theory, when individuals receive positive reinforcement for their behavior, they are likely to repeat those behaviors. When individuals receive negative reinforcement, they are likely to stop producing those behaviors. This means that behaviors that have positive consequences tend to increase, while behaviors that have negative consequences tend to decrease (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
-Innatism, theorized by Noam Chomsky in 1960, is a theory that views language acquisition as an innate capacity, where a child's brain contains special language learning devices at birth. This means that when a child is born, he/she the ability to learn any languages.
-Krashen's theory is one of the most influential Innatist theories in SLA. Krashen' Monitor Model hypothesised five main components: 1) the acquisition learning hypothesis, 2) the natural order hypothesis, 3) the monitor hypothesis, 4) the input hypothesis, 5) the effective filter hypothesis (Krashen,1987).
-Tabula Rasa means that the child is born without any predisposed knowledge and all knowledge come from experience and outside influences. Tabula Rasa concept contradicts the theory of Innatism.
-Tabula Rasa concept was famous in the 17 century by the great philosopher John Lock, who asserted the free well of individual to shape his personality. In his article, "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding," John Lock described the mind as a blank state without any innate knowledge. Most of the ideas and knowledge that shape the individual's mind are derived from his/her encounter with environment (Wikipedia, 2015)
-B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) claimed that language is another form of learning behavior. It is a response to stimuli in the environment. For example, human beings attain their ability to talk and response to others in the same way they attain their ability to walk, crawl, and reach something. The process of learning is accompanied by antecedents and consequent events that involve reinforcement or punishment (Skinner, 1957).
-B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant conditioning. It means changing the behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior:1) neutral operant, 2) reinforcers, 3) punishers
As an ESL teacher, I used to apply the behaviorist theory in second language teaching class. I used to give my students a simple task and break it into small steps. I repeat the directions many times using simple and demonstrative language. Then, I ask my students to demonstrate the instruction. I used to give them positive reinforcement because it is more effective than punishment. As a result, students responded to positive reinforcement and started to work hard. I used a point or stickers to reward students’ good behavior or good performance. The technique that I used should be adjusted to be age appropriate.
-The quality and the quantity of language input the child receives and the consistency of reinforcement offered by others in the surrounding environment, would shape the child’ language behavior.
-The audio-lingual approach was partly based on the hypothesis that language learning was a behavioral skill. According to this theory, the learning process involved forming good habits by reinforcing correct language uses. Students learned language through a series of drills involving imitation, repetition and practice (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
-For example, a typical lesson might include the introduction of a model dialogue read aloud by the teacher; choral repetition of the dialogue with frequent teacher correction of pronunciation; memorization, practice and adaptation of the dialogue; drill practice of grammatical structures; and reading and writing activities related to the vocabulary and forms presented that day (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
-Based on the behaviorist approach to language teaching, the Audio-Lingual Method makes a great use of reinforcement strategy. Correct responses are quickly rewarded to enhance the good behavior. All interaction between learners and teacher is conducted in the target language to force students communicate freely (Oxford Seminars, 1992).
In terms of language learning, the behaviorist approach would reward students for correct utterances and responses; thereby stimulating students responses and good performance. This idea was incorporated into the audio lingual approach. For instance, one of the principle methods of the approach involved the memorization of dialogues representing situations the student could encounter. It was believed that if students memorized the correct responses of the dialogue and were given positive feedback for their responses, so, when students encountered the situation in real life situation, they would automatically recall the appropriate language for the context (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
The critics of audio-Lingual Method argued that no classroom should depend mainly on drills and mimicry. The idea is to help students communicate freely in the target language, so simple repetition and imitation are not sufficient to be the dominant method of instruction for an ESL class (Oxford Seminar, 1992).
According to Chomsky’s theory of generative grammar, language consists of the surface structures, but underlying those surface structures are deep structures that represent an innate capacity of the human brain. It is from this innate grammatical base that humans can generate unlimited number of sentences. “It is the brain’s innate ability to conceptualize the abstract that allows for the linguistic translation of thought through evolved brain structures” (as cited in Oxford Seminar, 1992).
-According to Krashen (1987), learned language could not be turned into acquisition.
-It is futile to spend a lot of time learning grammatical rules, because this strategy will not help students become better users of the language in authentic situations.
E.g. adding 's' to the third person singular verbs is easy to state but many SL learners fail to apply it in spontaneous conversation.
-The Input Hypothesis tends to explain how a learner acquires a SL according to Krashen's Monitor theory.
-The L2 learner acquires language through the process of comprehensible input that contains rules and structures such as lexis, sounds, morphology, syntax, etc.
-This hypothesis has an implication for SL teachers. Teachers should vary their language instruction and make it full of comprehensible input(both spoken and written languages) that suit the appropriate level of learners
-According to Krashen's theory (1982), the affective filter hypothesis implies that CLD students are influenced by affective variables such as motivation, anxiety, and self-confidence. CLD students who have self confidence, high motivation, and low level of anxiety, are able to adapt quickly with the new class environment and second language acquisition (as cited in Herrera & Murry, 2011). However, high level of anxiety, low motivation, and low self-respect affect CLD students' academic performance and second language acquisition negatively.
-The affective filter hypothesis has an implication on second language teaching and my professional practice. As an ESL instructor, I have to modify my teaching instructional methods to suit the CLD students. I have to do my best to reduce the affective filter. It is important to create an inclusive classroom environment that accommodates diversity and enhances students’ self-esteem and confidence.
