The reproductive system is one of the major mechanisms that characterizes humans in their complete form. Its a major characteristic in all living organisms. Here is a short and concise note on the topic, reproduction and its associated factors with some complications.

1. LECTURE PRESENTATIONLECTURE PRESENTATION
BY:
OLUWAKEMI OMOTUNDE
FOLARIN
AND,
SAMUEL
OLUWADAMILARE
AKAPO

2. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMREPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

3. OutlineOutline
 Structure and functions of testis andStructure and functions of testis and
ovariesovaries
 Menstrual cycleMenstrual cycle
 PubertyPuberty
 MenopauseMenopause
 Breast and cervical cancerBreast and cervical cancer
 Menstrual disordersMenstrual disorders
 InfertilityInfertility
 Ultra sound imaging in briefUltra sound imaging in brief

4. THE OVARYTHE OVARY
The ovaries are theThe ovaries are the
female gonads,female gonads,
or glands, andor glands, and
they lie in athey lie in a
shallow fossa onshallow fossa on
the lateral wallsthe lateral walls
of the pelvis.of the pelvis.
They are 2.5 toThey are 2.5 to
3.5 cm long, 23.5 cm long, 2
cm wide and 1cm wide and 1
cm thickcm thick..

5. Each ovary is attached to the upperEach ovary is attached to the upper
part of the uterus by thepart of the uterus by the ovarianovarian
ligament and to the back of theligament and to the back of the
broad ligamentbroad ligament by a broad bandby a broad band
of tissue, called theof tissue, called the mesovarium.mesovarium.
Blood vesselsBlood vessels and nerves pass toand nerves pass to
the ovary through thethe ovary through the
mesovariummesovarium

6. STRUCTURE OF THE OVARYSTRUCTURE OF THE OVARY
The ovaries have two layers of tissueThe ovaries have two layers of tissue..
The medulla:The medulla: This lies in the centre andThis lies in the centre and
consists of fibrous tissue, blood vesselsconsists of fibrous tissue, blood vessels
and nervesand nerves..
The cortex:The cortex: This surrounds the medulla. ItThis surrounds the medulla. It
has a framework of connective tissue, orhas a framework of connective tissue, or
stroma, covered by germinal epithelium. Itstroma, covered by germinal epithelium. It
contains ovarian follicles in various stagescontains ovarian follicles in various stages
ofof maturity, each of which contains anmaturity, each of which contains an
ovumovum..

7. STRUCTURE OF THE OVARYSTRUCTURE OF THE OVARY
Before puberty the ovaries are inactive butBefore puberty the ovaries are inactive but
the stroma already contains immaturethe stroma already contains immature
(primordial) follicles, which the female has(primordial) follicles, which the female has
from birthfrom birth..
During the childbearing years, about everyDuring the childbearing years, about every
28 days, one ovarian follicle (Graafian28 days, one ovarian follicle (Graafian
follicle) matures, ruptures and releases itsfollicle) matures, ruptures and releases its
ovum into the peritoneal cavity. This isovum into the peritoneal cavity. This is
calledcalled ovulationovulation and it occurs during mostand it occurs during most
menstrual cyclesmenstrual cycles..

8. FUNCTIONS OF THE OVARYFUNCTIONS OF THE OVARY
The ovaries have two main reproductiveThe ovaries have two main reproductive
functions in the bodyfunctions in the body..
11..They produce oocytes (eggs) for fertilisation,They produce oocytes (eggs) for fertilisation,
andand
22..They produce the reproductiveThey produce the reproductive
hormones, oestrogen and progesteronehormones, oestrogen and progesterone

9. The function of the ovaries is controlledThe function of the ovaries is controlled
byby gonadotrophin-releasinggonadotrophin-releasing
hormonehormone released from nerve cells inreleased from nerve cells in
the hypothalamus which send theirthe hypothalamus which send their
messages to the pituitary gland tomessages to the pituitary gland to
produceproduce luteinisingluteinising
hormone and follicle stimulatinghormone and follicle stimulating
hormone.hormone. These are carried in theThese are carried in the
bloodstream to control the menstrualbloodstream to control the menstrual
cyclecycle..

10. THE TESTESTHE TESTES
The testes are theThe testes are the
reproductive glands ofreproductive glands of
the male and are thethe male and are the
equivalent of theequivalent of the
ovaries in the femaleovaries in the female..
They are about 4.5 cmThey are about 4.5 cm
long, 2.5 cm wide andlong, 2.5 cm wide and
3 cm thick and are3 cm thick and are
suspended in thesuspended in the
scrotum by thescrotum by the
-spermatic cords-spermatic cords..

11. STRUCTURE OF THE TESTESSTRUCTURE OF THE TESTES
In each testis are 200 to 300 lobules andIn each testis are 200 to 300 lobules and
within each lobule are 1 to 4 convolutedwithin each lobule are 1 to 4 convoluted
loops composed of germinal epithelialloops composed of germinal epithelial
cells, calledcells, called seminiferous tubulesseminiferous tubules..
Between the tubules there are groups ofBetween the tubules there are groups of
interstitial cells (of Ley dig) that secreteinterstitial cells (of Ley dig) that secrete
the hormonethe hormone testosteronetestosterone after pubertyafter puberty..

12. FUNCTIONS OF THE TESTESFUNCTIONS OF THE TESTES
Spermatozoa (sperm) are produced in theSpermatozoa (sperm) are produced in the
seminiferous tubules of the testes, andseminiferous tubules of the testes, and
mature as they pass through the long andmature as they pass through the long and
convolutedconvoluted epididymisepididymis, where they are, where they are
storedstored..
The hormone controlling sperm productionThe hormone controlling sperm production
is Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)is Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
from the anterior pituitaryfrom the anterior pituitary

13. MENSTRUAL CYCLEMENSTRUAL CYCLE
This is a series of events, occurring regularly inThis is a series of events, occurring regularly in
females every 26 to 30 days throughout thefemales every 26 to 30 days throughout the
childbearing period of about 36 years. The cyclechildbearing period of about 36 years. The cycle
consists of a series of changes that take placeconsists of a series of changes that take place
concurrently in the ovaries and uterine walls,concurrently in the ovaries and uterine walls,
stimulated by changes in the bloodstimulated by changes in the blood
concentrations of hormones. Hormonesconcentrations of hormones. Hormones
secreted in the cycle are regulated by negativesecreted in the cycle are regulated by negative
feedback mechanismsfeedback mechanisms..

14. Normal menstruationNormal menstruation
 Rhythm:Rhythm: regular from 21-35 daysregular from 21-35 days
 Duration:Duration: 3-7 days3-7 days
 Amount:Amount: between 30-50 mlbetween 30-50 ml
 Flow:Flow: non clotted fluid bloodnon clotted fluid blood

15. SUMMARY OF THE FEMALESUMMARY OF THE FEMALE
MENSTRUAL CYCLEMENSTRUAL CYCLE..
Summary of one female
menstrual cycle:
A. Ovarian
cycle; maturation of follicle
and development of corpus
luteum.
B. Anterior pituitary cycle;
LH and FSH levels.
C. Uterine cycle;
menstrual, proliferative and
secretory phases.
D. Ovarian hormone
cycle; oestrogen and
progesterone levels.

16. PUBERTYPUBERTY
Puberty is the age at whichPuberty is the age at which
the internal reproductivethe internal reproductive
organs reach maturity. This isorgans reach maturity. This is
called thecalled the menarche, andmenarche, and
marks the beginning of themarks the beginning of the
childbearing periodchildbearing period..

17. PUBERTY IN FEMALEPUBERTY IN FEMALE
The age of puberty varies between 10 and 14 years andThe age of puberty varies between 10 and 14 years and
a number of physical and psychological changes takea number of physical and psychological changes take
place at this timeplace at this time::
••the uterus, the uterine tubes and the ovaries reachthe uterus, the uterine tubes and the ovaries reach
maturitymaturity
••the menstrual cycle and ovulation begin (menarchethe menstrual cycle and ovulation begin (menarche((
••pubic and axillary hair begins to growpubic and axillary hair begins to grow
••the breasts develop and enlargethe breasts develop and enlarge
there is an increase in the rate of growth in height andthere is an increase in the rate of growth in height and
widening of the pelvis there is an increase in thewidening of the pelvis there is an increase in the
amount of fat deposited in the subcutaneous tissue,amount of fat deposited in the subcutaneous tissue,
especially at the hips and breastsespecially at the hips and breasts..

18. PUBERTY IN MALEPUBERTY IN MALE
This occurs between the ages of 10This occurs between the ages of 10
and 14.and 14. Luteinising hormoneLuteinising hormone fromfrom
the anterior lobe of the pituitarythe anterior lobe of the pituitary
gland stimulates the interstitial cellsgland stimulates the interstitial cells
of the testes to increase productionof the testes to increase production
of testosterone. This hormoneof testosterone. This hormone
influences the development of theinfluences the development of the
body to sexual maturitybody to sexual maturity..

19. PUBERTY IN MALEPUBERTY IN MALE
The changes which occur at puberty areThe changes which occur at puberty are::
Growth of muscle and bone and a markedGrowth of muscle and bone and a marked
increase in height and weightincrease in height and weight..
Enlargement of the larynx and deepening ofEnlargement of the larynx and deepening of
the voice —it 'breaksthe voice —it 'breaks‘.‘.
Growth of hair on the face, axillae, chest,Growth of hair on the face, axillae, chest,
abdomen and pubisabdomen and pubis
Enlargement of the penis, scrotum andEnlargement of the penis, scrotum and
prostate glandprostate gland..
maturation of the seminiferous tubules andmaturation of the seminiferous tubules and
production of spermatozoa the skinproduction of spermatozoa the skin

20.  In the male, fertility and sexual abilityIn the male, fertility and sexual ability
tend to decline gradually with ageing.tend to decline gradually with ageing.
The secretion of testosterone graduallyThe secretion of testosterone gradually
declines, usually beginning at about 50declines, usually beginning at about 50
years of age. There is no periodyears of age. There is no period
comparable to the female menopause.comparable to the female menopause.

21. MENOPAUSEMENOPAUSE
MenopauseMenopause is a normal condition that
all women experience as they age. The
term "menopause" can describe any of
the changes a woman goes through
either just before or after she stops
menstruating, marking the end of her
reproductive period.

22. STAGES OF MENOPAUSE
The process is gradual and has three stages:
Perimenopause; This typically begins several
years before menopause, when the ovaries
gradually make less estrogen.
Menopause: This is the point when it's been a
year since a woman last had her last menstrual
period.
Post-menopause; These are the years after
menopause. During this stage, menopausal

23. A woman is born with a finite number of eggs,
which are stored in the ovaries. The ovaries
also make the hormones estrogen and
progesterone, which
controls menstruation and ovulation.
Menopause happens when the ovaries no
longer release an egg every month and
menstruation stops.

24. Menopause is considered a normal
part of aging when it happens after the
age of 40. But some women can go
through menopause early, either as a
result of surgery, such
as hysterectomy, or damage to the
ovaries, such as from chemotherapy.
Menopause that happens before 40,
regardless of the cause, is called
premature menopause.

25. Premature menopause can be the result of
genetics, autoimmune disorders, or medical
procedures. Other conditions that may cause early
menopause include:
Premature ovarian failure: Changes in the levels
of the hormones happen when the ovaries, for
unknown reasons, prematurely stop releasing
eggs.
Induced menopause: "Induced" menopause
happens when the ovaries are surgically removed
for medical reasons, such as uterine
cancer or endometriosis.

26. POSTMENOPAUSAL BLEEDINGPOSTMENOPAUSAL BLEEDING
It is bleeding from the genital tract occurring 6It is bleeding from the genital tract occurring 6
months or more after cessation of menstruationmonths or more after cessation of menstruation
in a woman above the age of 40.in a woman above the age of 40.
It is a serious symptom because in about 25% ofIt is a serious symptom because in about 25% of
cases, it is due to a malignant lesion in thecases, it is due to a malignant lesion in the
genital tractgenital tract
Prevalence:Prevalence:
About 7 in 1000 postmenopausal women.About 7 in 1000 postmenopausal women.

27. BREAST CANCERBREAST CANCER
Breast cancerBreast cancer is cancer that develops is cancer that develops
from breast tissue.from breast tissue.
Signs of breast cancer Signs of breast cancer
may include a lump in the breast, a change may include a lump in the breast, a change
in breast shape, dimpling of the skin, fluid in breast shape, dimpling of the skin, fluid
coming from the nipple, or a red scaly coming from the nipple, or a red scaly
patch of skin. In those with distant spread patch of skin. In those with distant spread
of the disease, there may be bone pain, of the disease, there may be bone pain,
swollen lymph nodes, shortness of breath, swollen lymph nodes, shortness of breath,
or yellow skinor yellow skin..

28. RISK FACTORS OF BREAST CANCERRISK FACTORS OF BREAST CANCER
Risk factors for developing breast cancer Risk factors for developing breast cancer
includeinclude: :
female sexfemale sex, ,
ObesityObesity, ,
Lack of physical exerciseLack of physical exercise, ,
Drinking alcoholDrinking alcohol, ,
Hormone replacement therapy Hormone replacement therapy
during menopauseduring menopause, ,
Ionizing radiation, early age at Ionizing radiation, early age at
first menstruationfirst menstruation, ,
Having children late or not at all, andHaving children late or not at all, and

29. About 5–10% of cases are due to About 5–10% of cases are due to
genes inherited from a person's parents. genes inherited from a person's parents.
Breast cancer most commonly develops in Breast cancer most commonly develops in
cells from the lining of milk ducts and cells from the lining of milk ducts and
the lobules that supply the ducts with milkthe lobules that supply the ducts with milk..
The diagnosis of breast cancer is confirmed The diagnosis of breast cancer is confirmed
by taking a by taking a biopsybiopsy of the concerning of the concerning
lump. Once the diagnosis is made, further lump. Once the diagnosis is made, further
tests are done to determine if the cancer tests are done to determine if the cancer
has spread beyond the breast and which has spread beyond the breast and which
treatments it may respond totreatments it may respond to

30. TYPES OF BREAST CANCERTYPES OF BREAST CANCER
There are two major types of breast cancerThere are two major types of breast cancer;;
11. . Ductal carcinomasDuctal carcinomas: :
Cancers developing from the ductsCancers developing from the ducts. .
22. . Lobular carcinomas: those developing Lobular carcinomas: those developing
from lobulesfrom lobules..
In addition, there are more than 18 other In addition, there are more than 18 other
sub-types of breast cancersub-types of breast cancer..

31. STAGES OF BREAST CANCERSTAGES OF BREAST CANCER

32. PREVENTION OF BREASTPREVENTION OF BREAST
CANCERCANCER
Women may reduce their risk of Women may reduce their risk of
breast cancer bybreast cancer by; ;
Maintaining a healthy weightMaintaining a healthy weight,,
Drinking less alcoholDrinking less alcohol,,
Being physically active andBeing physically active and
Breastfeeding their childrenBreastfeeding their children..

33. CERVICAL CANCERCERVICAL CANCER
Cervical cancer, or cancer of the cervix,
is cancer of the entrance to the uterus
(womb). The cervix is the narrow part of
the lower uterus, often referred to as the
neck of the womb. Cervical cancer occurs
most commonly in women over the age of
30.

34. TYPES OF CERVICAL CANCER
Ectocervix - flat cells
The ectocervix is the portion of the cervix that projects
into the vagina, also known and as the portio vaginalis. It
is about 3 cm long and 2.5 cm wide.
Endocervix - glandular cells - adenocarcinoma
of the cervix
The endocervix is the inside of the cervix. these cells
produce mucus.
They develop into Adenocarcinoma.
.

35. Cancer is the result of the uncontrolled
division of abnormal cells. Most of the
cells in our body have a set lifespan;
when they die new cells are produced
to replace them.
These cells don’t die, they keep
multiplying.
This results in an excessive
accumulation of cells which eventually
form a lump - a tumor.
CAUSES OF CERVICAL CANCER

36. MENSTRAL DISORDERSMENSTRAL DISORDERS
1. Amenorrhea
Amenorrhea is no menstruation. This term
is used for women who have not started
menstruating after the age of 15 years
(primary amenorrhea) and that stops
menstruation for 3 months after having few
periods (secondary amenorrhea).

37. 2. Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is a group of
physical symptoms, emotions, and
behaviors that commonly occur in the last
week of the luteal phase (the week before
menstruation). Symptoms usually do not
begin until 13 days before the cycle, and
completed within 4 days after bleeding
begins.

38. 3. Dysmenorrhea
Dysmenorrhea is painful menstruation.
Menstrual pain occurs in the lower abdomen
but can spread to the lower back and thighs.
Pain can also be accompanied by severe
abdominal cramps. Cramps are from
contractions in the uterus, which is a normal
part of the process of menstruation, and
usually first felt when bleeding starts and
continues up to 32-48 hours.

39. 4. Menorrhagia
Menorrhagia is the medical term for
excessive menstrual bleeding. In a normal
menstrual cycle, women on average lose
about 30 ml of blood for about 7 days of
menstruation. If bleeding exceeds 7 days or
too heavy (over 80 ml), then categorized
menorrhagia.

40. 5.Abnormal Bleeding
Abnormal vaginal bleeding (excluding
menses), among others:
Bleeding between menstrual periods
Bleeding after sex
Bleeding after menopause

41. INFERTILITYINFERTILITY
Infertility refers to an inability to conceive after
having regular unprotected sex. Infertility can also
refer to the biological inability of an individual to
contribute to conception, or to a female who
cannot carry a pregnancy to full term. In many
countries infertility refers to a couple that has failed
to conceive after 12 months of regular sexual
intercourse without the use of contraception

42. Risk factors of infertility
Age - a woman's fertility starts to drop after she is
about 32 years old, and continues doing so. A 50-
year-old man is usually less fertile than a man in
his 20s (male fertility progressively drops after the
age of 40)
Smoking - smoking significantly increases the risk
of infertility in both men and women. Smoking may
also undermine the effects of fertility treatment.
Even when a woman gets pregnant, if she smokes
she has a greater risk of miscarriage.

43.  Alcohol consumption - a woman's
pregnancy can be seriously affected by
any amount of alcohol consumption.
Alcohol abuse may lower male fertility.
Moderate alcohol consumption has not
been shown to lower fertility in most men,
but is thought to lower fertility in men who
already have a low sperm count.

44. Being obese or overweight - in industrialized
countries overweight/obesity and a sedentary lifestyle
are often found to be the principal causes of female
infertility. An overweight man has a higher risk of
having abnormal sperm.
Eating disorders - women who become seriously
underweight as a result of an eating disorder may
have fertility problems.
Being vegan - if you are a strict vegan you must
make sure your intake of iron, folic acid, zinc
and vitamin B-12 are adequate, otherwise your

45. Over-exercising - a woman who exercises for
more than seven hours each week may have
ovulation problems.
Not exercising - leading a sedentary lifestyle is
sometimes linked to lower fertility in both men and
women.
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
- Chlamydia can damage the fallopian tubes, as
well as making the man's scrotum become
inflamed. Some other STIs may also cause
infertility.

46. Exposure to some chemicals - some pesticides,
herbicides, metals (lead) and solvents have been
linked to fertility problems in both men and women.
Mental stress - studies indicate that female
ovulation and sperm production may be affected
by mental stress. If at least one partner is
stressed it is possible that the frequency of sexual
intercourse is less, resulting in a lower chance of
conception.

47. ULTRA SOUND IMAGINGULTRA SOUND IMAGING
Ultrasound imaging (sonography) usesUltrasound imaging (sonography) uses
high-frequency sound waves to viewhigh-frequency sound waves to view
inside the body. Because ultrasoundinside the body. Because ultrasound
images are captured in real-time, theyimages are captured in real-time, they
can also show movement of thecan also show movement of the
body's internal organs as well asbody's internal organs as well as
blood flowing through the bloodblood flowing through the blood
vessels. Ultrasound imaging is avessels. Ultrasound imaging is a
medical tool that can help a physicianmedical tool that can help a physician
evaluate, diagnose and treat medicalevaluate, diagnose and treat medical

48. USESUSES.. Common ultrasound imagingCommon ultrasound imaging
procedures includeprocedures include::
Abdominal ultrasoundAbdominal ultrasound (to visualize(to visualize
abdominal tissues and organsabdominal tissues and organs))
Bone sonometryBone sonometry (to assess bone(to assess bone
fragilityfragility))
Breast ultrasound (to visualizeBreast ultrasound (to visualize
breast tissuebreast tissue))
Doppler ultrasoundDoppler ultrasound (to visualize(to visualize
blood flow through a blood vessel,blood flow through a blood vessel,
organs, or other structuresorgans, or other structures))
EchocardiogramEchocardiogram (to view the heart(to view the heart))
Fetal ultrasoundFetal ultrasound (to view the fetus(to view the fetus
in pregnancyin pregnancy))
Ultrasound-guided biopsiesUltrasound-guided biopsies (to(to
collect a sample of tissuecollect a sample of tissue))

49. ThankThank
youyou
ThankThank
youyou