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MAIN PURPOSE OFMAIN PURPOSE OF
WRITINGWRITING
PAPER/ARTICLE/REPORTPAPER/ARTICLE/REPORT
Sharing of most recent knowledge
Advancement of science

PROF.DR.ALAY AHMAD
Effective Communicative StyleEffective Communicative Style
may achieve Main Aim ofmay achieve Main Aim of
WritingWriting
Write relevant aspects and exclude
irrelevant contents
Remember “ Someone else should be able
to repeat your experiment :solely on the
basis of your experiment ”(Mc Guigan ,
1983 ,327 )
Inadequate/incomplete/Inadequate/incomplete/
paper means others cannotpaper means others cannot
understand published workunderstand published work
It is wastage of time , money and
barrier in the development of
science
Command over LanguageCommand over Language
 Techniques
 Read many time same published work
 Develop creativity
 Command overtrump
 Develop scientific vocabulary
Main Purpose of WritingMain Purpose of Writing
Paper/ReportPaper/Report
 Main purpose may be achieved by
 Effective Communicative Skill
Main objective is sharing of recent
knowledge
Command over grammar
Types of Paper / ArticleTypes of Paper / Article
Two types of paper
Empirical ArticlesEmpirical Articles
Original research papers
Usually divided into Four main sections :
 Introduction (Literature review )
 Method
 Results
 Discussion
Review Articles :MajorReview Articles :Major
CharacteristicsCharacteristics
Critical evaluation of published materials
 EVALUATION OF WORK

Critically examines current status of
research work
Review Article Consists of theReview Article Consists of the
following Four steps :following Four steps :
 Critical Evaluation of the following steps :
 Problem defined
 Summary of earlier research works
 Identify relations , gaps , inconsistencies in
literature
 Suggestions / solutions
 WE WILL MAINLY FOCUS ON EMPIRICAL
PAPER WRITING STYLE
Main Steps :Empirical PaperMain Steps :Empirical Paper
 ORGANIZATION OF THE PAPER
 Title
 Introduction /Review of the Literature
 Method
 Results
 Discussion
 Summary , Limitations of the Study
 References
General RulesGeneral Rules
Too many words are not allowed
Omit needles words (Strunk and White ,
1979)
Do not use a lot of words where a few will
do
Avoid JargonAvoid Jargon
 Reader/s are not impressed by difficult and
complex words
 Avoid local / colloquial /double barrel language
 Specialized language could create frustration as
they consult dictionary in order to know meaning
of that word
 Reader/s may feel inferiority complex
How To Write Title ?How To Write Title ?
Write short , concise title
Exact title
Recommended total words :10 to 12 words
Abbreviations not allowed
Examples of Suitable TitlesExamples of Suitable Titles
 Alay Ahmad (2004) Communication and Stress
 Alay Ahmad (1979)Television Programme
Preference of Pakistani Children
 B.L.Dubey ;W.A.Cassell , & A . Dubey (2005)
Impact of Number of Responses on the
Interpretation of Research Indices
 M.G.Hussain and S. Aleem(2004) Terrorism &
Rise of Islamic Identity
Suitable TitlesSuitable Titles
S.M.Moghni (1979) Research into Millat
Character of Muslims : A Proposal and
Framework fro an International Study
Introduction :Following StepsIntroduction :Following Steps
 State a problem – no ambiguity
 Ask a question –related to the problem
 Formulate a rationale statement
 Develop motivation among reader/s
 Persuade readers/examiners that your work is
logical and significant contribution to the field of
science
What about First Sentence ?What about First Sentence ?
Research has shown this sentence is not
appropriate as opening sentence (Aronson
et al ,1990 )
This sentence ignores human
/ animal behaviour .Clearly describe
about your subject whether human or
behaviour animal , you studied
Some Examples: How ToSome Examples: How To
Formulate ProblemFormulate Problem
Consider following problem formulated by
Asch (1952) :
Effects of group pressure upon modification
and distortion of judgments
Take another example in the next slide
A Shorter But LessA Shorter But Less
Informative SentenceInformative Sentence
Crown , Thompson , & Ellsworth(1971) :
“The jury is a uniquely democratic
institution.”
Cown et al wrote shorter sentence but less
informative
Third Example :Third Example :
Zeisal (1969)Zeisal (1969)
“ It is the purpose of this paper to provide
empirical evidence on a number of issues
created by disqualification from capital
juries of jurors who have scruples against
death penalty .”(Zeisal , 1969)
I repeat :Capture Attention ofI repeat :Capture Attention of
Reader/sReader/s
 Problem (even title ) must be written in an
attractive way in order to catch attention of the
reader/s .
 Think over the following problem:
 “ The purpose of the paper is to investigate
relationship between intelligence and mountain
Would you like to read it’’?
 Stupid statements never capture attention .
Question:It is the First step ofQuestion:It is the First step of
Scientific StudyScientific Study
Question stimulates the reader/s to explore
some thing novel .
Question motivates the reader/s
Question is an important aspect of the
issue of the study .
QuestionQuestion
 According to Aronson ;Ellsworth ;Carlsmith ; and
Gonzales (1990 , 332)
 “ Your research was designed to answer a question”.
 Aronson recommended following examples to explain
how to ask question :
 “ Why do you like him ”?
 “ If a boy who enjoys moving lawns begins to receive
payment for the task , what will happen to his
intrinsic motivation for performing the activity’’?
Question ?Question ?
“When they see a question , most people
will become curious and read at least the
next sentence’’(Aronson et al ; 1990 ,
334 )
Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)
Raised following Question :Raised following Question :
 “ What happens to a person’s private opinion if he
is is forced to do or say something contrary to that
opinion ”
 A above examples , emphasize upon formulation
of question in a scientific way , author will attract
attention of the reader/s .
 Because they are inspired and intend to fill out
their gap in the knowledge .(See Arinson et al)
How Prof Moghni raised inHow Prof Moghni raised in
Questions in his research onQuestions in his research on
Millat (1979):Millat (1979):
 “(a)What are the major determinants of modal
personality in a Muslim society’’?
 “(b) What are the social consequences of modal
personality ?In other words , what influence does
modal personality exercise on the functioning of a
Muslim social system”?
 Notice , one can also further explain question(as
in b)
 LITERATURE REVIEW
(Introduction / Historical
Background )
 STATE OF THE ART
This sub-section includes only relevant
historical review of the study .
First recommendation is :Include most
recent investigations related to your
study .
Literature Review:Basic RulesLiterature Review:Basic Rules
Describe summaries of previous works
Critically evaluate earlier researches
Briefly mention relevant theories , method
results of previous researches .
Literature Review :BasisLiterature Review :Basis
RulesRules
Mention those studies that support your
research
Remember also refer those investigations
that do not support your hypothesis
 Describe all relevant aspects to your
question/ hypothesis .
Moghni’s paper on ResearchMoghni’s paper on Research
into the Millat Character ofinto the Millat Character of
Muslim as an exampleMuslim as an example
 I quote Moghni’s(1979,p 2) introductory section
of his paper in order to explain additional basic
characteristics of scientific work :
 “ The concept of millat is central theme to the
Islamic way of life .For a Muslim , religion is not
merely an individual affair between him and his
God , it also determines his entire relationship to
his fellow Muslim s as well as non-Muslims …”
That is define concept of your research .
Length of Review of LiteratureLength of Review of Literature
 It depends on nature of research work / editorial
policy / research supervisor
 Do not overemphasis on introductory part of your
work .
 Simple rule is : No relevant aspect of earlier
research is excluded .Include abstract of previous
work if review is too lengthy .
Purpose of the StudyPurpose of the Study
 Recall your problem , question , hypothesis
 current status of the issue and your main objective
 Its importance and scope and then write purpose
of the study
 Note that clearly mention significance of study .
 Convince the reader/s about study .
Purpose of the StudyPurpose of the Study
“ The brief overview is designed to
familiarize readers with the specific
question the study was designed to
answer ….a brief rationale is designed to
convince readers that the question was
worth asking in the first place’’ (Aronson
et al ,1990 , 335 )
Purpose:What Variables ?Purpose:What Variables ?
Clearly explain and identify your variables:
independent and dependent variables .
How these variables you manipulate and
measure ?
The logic of your expected results ?
HypothesisHypothesis
 Read any book on research method in odder to
learn how to formulate hypothesis , for example ,
following/ papers books are recommended:
 Alay Ahmad & M Bano (2004).Television
Violence ,Terrorism , & Innocent Child
.Lahore:Institute of Muslim Psychology
 E Aronson;P.C.Ellsworth ; J.M.Carlsmith; and
M.H.Gonzales (1990) .Methods of Research In
Social Psychology .New York:McGraw-Hill
Books on HypothesisBooks on Hypothesis
FormulationFormulation
L.Berkowitz (Ed.).Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology .
New York:Academic Press
Example of HypothesisExample of Hypothesis
For example :
“ Those subjects who perform numerical
work under auditory conditions , they
take more time and commit more
mistakes as compared to their
counterparts who do the same work
under quite conditions”
Hypothesis RegardingHypothesis Regarding
AltruismAltruism
Latane and Darley(1968,1970) formulated
hypothesis mentioned below :
As the size of the group witnessing an
emergency increased , helping
behavior decreased
HypothesisHypothesis
Alay Ahmad (1980) formulated following
hypothesis :
“ TV watching children read soft-
contents more often than non-TV
watching children ’’
HypothesisHypothesis
Chaffee & McLeod (1971) tested rival
hypothesis as follows :
“Viewing of television violence increases
likelihood of behaving aggressively”
HypothesisHypothesis
Jamila Khatoon (2006) formulated
following hypothesis :
“There would not be significant effect of
spirituality , explanatory life styles and
life satisfaction among male and female
students of Humanities” .
F.J.McGuigan(1963)F.J.McGuigan(1963)
suggested hypothesis writingsuggested hypothesis writing
principal as followsprincipal as follows
“If … then …”
“ If a ..then b…”
“ If X then Z…”
Subsections of MethodsSubsections of Methods
Traditionally following are subsections of
methods :
 Subjects(Ss)
 Apparatus (Materials or Instruments )
 Procedure
Subsections are brieflySubsections are briefly
discussed below :discussed below :
 Remember following advise (Publication
Manual , APA) :
 “ ..Given insufficient detail , the reader is left
with questions ; given too much detail , the reader
is burdened with irrelevant information’’ .
 Consider only relevant information and write them
in scientific way –note, concise statement is the
effective communicative style .
Human SubjectsHuman Subjects
(Participants )(Participants )
Provide demographic information of your
Subjects (Ss) as mentioned below :
 Sampling procedure
 Geographical location
 Number of Ss
 Age
 Gender : Number of male / female
 Marital status
SubjectsSubjects
Socio-economic status (monthly / yearly
income)
Education
Institutional affiliation
Health
Previous experience as subject
SubjectsSubjects
Drop out Ss
Mention number of subjects who did not
complete experiment and explain why they
left study it means
Attrition
Were Subjects PaidWere Subjects Paid
S .Milgram(1963) paid his Ss in his
experimental study on obedience
Some experimenters provide non-financial
incentives to Ss such as free car parking or
acting as subject is considered as substitute
of tutorials
Volunteer ParticipantsVolunteer Participants
How many persons acted as volunteer
subjects ?
Mention also how experimenter convinced
them to participate in the study ?
Experimenter's DemographicExperimenter's Demographic
InformationInformation
Aronson et al (1990)
recommended for provision of
experimenter’s demographic as
well .
What About Confederate ?What About Confederate ?
Trained subject (s) act as desired by the
experimenter .
Recall , S. E . Asch’s (1952 ) classical
experiment on distortion of judgment
(group pressure ).In this study he used six
confederates(that is majority trained Ss )
ConfederateConfederate
Latane and Darley (1968)
employed confederate in their
experimental study on
helping behavior .
Confederate SsConfederate Ss
Also provide demographic
information regarding
confederate/s
Subjects Debriefed ?Subjects Debriefed ?
 Did you brief your subjects ?
 What about post experimental session with
subjects in this regard ?
 After completion of study debrief all subjects .
 Tell your subjects about main objective of the
study
 If they ask any question , explain it .
 Purpose of debriefing is to control/eliminate
any harmful effect on participants .
 Mention it in your work .
DebriefingDebriefing
 Remember , debriefing actually is very
complex phase like all steps of experimental
report writing .
 Write exact words that were communicated to
subjects in order to acknowledge their services
as well .
 Sincerity (Aronson et al ) is one of of the bases
of debriefing .Tell your readers , how this was
done by you .
Animal SubjectsAnimal Subjects
Demographic Information
Geographical location
Number of subjects
Age
Gender
Physical conditions : Weight
Instruments/ApparatusInstruments/Apparatus
Avoid materials like paper , pencil , rubber
Mention apparatus/materials used such
as
Memory drum
Tatchistoscope
Polygraph TAT Skinner box
Teaching machine Stop watch
Unfamiliar ApparatusUnfamiliar Apparatus
 Briefly describe unfamiliar
apparatus/material .
Drawing of apparatus or photograph
facilitates readers to understand
apparatus such as photograph/drawing
of Skinner Box , Muller-Lyer Illusion ,
Ergograph
Method :How ExperimentMethod :How Experiment
ExecutedExecuted
This section must be described in detail in
such a way that study may be replicated .
It mainly deals with two questions :
 How you proceeded your study
 What you did
ProcedureProcedure
As a first step describe variables :
 Following were the Independent and
Dependent Variables studied by
Latane and Darley (on helping
behaviour) , see next slide

Helping BehaviourHelping Behaviour
 The Independent Variable was :
 Size of the group
 The Dependent Variable was: The time that
elapsed from the start of the scizure to the time a
subject began trying to help the victim (Feldman,
1994)
 That is total time taken by the subject to help the
victim .
Variables :DefinitionVariables :Definition
Describe variables
Provide operational definition of the
independent and dependent
variables (as for example mentioned
in previous slide )
Set working definition of variables

Another example of VariablesAnother example of Variables
 Noise :Independent Variable
 Noise has operationally been defined as auditory
sound produced by electronic sound hammer
 Performance :Dependent Variable
 Performance has operationally been defined as
total time taken and total errors committed in
numerical addition by the subjects
Manipulation of VariableManipulation of Variable
Describe in detail how independent variable
was manipulated .Example of noise is
again cited :
Auditory noise was manipulated by
electronic sound hammer continuously
until experiment is completed
Dependent VariableDependent Variable
Dependent variable was measured
by counting total errors committed
by the S and total time taken by the
S was measured on stop watch (in
minutes )
In Which Condition Which Variable youIn Which Condition Which Variable you
Manipulated and WithdrawnManipulated and Withdrawn
Describe in which condition you produced
which variable ?
Independent Variable very precisely
manipulated only in the experimental
condition that is to treatment group
according to your set definition .
Measuring Variable :DVMeasuring Variable :DV
Describe how no-treatment group was not
exposed to independent variable ?
The technique you used to withdraw
independent variable in control condition be
discussed .For example noise was
withdrawn in control condition while calm
and quite condition(sound proof
laboratory ) were manipulated .
How Ss were Assigned toHow Ss were Assigned to
Various Conditions?Various Conditions?
Describe how Ss were assigned to various
conditions ?
For example , forty students of 5th
grade
acted as subjects .Explain that how 50% Ss
were assigned to experimental (treatment
group ) and remaining Ss assigned to
control (non-treatment group ) .If you
randomly assigned them , write it .
Instructions to the SubjectsInstructions to the Subjects
Write how subjects were instructed to
behave accordingly .
Develop effective directions for the subjects
,suppose you conduct experiment on
memory , following instructions may be
given :
RapportRapport
Describe how you developed interaction
with the subjects (Ss ) .
How you receive Ss ?
Did you express true feelings
NOW INSTRUCTIONS TO RESEASRCH
PARTICIPANTS
“ A list of non-sense syllable (meaning less
letters ) will be shown to you through the
window of this apparatus (experimenter points
out to the window of memory drum) .Your task
is spell out each non-sense syllable loudly and
memories all none-sense syllables .Same list will
be shown to you until , correct list is recalled on
single trial .Is it clear to you , if not , I will
repeat it . (Pause , if Ss ask , explain
it).Remember , your task is spell out each
nonsense syllable in order to memorize them
.Ready , start’’ .(Slightly modified instructions
of Postman and Eagan ) .
Intervening Variable/sIntervening Variable/s
How you identified intervening
variable/s ?Describe it .
Briefly write how intervening
(extraneous )
variables you eliminated / controlled
from experimental and control
conditions?
ResultsResults
Describe your collected data .for this
purpose .
You are required to mention name
of statistical treatment .
Analyze data as a whole –group data
ResultsResults
Describe all results those support your
hypothesis
Also mention those results do not support
hypothesis .
Do not conceal any figure
Results:Demographic LevelResults:Demographic Level
 Results of Demographic Data .
 Analyze results as mentioned in demographic
subsection such as
 Age Gender Education
 Marital Status
 Income Geographical Location
Results :Tables and FiguresResults :Tables and Figures
Prepare most suitable tables
Prepare graphs
In fact , tables , figures , and graphs show
results in such a way that at glance
reader is able to grasp main trends of
your study .
Statistical AnalysisStatistical Analysis
Discuss statistical treatment
Write your results are significant or not
For example , t-test , F tests with value of
the test , the degree of freedom .
Remember include means , SD
DiscussionDiscussion
How you present problem , question,
variables , results , intervening variable ,
data , theories , earlier researches ,
hypothesis verified and other related issues
under the title of discussion .
It is sensitive section of paper because
above aspects are reflected in discussion .
SummarySummary
Summarize your paper from title through
method to results in such a way that it
gives comprehensive picture what you have
done and how you have arrived on certain
conclusion in logical and chronological
sequence
Limitations of The StudyLimitations of The Study
Most generally students start limitation with
the following sentence :
“ Principal least cooperative
or intolerant subjects
or drop out was the main issue
Our study was an excellent ”
Opening sentences are inappropriate , they
show experimenter’s limitations .
LimitationsLimitations
Limitations of the study may be , for
example :
Size of the sample
Language barrier ( you may hire services of
interpreter )
Time limitation
Non-availability of tests
ReferencesReferences
Follow APA style an example is here :
Aronson,E ; Ellsworth ,P.C ; and Gonzales
(1990) ,Methods Of Research In Social
Psychology , New York : McGraw Hill
ReferenceReference
Note that references of books , journals ,
conferences , seminars , edited books
differ.
Each reference is presented in its own
style as recommended by American
Psychological Association
That’s AllThat’s All
 Thank you very much
Remember
Comprehensive and logical sequence
of research work attracts reader
 NO PALAGARISM
AcknowledgementAcknowledgement
All Rights Reserved In the Name
 Of Author Prof Dr Alay Ahmad
 Eighty Five Slides
Email Alay. Ahmed@gmail.com
•CONTANIMATEDCONTANIMATED
CAUSES OF CONTANIMATED
STUDIES
Abstract
Many VARIABLES . NO OPERATIONAL
DEFINATIONS , SCIENCE OF
CONTARST . TWO OPPOSITE
DIRECTIONS NEXT PLEAE

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Main purpose of writing by prof alay ahmad

  • 1. MAIN PURPOSE OFMAIN PURPOSE OF WRITINGWRITING PAPER/ARTICLE/REPORTPAPER/ARTICLE/REPORT Sharing of most recent knowledge Advancement of science 
  • 3. Effective Communicative StyleEffective Communicative Style may achieve Main Aim ofmay achieve Main Aim of WritingWriting Write relevant aspects and exclude irrelevant contents Remember “ Someone else should be able to repeat your experiment :solely on the basis of your experiment ”(Mc Guigan , 1983 ,327 )
  • 4. Inadequate/incomplete/Inadequate/incomplete/ paper means others cannotpaper means others cannot understand published workunderstand published work It is wastage of time , money and barrier in the development of science
  • 5. Command over LanguageCommand over Language  Techniques  Read many time same published work  Develop creativity  Command overtrump  Develop scientific vocabulary
  • 6. Main Purpose of WritingMain Purpose of Writing Paper/ReportPaper/Report  Main purpose may be achieved by  Effective Communicative Skill Main objective is sharing of recent knowledge Command over grammar
  • 7. Types of Paper / ArticleTypes of Paper / Article Two types of paper
  • 8. Empirical ArticlesEmpirical Articles Original research papers Usually divided into Four main sections :  Introduction (Literature review )  Method  Results  Discussion
  • 9. Review Articles :MajorReview Articles :Major CharacteristicsCharacteristics Critical evaluation of published materials  EVALUATION OF WORK  Critically examines current status of research work
  • 10. Review Article Consists of theReview Article Consists of the following Four steps :following Four steps :  Critical Evaluation of the following steps :  Problem defined  Summary of earlier research works  Identify relations , gaps , inconsistencies in literature  Suggestions / solutions  WE WILL MAINLY FOCUS ON EMPIRICAL PAPER WRITING STYLE
  • 11. Main Steps :Empirical PaperMain Steps :Empirical Paper  ORGANIZATION OF THE PAPER  Title  Introduction /Review of the Literature  Method  Results  Discussion  Summary , Limitations of the Study  References
  • 12. General RulesGeneral Rules Too many words are not allowed Omit needles words (Strunk and White , 1979) Do not use a lot of words where a few will do
  • 13. Avoid JargonAvoid Jargon  Reader/s are not impressed by difficult and complex words  Avoid local / colloquial /double barrel language  Specialized language could create frustration as they consult dictionary in order to know meaning of that word  Reader/s may feel inferiority complex
  • 14. How To Write Title ?How To Write Title ? Write short , concise title Exact title Recommended total words :10 to 12 words Abbreviations not allowed
  • 15. Examples of Suitable TitlesExamples of Suitable Titles  Alay Ahmad (2004) Communication and Stress  Alay Ahmad (1979)Television Programme Preference of Pakistani Children  B.L.Dubey ;W.A.Cassell , & A . Dubey (2005) Impact of Number of Responses on the Interpretation of Research Indices  M.G.Hussain and S. Aleem(2004) Terrorism & Rise of Islamic Identity
  • 16. Suitable TitlesSuitable Titles S.M.Moghni (1979) Research into Millat Character of Muslims : A Proposal and Framework fro an International Study
  • 17. Introduction :Following StepsIntroduction :Following Steps  State a problem – no ambiguity  Ask a question –related to the problem  Formulate a rationale statement  Develop motivation among reader/s  Persuade readers/examiners that your work is logical and significant contribution to the field of science
  • 18. What about First Sentence ?What about First Sentence ? Research has shown this sentence is not appropriate as opening sentence (Aronson et al ,1990 ) This sentence ignores human / animal behaviour .Clearly describe about your subject whether human or behaviour animal , you studied
  • 19. Some Examples: How ToSome Examples: How To Formulate ProblemFormulate Problem Consider following problem formulated by Asch (1952) : Effects of group pressure upon modification and distortion of judgments Take another example in the next slide
  • 20. A Shorter But LessA Shorter But Less Informative SentenceInformative Sentence Crown , Thompson , & Ellsworth(1971) : “The jury is a uniquely democratic institution.” Cown et al wrote shorter sentence but less informative
  • 21. Third Example :Third Example : Zeisal (1969)Zeisal (1969) “ It is the purpose of this paper to provide empirical evidence on a number of issues created by disqualification from capital juries of jurors who have scruples against death penalty .”(Zeisal , 1969)
  • 22. I repeat :Capture Attention ofI repeat :Capture Attention of Reader/sReader/s  Problem (even title ) must be written in an attractive way in order to catch attention of the reader/s .  Think over the following problem:  “ The purpose of the paper is to investigate relationship between intelligence and mountain Would you like to read it’’?  Stupid statements never capture attention .
  • 23. Question:It is the First step ofQuestion:It is the First step of Scientific StudyScientific Study Question stimulates the reader/s to explore some thing novel . Question motivates the reader/s Question is an important aspect of the issue of the study .
  • 24. QuestionQuestion  According to Aronson ;Ellsworth ;Carlsmith ; and Gonzales (1990 , 332)  “ Your research was designed to answer a question”.  Aronson recommended following examples to explain how to ask question :  “ Why do you like him ”?  “ If a boy who enjoys moving lawns begins to receive payment for the task , what will happen to his intrinsic motivation for performing the activity’’?
  • 25. Question ?Question ? “When they see a question , most people will become curious and read at least the next sentence’’(Aronson et al ; 1990 , 334 )
  • 26. Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) Raised following Question :Raised following Question :  “ What happens to a person’s private opinion if he is is forced to do or say something contrary to that opinion ”  A above examples , emphasize upon formulation of question in a scientific way , author will attract attention of the reader/s .  Because they are inspired and intend to fill out their gap in the knowledge .(See Arinson et al)
  • 27. How Prof Moghni raised inHow Prof Moghni raised in Questions in his research onQuestions in his research on Millat (1979):Millat (1979):  “(a)What are the major determinants of modal personality in a Muslim society’’?  “(b) What are the social consequences of modal personality ?In other words , what influence does modal personality exercise on the functioning of a Muslim social system”?  Notice , one can also further explain question(as in b)
  • 28.  LITERATURE REVIEW (Introduction / Historical Background )  STATE OF THE ART This sub-section includes only relevant historical review of the study . First recommendation is :Include most recent investigations related to your study .
  • 29. Literature Review:Basic RulesLiterature Review:Basic Rules Describe summaries of previous works Critically evaluate earlier researches Briefly mention relevant theories , method results of previous researches .
  • 30. Literature Review :BasisLiterature Review :Basis RulesRules Mention those studies that support your research Remember also refer those investigations that do not support your hypothesis  Describe all relevant aspects to your question/ hypothesis .
  • 31. Moghni’s paper on ResearchMoghni’s paper on Research into the Millat Character ofinto the Millat Character of Muslim as an exampleMuslim as an example  I quote Moghni’s(1979,p 2) introductory section of his paper in order to explain additional basic characteristics of scientific work :  “ The concept of millat is central theme to the Islamic way of life .For a Muslim , religion is not merely an individual affair between him and his God , it also determines his entire relationship to his fellow Muslim s as well as non-Muslims …” That is define concept of your research .
  • 32. Length of Review of LiteratureLength of Review of Literature  It depends on nature of research work / editorial policy / research supervisor  Do not overemphasis on introductory part of your work .  Simple rule is : No relevant aspect of earlier research is excluded .Include abstract of previous work if review is too lengthy .
  • 33. Purpose of the StudyPurpose of the Study  Recall your problem , question , hypothesis  current status of the issue and your main objective  Its importance and scope and then write purpose of the study  Note that clearly mention significance of study .  Convince the reader/s about study .
  • 34. Purpose of the StudyPurpose of the Study “ The brief overview is designed to familiarize readers with the specific question the study was designed to answer ….a brief rationale is designed to convince readers that the question was worth asking in the first place’’ (Aronson et al ,1990 , 335 )
  • 35. Purpose:What Variables ?Purpose:What Variables ? Clearly explain and identify your variables: independent and dependent variables . How these variables you manipulate and measure ? The logic of your expected results ?
  • 36. HypothesisHypothesis  Read any book on research method in odder to learn how to formulate hypothesis , for example , following/ papers books are recommended:  Alay Ahmad & M Bano (2004).Television Violence ,Terrorism , & Innocent Child .Lahore:Institute of Muslim Psychology  E Aronson;P.C.Ellsworth ; J.M.Carlsmith; and M.H.Gonzales (1990) .Methods of Research In Social Psychology .New York:McGraw-Hill
  • 37. Books on HypothesisBooks on Hypothesis FormulationFormulation L.Berkowitz (Ed.).Advances in Experimental Social Psychology . New York:Academic Press
  • 38. Example of HypothesisExample of Hypothesis For example : “ Those subjects who perform numerical work under auditory conditions , they take more time and commit more mistakes as compared to their counterparts who do the same work under quite conditions”
  • 39. Hypothesis RegardingHypothesis Regarding AltruismAltruism Latane and Darley(1968,1970) formulated hypothesis mentioned below : As the size of the group witnessing an emergency increased , helping behavior decreased
  • 40. HypothesisHypothesis Alay Ahmad (1980) formulated following hypothesis : “ TV watching children read soft- contents more often than non-TV watching children ’’
  • 41. HypothesisHypothesis Chaffee & McLeod (1971) tested rival hypothesis as follows : “Viewing of television violence increases likelihood of behaving aggressively”
  • 42. HypothesisHypothesis Jamila Khatoon (2006) formulated following hypothesis : “There would not be significant effect of spirituality , explanatory life styles and life satisfaction among male and female students of Humanities” .
  • 43. F.J.McGuigan(1963)F.J.McGuigan(1963) suggested hypothesis writingsuggested hypothesis writing principal as followsprincipal as follows “If … then …” “ If a ..then b…” “ If X then Z…”
  • 44. Subsections of MethodsSubsections of Methods Traditionally following are subsections of methods :  Subjects(Ss)  Apparatus (Materials or Instruments )  Procedure
  • 45. Subsections are brieflySubsections are briefly discussed below :discussed below :  Remember following advise (Publication Manual , APA) :  “ ..Given insufficient detail , the reader is left with questions ; given too much detail , the reader is burdened with irrelevant information’’ .  Consider only relevant information and write them in scientific way –note, concise statement is the effective communicative style .
  • 46. Human SubjectsHuman Subjects (Participants )(Participants ) Provide demographic information of your Subjects (Ss) as mentioned below :  Sampling procedure  Geographical location  Number of Ss  Age  Gender : Number of male / female  Marital status
  • 47. SubjectsSubjects Socio-economic status (monthly / yearly income) Education Institutional affiliation Health Previous experience as subject
  • 48. SubjectsSubjects Drop out Ss Mention number of subjects who did not complete experiment and explain why they left study it means Attrition
  • 49. Were Subjects PaidWere Subjects Paid S .Milgram(1963) paid his Ss in his experimental study on obedience Some experimenters provide non-financial incentives to Ss such as free car parking or acting as subject is considered as substitute of tutorials
  • 50. Volunteer ParticipantsVolunteer Participants How many persons acted as volunteer subjects ? Mention also how experimenter convinced them to participate in the study ?
  • 51. Experimenter's DemographicExperimenter's Demographic InformationInformation Aronson et al (1990) recommended for provision of experimenter’s demographic as well .
  • 52. What About Confederate ?What About Confederate ? Trained subject (s) act as desired by the experimenter . Recall , S. E . Asch’s (1952 ) classical experiment on distortion of judgment (group pressure ).In this study he used six confederates(that is majority trained Ss )
  • 53. ConfederateConfederate Latane and Darley (1968) employed confederate in their experimental study on helping behavior .
  • 54. Confederate SsConfederate Ss Also provide demographic information regarding confederate/s
  • 55. Subjects Debriefed ?Subjects Debriefed ?  Did you brief your subjects ?  What about post experimental session with subjects in this regard ?  After completion of study debrief all subjects .  Tell your subjects about main objective of the study  If they ask any question , explain it .  Purpose of debriefing is to control/eliminate any harmful effect on participants .  Mention it in your work .
  • 56. DebriefingDebriefing  Remember , debriefing actually is very complex phase like all steps of experimental report writing .  Write exact words that were communicated to subjects in order to acknowledge their services as well .  Sincerity (Aronson et al ) is one of of the bases of debriefing .Tell your readers , how this was done by you .
  • 57. Animal SubjectsAnimal Subjects Demographic Information Geographical location Number of subjects Age Gender Physical conditions : Weight
  • 58. Instruments/ApparatusInstruments/Apparatus Avoid materials like paper , pencil , rubber Mention apparatus/materials used such as Memory drum Tatchistoscope Polygraph TAT Skinner box Teaching machine Stop watch
  • 59. Unfamiliar ApparatusUnfamiliar Apparatus  Briefly describe unfamiliar apparatus/material . Drawing of apparatus or photograph facilitates readers to understand apparatus such as photograph/drawing of Skinner Box , Muller-Lyer Illusion , Ergograph
  • 60. Method :How ExperimentMethod :How Experiment ExecutedExecuted This section must be described in detail in such a way that study may be replicated . It mainly deals with two questions :  How you proceeded your study  What you did
  • 61. ProcedureProcedure As a first step describe variables :  Following were the Independent and Dependent Variables studied by Latane and Darley (on helping behaviour) , see next slide 
  • 62. Helping BehaviourHelping Behaviour  The Independent Variable was :  Size of the group  The Dependent Variable was: The time that elapsed from the start of the scizure to the time a subject began trying to help the victim (Feldman, 1994)  That is total time taken by the subject to help the victim .
  • 63. Variables :DefinitionVariables :Definition Describe variables Provide operational definition of the independent and dependent variables (as for example mentioned in previous slide ) Set working definition of variables 
  • 64. Another example of VariablesAnother example of Variables  Noise :Independent Variable  Noise has operationally been defined as auditory sound produced by electronic sound hammer  Performance :Dependent Variable  Performance has operationally been defined as total time taken and total errors committed in numerical addition by the subjects
  • 65. Manipulation of VariableManipulation of Variable Describe in detail how independent variable was manipulated .Example of noise is again cited : Auditory noise was manipulated by electronic sound hammer continuously until experiment is completed
  • 66. Dependent VariableDependent Variable Dependent variable was measured by counting total errors committed by the S and total time taken by the S was measured on stop watch (in minutes )
  • 67. In Which Condition Which Variable youIn Which Condition Which Variable you Manipulated and WithdrawnManipulated and Withdrawn Describe in which condition you produced which variable ? Independent Variable very precisely manipulated only in the experimental condition that is to treatment group according to your set definition .
  • 68. Measuring Variable :DVMeasuring Variable :DV Describe how no-treatment group was not exposed to independent variable ? The technique you used to withdraw independent variable in control condition be discussed .For example noise was withdrawn in control condition while calm and quite condition(sound proof laboratory ) were manipulated .
  • 69. How Ss were Assigned toHow Ss were Assigned to Various Conditions?Various Conditions? Describe how Ss were assigned to various conditions ? For example , forty students of 5th grade acted as subjects .Explain that how 50% Ss were assigned to experimental (treatment group ) and remaining Ss assigned to control (non-treatment group ) .If you randomly assigned them , write it .
  • 70. Instructions to the SubjectsInstructions to the Subjects Write how subjects were instructed to behave accordingly . Develop effective directions for the subjects ,suppose you conduct experiment on memory , following instructions may be given :
  • 71. RapportRapport Describe how you developed interaction with the subjects (Ss ) . How you receive Ss ? Did you express true feelings NOW INSTRUCTIONS TO RESEASRCH PARTICIPANTS
  • 72. “ A list of non-sense syllable (meaning less letters ) will be shown to you through the window of this apparatus (experimenter points out to the window of memory drum) .Your task is spell out each non-sense syllable loudly and memories all none-sense syllables .Same list will be shown to you until , correct list is recalled on single trial .Is it clear to you , if not , I will repeat it . (Pause , if Ss ask , explain it).Remember , your task is spell out each nonsense syllable in order to memorize them .Ready , start’’ .(Slightly modified instructions of Postman and Eagan ) .
  • 73. Intervening Variable/sIntervening Variable/s How you identified intervening variable/s ?Describe it . Briefly write how intervening (extraneous ) variables you eliminated / controlled from experimental and control conditions?
  • 74. ResultsResults Describe your collected data .for this purpose . You are required to mention name of statistical treatment . Analyze data as a whole –group data
  • 75. ResultsResults Describe all results those support your hypothesis Also mention those results do not support hypothesis . Do not conceal any figure
  • 76. Results:Demographic LevelResults:Demographic Level  Results of Demographic Data .  Analyze results as mentioned in demographic subsection such as  Age Gender Education  Marital Status  Income Geographical Location
  • 77. Results :Tables and FiguresResults :Tables and Figures Prepare most suitable tables Prepare graphs In fact , tables , figures , and graphs show results in such a way that at glance reader is able to grasp main trends of your study .
  • 78. Statistical AnalysisStatistical Analysis Discuss statistical treatment Write your results are significant or not For example , t-test , F tests with value of the test , the degree of freedom . Remember include means , SD
  • 79. DiscussionDiscussion How you present problem , question, variables , results , intervening variable , data , theories , earlier researches , hypothesis verified and other related issues under the title of discussion . It is sensitive section of paper because above aspects are reflected in discussion .
  • 80. SummarySummary Summarize your paper from title through method to results in such a way that it gives comprehensive picture what you have done and how you have arrived on certain conclusion in logical and chronological sequence
  • 81. Limitations of The StudyLimitations of The Study Most generally students start limitation with the following sentence : “ Principal least cooperative or intolerant subjects or drop out was the main issue Our study was an excellent ” Opening sentences are inappropriate , they show experimenter’s limitations .
  • 82. LimitationsLimitations Limitations of the study may be , for example : Size of the sample Language barrier ( you may hire services of interpreter ) Time limitation Non-availability of tests
  • 83. ReferencesReferences Follow APA style an example is here : Aronson,E ; Ellsworth ,P.C ; and Gonzales (1990) ,Methods Of Research In Social Psychology , New York : McGraw Hill
  • 84. ReferenceReference Note that references of books , journals , conferences , seminars , edited books differ. Each reference is presented in its own style as recommended by American Psychological Association
  • 85. That’s AllThat’s All  Thank you very much Remember Comprehensive and logical sequence of research work attracts reader  NO PALAGARISM
  • 86. AcknowledgementAcknowledgement All Rights Reserved In the Name  Of Author Prof Dr Alay Ahmad  Eighty Five Slides Email Alay. Ahmed@gmail.com
  • 87. •CONTANIMATEDCONTANIMATED CAUSES OF CONTANIMATED STUDIES Abstract Many VARIABLES . NO OPERATIONAL DEFINATIONS , SCIENCE OF CONTARST . TWO OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS NEXT PLEAE

Notes de l'éditeur

  1. BY PROF. DR. ALAY AHMAD
  2. 10 MINUTES TEA BREAK