3. Effective Communicative StyleEffective Communicative Style
may achieve Main Aim ofmay achieve Main Aim of
WritingWriting
Write relevant aspects and exclude
irrelevant contents
Remember “ Someone else should be able
to repeat your experiment :solely on the
basis of your experiment ”(Mc Guigan ,
1983 ,327 )
5. Command over LanguageCommand over Language
Techniques
Read many time same published work
Develop creativity
Command overtrump
Develop scientific vocabulary
6. Main Purpose of WritingMain Purpose of Writing
Paper/ReportPaper/Report
Main purpose may be achieved by
Effective Communicative Skill
Main objective is sharing of recent
knowledge
Command over grammar
7. Types of Paper / ArticleTypes of Paper / Article
Two types of paper
9. Review Articles :MajorReview Articles :Major
CharacteristicsCharacteristics
Critical evaluation of published materials
EVALUATION OF WORK
Critically examines current status of
research work
10. Review Article Consists of theReview Article Consists of the
following Four steps :following Four steps :
Critical Evaluation of the following steps :
Problem defined
Summary of earlier research works
Identify relations , gaps , inconsistencies in
literature
Suggestions / solutions
WE WILL MAINLY FOCUS ON EMPIRICAL
PAPER WRITING STYLE
11. Main Steps :Empirical PaperMain Steps :Empirical Paper
ORGANIZATION OF THE PAPER
Title
Introduction /Review of the Literature
Method
Results
Discussion
Summary , Limitations of the Study
References
12. General RulesGeneral Rules
Too many words are not allowed
Omit needles words (Strunk and White ,
1979)
Do not use a lot of words where a few will
do
13. Avoid JargonAvoid Jargon
Reader/s are not impressed by difficult and
complex words
Avoid local / colloquial /double barrel language
Specialized language could create frustration as
they consult dictionary in order to know meaning
of that word
Reader/s may feel inferiority complex
14. How To Write Title ?How To Write Title ?
Write short , concise title
Exact title
Recommended total words :10 to 12 words
Abbreviations not allowed
15. Examples of Suitable TitlesExamples of Suitable Titles
Alay Ahmad (2004) Communication and Stress
Alay Ahmad (1979)Television Programme
Preference of Pakistani Children
B.L.Dubey ;W.A.Cassell , & A . Dubey (2005)
Impact of Number of Responses on the
Interpretation of Research Indices
M.G.Hussain and S. Aleem(2004) Terrorism &
Rise of Islamic Identity
17. Introduction :Following StepsIntroduction :Following Steps
State a problem – no ambiguity
Ask a question –related to the problem
Formulate a rationale statement
Develop motivation among reader/s
Persuade readers/examiners that your work is
logical and significant contribution to the field of
science
18. What about First Sentence ?What about First Sentence ?
Research has shown this sentence is not
appropriate as opening sentence (Aronson
et al ,1990 )
This sentence ignores human
/ animal behaviour .Clearly describe
about your subject whether human or
behaviour animal , you studied
19. Some Examples: How ToSome Examples: How To
Formulate ProblemFormulate Problem
Consider following problem formulated by
Asch (1952) :
Effects of group pressure upon modification
and distortion of judgments
Take another example in the next slide
20. A Shorter But LessA Shorter But Less
Informative SentenceInformative Sentence
Crown , Thompson , & Ellsworth(1971) :
“The jury is a uniquely democratic
institution.”
Cown et al wrote shorter sentence but less
informative
21. Third Example :Third Example :
Zeisal (1969)Zeisal (1969)
“ It is the purpose of this paper to provide
empirical evidence on a number of issues
created by disqualification from capital
juries of jurors who have scruples against
death penalty .”(Zeisal , 1969)
22. I repeat :Capture Attention ofI repeat :Capture Attention of
Reader/sReader/s
Problem (even title ) must be written in an
attractive way in order to catch attention of the
reader/s .
Think over the following problem:
“ The purpose of the paper is to investigate
relationship between intelligence and mountain
Would you like to read it’’?
Stupid statements never capture attention .
23. Question:It is the First step ofQuestion:It is the First step of
Scientific StudyScientific Study
Question stimulates the reader/s to explore
some thing novel .
Question motivates the reader/s
Question is an important aspect of the
issue of the study .
24. QuestionQuestion
According to Aronson ;Ellsworth ;Carlsmith ; and
Gonzales (1990 , 332)
“ Your research was designed to answer a question”.
Aronson recommended following examples to explain
how to ask question :
“ Why do you like him ”?
“ If a boy who enjoys moving lawns begins to receive
payment for the task , what will happen to his
intrinsic motivation for performing the activity’’?
25. Question ?Question ?
“When they see a question , most people
will become curious and read at least the
next sentence’’(Aronson et al ; 1990 ,
334 )
26. Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)
Raised following Question :Raised following Question :
“ What happens to a person’s private opinion if he
is is forced to do or say something contrary to that
opinion ”
A above examples , emphasize upon formulation
of question in a scientific way , author will attract
attention of the reader/s .
Because they are inspired and intend to fill out
their gap in the knowledge .(See Arinson et al)
27. How Prof Moghni raised inHow Prof Moghni raised in
Questions in his research onQuestions in his research on
Millat (1979):Millat (1979):
“(a)What are the major determinants of modal
personality in a Muslim society’’?
“(b) What are the social consequences of modal
personality ?In other words , what influence does
modal personality exercise on the functioning of a
Muslim social system”?
Notice , one can also further explain question(as
in b)
28. LITERATURE REVIEW
(Introduction / Historical
Background )
STATE OF THE ART
This sub-section includes only relevant
historical review of the study .
First recommendation is :Include most
recent investigations related to your
study .
29. Literature Review:Basic RulesLiterature Review:Basic Rules
Describe summaries of previous works
Critically evaluate earlier researches
Briefly mention relevant theories , method
results of previous researches .
30. Literature Review :BasisLiterature Review :Basis
RulesRules
Mention those studies that support your
research
Remember also refer those investigations
that do not support your hypothesis
Describe all relevant aspects to your
question/ hypothesis .
31. Moghni’s paper on ResearchMoghni’s paper on Research
into the Millat Character ofinto the Millat Character of
Muslim as an exampleMuslim as an example
I quote Moghni’s(1979,p 2) introductory section
of his paper in order to explain additional basic
characteristics of scientific work :
“ The concept of millat is central theme to the
Islamic way of life .For a Muslim , religion is not
merely an individual affair between him and his
God , it also determines his entire relationship to
his fellow Muslim s as well as non-Muslims …”
That is define concept of your research .
32. Length of Review of LiteratureLength of Review of Literature
It depends on nature of research work / editorial
policy / research supervisor
Do not overemphasis on introductory part of your
work .
Simple rule is : No relevant aspect of earlier
research is excluded .Include abstract of previous
work if review is too lengthy .
33. Purpose of the StudyPurpose of the Study
Recall your problem , question , hypothesis
current status of the issue and your main objective
Its importance and scope and then write purpose
of the study
Note that clearly mention significance of study .
Convince the reader/s about study .
34. Purpose of the StudyPurpose of the Study
“ The brief overview is designed to
familiarize readers with the specific
question the study was designed to
answer ….a brief rationale is designed to
convince readers that the question was
worth asking in the first place’’ (Aronson
et al ,1990 , 335 )
35. Purpose:What Variables ?Purpose:What Variables ?
Clearly explain and identify your variables:
independent and dependent variables .
How these variables you manipulate and
measure ?
The logic of your expected results ?
36. HypothesisHypothesis
Read any book on research method in odder to
learn how to formulate hypothesis , for example ,
following/ papers books are recommended:
Alay Ahmad & M Bano (2004).Television
Violence ,Terrorism , & Innocent Child
.Lahore:Institute of Muslim Psychology
E Aronson;P.C.Ellsworth ; J.M.Carlsmith; and
M.H.Gonzales (1990) .Methods of Research In
Social Psychology .New York:McGraw-Hill
37. Books on HypothesisBooks on Hypothesis
FormulationFormulation
L.Berkowitz (Ed.).Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology .
New York:Academic Press
38. Example of HypothesisExample of Hypothesis
For example :
“ Those subjects who perform numerical
work under auditory conditions , they
take more time and commit more
mistakes as compared to their
counterparts who do the same work
under quite conditions”
40. HypothesisHypothesis
Alay Ahmad (1980) formulated following
hypothesis :
“ TV watching children read soft-
contents more often than non-TV
watching children ’’
41. HypothesisHypothesis
Chaffee & McLeod (1971) tested rival
hypothesis as follows :
“Viewing of television violence increases
likelihood of behaving aggressively”
42. HypothesisHypothesis
Jamila Khatoon (2006) formulated
following hypothesis :
“There would not be significant effect of
spirituality , explanatory life styles and
life satisfaction among male and female
students of Humanities” .
44. Subsections of MethodsSubsections of Methods
Traditionally following are subsections of
methods :
Subjects(Ss)
Apparatus (Materials or Instruments )
Procedure
45. Subsections are brieflySubsections are briefly
discussed below :discussed below :
Remember following advise (Publication
Manual , APA) :
“ ..Given insufficient detail , the reader is left
with questions ; given too much detail , the reader
is burdened with irrelevant information’’ .
Consider only relevant information and write them
in scientific way –note, concise statement is the
effective communicative style .
46. Human SubjectsHuman Subjects
(Participants )(Participants )
Provide demographic information of your
Subjects (Ss) as mentioned below :
Sampling procedure
Geographical location
Number of Ss
Age
Gender : Number of male / female
Marital status
49. Were Subjects PaidWere Subjects Paid
S .Milgram(1963) paid his Ss in his
experimental study on obedience
Some experimenters provide non-financial
incentives to Ss such as free car parking or
acting as subject is considered as substitute
of tutorials
52. What About Confederate ?What About Confederate ?
Trained subject (s) act as desired by the
experimenter .
Recall , S. E . Asch’s (1952 ) classical
experiment on distortion of judgment
(group pressure ).In this study he used six
confederates(that is majority trained Ss )
55. Subjects Debriefed ?Subjects Debriefed ?
Did you brief your subjects ?
What about post experimental session with
subjects in this regard ?
After completion of study debrief all subjects .
Tell your subjects about main objective of the
study
If they ask any question , explain it .
Purpose of debriefing is to control/eliminate
any harmful effect on participants .
Mention it in your work .
56. DebriefingDebriefing
Remember , debriefing actually is very
complex phase like all steps of experimental
report writing .
Write exact words that were communicated to
subjects in order to acknowledge their services
as well .
Sincerity (Aronson et al ) is one of of the bases
of debriefing .Tell your readers , how this was
done by you .
59. Unfamiliar ApparatusUnfamiliar Apparatus
Briefly describe unfamiliar
apparatus/material .
Drawing of apparatus or photograph
facilitates readers to understand
apparatus such as photograph/drawing
of Skinner Box , Muller-Lyer Illusion ,
Ergograph
60. Method :How ExperimentMethod :How Experiment
ExecutedExecuted
This section must be described in detail in
such a way that study may be replicated .
It mainly deals with two questions :
How you proceeded your study
What you did
61. ProcedureProcedure
As a first step describe variables :
Following were the Independent and
Dependent Variables studied by
Latane and Darley (on helping
behaviour) , see next slide
62. Helping BehaviourHelping Behaviour
The Independent Variable was :
Size of the group
The Dependent Variable was: The time that
elapsed from the start of the scizure to the time a
subject began trying to help the victim (Feldman,
1994)
That is total time taken by the subject to help the
victim .
63. Variables :DefinitionVariables :Definition
Describe variables
Provide operational definition of the
independent and dependent
variables (as for example mentioned
in previous slide )
Set working definition of variables
64. Another example of VariablesAnother example of Variables
Noise :Independent Variable
Noise has operationally been defined as auditory
sound produced by electronic sound hammer
Performance :Dependent Variable
Performance has operationally been defined as
total time taken and total errors committed in
numerical addition by the subjects
65. Manipulation of VariableManipulation of Variable
Describe in detail how independent variable
was manipulated .Example of noise is
again cited :
Auditory noise was manipulated by
electronic sound hammer continuously
until experiment is completed
67. In Which Condition Which Variable youIn Which Condition Which Variable you
Manipulated and WithdrawnManipulated and Withdrawn
Describe in which condition you produced
which variable ?
Independent Variable very precisely
manipulated only in the experimental
condition that is to treatment group
according to your set definition .
68. Measuring Variable :DVMeasuring Variable :DV
Describe how no-treatment group was not
exposed to independent variable ?
The technique you used to withdraw
independent variable in control condition be
discussed .For example noise was
withdrawn in control condition while calm
and quite condition(sound proof
laboratory ) were manipulated .
69. How Ss were Assigned toHow Ss were Assigned to
Various Conditions?Various Conditions?
Describe how Ss were assigned to various
conditions ?
For example , forty students of 5th
grade
acted as subjects .Explain that how 50% Ss
were assigned to experimental (treatment
group ) and remaining Ss assigned to
control (non-treatment group ) .If you
randomly assigned them , write it .
70. Instructions to the SubjectsInstructions to the Subjects
Write how subjects were instructed to
behave accordingly .
Develop effective directions for the subjects
,suppose you conduct experiment on
memory , following instructions may be
given :
71. RapportRapport
Describe how you developed interaction
with the subjects (Ss ) .
How you receive Ss ?
Did you express true feelings
NOW INSTRUCTIONS TO RESEASRCH
PARTICIPANTS
72. “ A list of non-sense syllable (meaning less
letters ) will be shown to you through the
window of this apparatus (experimenter points
out to the window of memory drum) .Your task
is spell out each non-sense syllable loudly and
memories all none-sense syllables .Same list will
be shown to you until , correct list is recalled on
single trial .Is it clear to you , if not , I will
repeat it . (Pause , if Ss ask , explain
it).Remember , your task is spell out each
nonsense syllable in order to memorize them
.Ready , start’’ .(Slightly modified instructions
of Postman and Eagan ) .
73. Intervening Variable/sIntervening Variable/s
How you identified intervening
variable/s ?Describe it .
Briefly write how intervening
(extraneous )
variables you eliminated / controlled
from experimental and control
conditions?
74. ResultsResults
Describe your collected data .for this
purpose .
You are required to mention name
of statistical treatment .
Analyze data as a whole –group data
75. ResultsResults
Describe all results those support your
hypothesis
Also mention those results do not support
hypothesis .
Do not conceal any figure
76. Results:Demographic LevelResults:Demographic Level
Results of Demographic Data .
Analyze results as mentioned in demographic
subsection such as
Age Gender Education
Marital Status
Income Geographical Location
77. Results :Tables and FiguresResults :Tables and Figures
Prepare most suitable tables
Prepare graphs
In fact , tables , figures , and graphs show
results in such a way that at glance
reader is able to grasp main trends of
your study .
78. Statistical AnalysisStatistical Analysis
Discuss statistical treatment
Write your results are significant or not
For example , t-test , F tests with value of
the test , the degree of freedom .
Remember include means , SD
79. DiscussionDiscussion
How you present problem , question,
variables , results , intervening variable ,
data , theories , earlier researches ,
hypothesis verified and other related issues
under the title of discussion .
It is sensitive section of paper because
above aspects are reflected in discussion .
80. SummarySummary
Summarize your paper from title through
method to results in such a way that it
gives comprehensive picture what you have
done and how you have arrived on certain
conclusion in logical and chronological
sequence
81. Limitations of The StudyLimitations of The Study
Most generally students start limitation with
the following sentence :
“ Principal least cooperative
or intolerant subjects
or drop out was the main issue
Our study was an excellent ”
Opening sentences are inappropriate , they
show experimenter’s limitations .
82. LimitationsLimitations
Limitations of the study may be , for
example :
Size of the sample
Language barrier ( you may hire services of
interpreter )
Time limitation
Non-availability of tests
83. ReferencesReferences
Follow APA style an example is here :
Aronson,E ; Ellsworth ,P.C ; and Gonzales
(1990) ,Methods Of Research In Social
Psychology , New York : McGraw Hill
84. ReferenceReference
Note that references of books , journals ,
conferences , seminars , edited books
differ.
Each reference is presented in its own
style as recommended by American
Psychological Association
85. That’s AllThat’s All
Thank you very much
Remember
Comprehensive and logical sequence
of research work attracts reader
NO PALAGARISM