2222 288 x-content

Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 2, No 7, 2011

Perceived Readiness of Teachers for Online Instruction in
Nigerian Universities

Nwokike Obinna (Corresponding Author)
Information Resources Management, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo. Ogun State, Nigeria
Tel; +234-080-36738913, Email; onwokike@gmail.com

Ihekeronye Promise
Educational Technology Department, University of Ibadan , Oyo State, Nigeria
Email; dzbond@yahoo.com
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Received: October 1 , 2011
Accepted: October 11th, 2011
Published: October 30th, 2011

Abstract
The necessary skills and a good understanding of information and communication technologies is required
for designing and implementing any appropriate policy for the use of online education in teaching, learning
and research in the university. This study investigated the perception of teachers toward online instruction
in faculty of Education, University of Ibadan. The findings revealed that teachers have a positive
perception toward online instruction due to their perceived value of online instruction. Also factors found
to affect the teachers’ perceived readiness include his facilitation skills, enthusiasm, confidence, manpower
skills, perceived benefit/drawback, time constraint, obsession, ease of use and perceived usefulness while
other factors such as social pressure, classroom culture and inadequate facilities had no significant effect on
teachers’ perceived readiness. The study indicates that there is the need for appropriate review of
information and communication policies, training programmes and infrastructural support our teachers in
exploiting the use of online instruction in their faculty.
Keywords; perceived readiness, teachers, online instruction, Nigeria University
1. Introduction
Among Nigerian-Universities the level of information and communication technologies acquisitions is
quite high as observed from massive empirical reports. But to dismay studies by Hopkins (1996) pointed
out that in acquiring ICTs, universities exhibit blind faiths in technology, a sort of technological
determinism seeming to suggest that merely installing a machine will lead to its efficient and rational use.
This perception of technological determinism seems to prevail in the process of acquiring and providing
access to ICTs in Nigeria universities. There have been reports of department and faculties that acquire
computers before deciding what to do with them. Information and Communication equipment are
purchased but never used and internet access have never been personally utilized by academic staff for a
variety of reasons (Adagunodo & popoola, 2003 as cited in Ihekeronye 2010)
This paper seeks to investigate the teachers’ perceived readiness for online instruction in the faculty of
Education University of Ibadan so as to enable the university authorities to formulate policies that will
enhance the process of quick adoption and use of ICTs at their disposal for online instruction.

2. Review of Literature

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A survey of universities by Mbawonku (1987), in Ihekeronye (2010) investigated the determinants of use
and non use of instructional media by lecturers in two selected Nigeria universities and found a significance
relationship between discipline and use of instructional media (including computer assisted instruction
CAI) and positive correlation between perception and use of media. She, however, found no significant
relationship between academic status and use of media.
In another study Klowu (1997) examined the use of computerized information system in Nigerian
university and research institute libraries. Results from the study revealed that librarians were highly
positive in their attitudes towards the use of computers. The gender, age, length of service and type of
library were not significantly related to the attitudes of librarians towards computers. Frequency of use of
computer and previous training experience in the use of computers were however significantly related to
positive attitudes towards computers. In addition, frequency of use of computers has no significant
relationship with place of training as librarians, type of library where they worked, and subject background
of the librarians. (Ihekeronye 2010)
A similar study by Jumba (2000) found no relationship between attitudes towards online education by
Scientists in six Nigerian agricultural research institutions and the value they derives from ICTs use. They
also found no significant relationship between accessibility to ICTs and research productivity of the
Scientists. However, there was a significant association between the value derived from frequency of ICTs
use and research experience of respondents in his study.
A University of Ibadan-based study investigated prevalence and correlation of computer anxiety,
phobia, obsession and work stress among students and staff of the University of Ibadan. Among their
findings, they reported an inverse correlation of computing experience with information anxiety, computer
phobia and obsessive computing, they also found that discipline, occupation and self-esteem were
significant factor for explaining computer experience while age, locus of control and personality types was
not (Tiamiyu, Ajayi and Olatokun, 2002).
Ehikhamenor, (2001) investigated the use and non-use of internet facilities by scientists in ten Nigerian
Universities and found 4.4% of the scientists had computers at their disposal while 50.4% had access to,
and were using the internet. His study attributed non-use of the internet to problems of accessibility, ease of
use and cost. He also reported that the university in which a scientist worked might have had the greatest
effect among the background factors that influenced the data in his study. In addition, he found significant
different in internet use by scientists in different age groups, academic ranks, and disciplines. (Ihekeronye,
2010)
In another university of Ibadan-based study, Sangowusi (2003) investigated the impact of information
and communication technologies on scholarly publications of scientists of university of Ibadan. He found
that even through 76% of the lecturers were computer literate and 33.5% have been using ICTs for over
five years, only 32.8% owned a personal computer. He also found that ICTs had made very little impact on
the productivity of scientist, especially those in the rank of professor. He concluded that professors in his
study seemed to be overwhelmed by teaching and administrative chores which allowed them very little
time for research (and by implication, for using ICT). (Ihekeronye, 2010)
In an international study sponsored by the United Nations, Adeya and Oyeyinka (2002) compared
internet use by academics in four Nigerians and six Kenyan Universities with a view to understanding the
dynamics of ICT use in academic research, teaching and information dissemination. They found that 87.7%
of the Nigerian respondents in their study used computers while the figure for the Kenyan respondents was
98.2%. In addition, they found that computer use among Nigerian University academics had only become
rampant in the last five years while most respondents from Kenyan Universities had been using computers
for between five and ten years. Also, more Kenyan (96.9%) than Nigerians (55.9%) received formal
training in the use of computers and the internet.
Among the two study groups, word-processing was more widely used computer application followed by e-
mail. Kenyan University academics also used computers for a wider variety of tasks than their Nigerian
counterparts, use of, and access to the internet also differed among the two groups. Kenyans tended to

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access the internet more from their offices while Nigerians accessed the internet more from either other
access points within their universities or from cyber cafés. In addition, unlike the Nigerians, none of the
Kenyans respondents accessed the internet from their homes or from friends/colleagues’ places. The study
concluded that even though academics in the two universities had access to the cluster of technologies that
make up the internet, there were differences in the speed, ease and quality of access to the internet.
Constraints to internet use also varies, Cost was the highest constraints to the Nigerians while availability
of affordable internet connection was the highest constraints to the Kenyans.
Due to the focus and comparative nature of Adeya and Oyeyinka (2002) study, only four Nigerian
universities, all from the south-western part of the countries were sampled; this creates a knowledge gap as
to what obtains among academics in universities in other parts of Nigeria. Their research also did not
investigate perception (as an attitude) as a factor that can affect adoption and use of ICT by academics.
Other existing studies of ICT use in Nigerian Universities are not detailed enough to enable one make
general conclusions about factors that significantly influence ICT adoption and use by individuals. For
example, a study by Agbonlahor (2005) revealed that (Ogunleye, 1997; Ojo-Igbinoba, 1997; Ehikhamenor,
1993; Idowu Mabawonku, 1999; Oduwole, 2000) the use of ICTs in Nigerian University libraries explores
the potentials of ICTs for the development of Nigerian universities and their libraries. Even though these
studies found the level of ICTs use to be quite low, there were no attempt at finding out individual-level
factors that could account for the level of ICT use and rate of adoption in the University libraries.
2.1 Distance Education and Online Education:
With the advent of the information communication revolution fuelled by advances in computer,
networking technologies and World Wide Web, the world is witnessing an expansion in distance education.
As seen in the provision of a broad range of options for its implementation.
Information revolution, brought about by the convergence of telecommunication and computer
technologies has enabled academics institution in several parts of the world to provide a flexible and open
learning environment for students, via online distance learning. It has given rise to concepts such as
Electronic University and Virtual University, which are emerging at a fast space. This indicates that
distance learning as a means of providing higher education will continue to grow. In view of this trend,
online education via the web (e-learning) as a means of approaching distance learning in Nigeria must not
be overlooked, since it is a cost –effective and quick method of communication between learners and the
teachers. (Ahmed, 2006).
Online training was classified as an all encompassing term that refers to training done with a
computer over a network, including an Organization’s intranet, local area network and the internet (Autzen,
2007). He mentioned that online training is also known as net-based training. Moron & Kim (2001) argued
that online learning constitutes just one part of online instruction/education and describes learning via
internet, intranet and extranet. They added that levels of sophistication in online learning vary. It can extend
from a basic online learning program that includes text and graphics of the course, exercises, testing and
record keeping, such as test scores and book marks to a sophisticated online learning program.
Sophistication would include animations, simulations, audio and video sequences peer and expert
discussion groups, online mentoring, links to materials on corporate intranet or the web, and
communications with corporate education records. Like Hubona & Geitz, (1997), Autzen (2007) purported
that online learning is any technology-based learning and added that this usually implies linkage to a
computer.
Given the broad definition of online instruction, it would seem safe to assume that web-based
training is online instruction. Hall (1997) defined web-based training as instruction that is delivered over
the internet or over a company’s intranet. Accessibility of this training, related Hall is through the use of a
web-browser such as Netscape Navigator. Hall and Snider (2008) define e-learning as the process of
learning via computers over the internet and intranets. Hall and Snider extended that e-leaning is also
referred to as web-based training, online training, distributed learning or technology for learning. Distance
learning, was not included in the e-learning definitions and was defined as its own entity as a learning

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process meeting three criteria: a geographical distance separates communication between the trainer and
participant; the communication is two way and interactive and some form of technology is used to
facilitates the learning process. Hall (2000) contends that e-learning will take the form of complete courses,
access to content for just-in-time” learning, access to components and services, and the separation of
“courses” to acquire and test knowledge Vs. content as an immediate, applicable resource to resolve an
immediate, perhaps, one time only problem. Learning is and will continue to be a lifelong process, that
could be accessed anywhere at any time to meet a specific need or want. Hall added that more links to real
time data and research would become readily available.
Thus, web-based training, online learning, e-learning, online instruction, distributed learning,
interest-based learning and net-based learning all speak of the same thing (Hall and Snider, 2000; Urban
and Weggen, 2000). Similar also to e-learning and it related terms are technology-based learning (Urban
and Weggen 2000). Urban and Weggen shared that e-learning covers a wide set of applications and
processes, including computer-based learning, web-based leaning, virtual classrooms, digital
collaborations. For the purpose of their report, they further customized their definition to the delivery of
content via all electronic media, including the internet, intranet, extranets, satellite broadcast, audio/video
tape, interactive TV and CD-ROM. They warned, however, that e-learning is defined more narrowly than
distance learning, which would including text-based learning and courses conducted via written
correspondence. Like Hall and Snider 2000), Urban and Weggen (2000) have set apart distance learning
and e-learning in their glossaries, making in their glossaries however, online education inclusive and
synonymous to all computer-related applications, tools and processes that have been strategically aligned to
value-added learning and teaching processes.
Berge (1998) explained the difference between distance education and distance learning. Distance
education was seen as the formal process of distance learning, with information being broad in scope for
example, college courses. While, distance learning was seen as the acquisition of knowledge and skills
through mediated information and instruction, encompassing all technologies and other forms of learning at
a distance. This may be why most educational institutions used the term distance education.
Institutional definition of distance education which the main tenets: training offered to learners
who are in a different location than the source or provider of instruction. Berge (1998) went on to say that
the technologies used in distance learning, the structure of a course or program, and the degree of
supervision for a distance learning course can be varied to meet a particular’s group’s needs or interests.
Reverting to Halls (2000) online education in all-inclusive form, distance learning planned
interactive courses, as the acquisition of knowledge and skills at a distance through various technological
mediums would seem to be one of online education possible disguises. Interestingly Urban and Weggen
(2000) saw e-learning as a subset of online learning.
With this review of terms, ‘Subset’ does not appear to be the most likely word to describe the
relationship among the words and their forms. The definitions show a great depth of interdependence
among themselves. While one scholar narrowly defines a term, another could give it the all encompassing
power. This communicates that e-learning, if given the all encompassing form, can be the larger circle of
which all other terms would be overlapping at different times and extents given their used intention.
Another rationale is that “just-in-time” learning is a major advantage of e-learning but not of distance
learning. Distance learning purports planned courses or planned experiences. E-learning does not only
value planned learning but also recognizes the value of the unplanned and the self directedness of the
learner to maximize incidental learning to improve performance.
Online instruction is a continuum from basic use of technology in or around the conventional
physical classroom (e.g. use of a course management system to distribute materials and track grades) to
wholly online delivery. Online instruction is the art of using internet; computer and other technologies to
enhance teaching process or learning process. Online technologies such as computer and the internet can be
used creatively for collaborative learning at anytime and anywhere. It enables sharing of knowledge, lesson
plan, research project and notes. Apart from teachers and students, it also involves parents, field experts,
international students, teachers and society via the internet, anytime and anywhere. New technologies

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associated with e-learning have created opportunities and threats to the institutional structure of higher
education, the learning patterns of individual and learning certification systems. E-learning or online
instruction is offering the potential for more accessible, flexible and cost-efficient (and even superior)
higher education.
Online instruction is viewed by some as central to fashioning higher education systems that are fit-
for-purpose in the 21st century. A negative view (e-learning as threat) pictures e-learning as unproven,
disrupting legitimate public control of higher education (e.g. enabling students in one country to take
provision from another and undermining national quality assurance) and is incapable of replicating the
disciplinary breath and socialization of “traditional” Higher Education. Apart from these threats, there are
others affecting online instruction. Factors investigated in this study included inadequate facilities,
classroom-culture, social pressure manpower skill, confidence, perceived ease of use, time constraint,
obsession, perceived usefulness and enthusiasm.
2.2 Limitation;
This study did not explore actual online teaching and learning practices. Responses were related to
recent issues that may or may not be sustainable. In addition, we did not survey students for their
perceptions of online learning trends and possibilities.

3.0 Method

This study adopted an ex-post-facto survey design covering a cross-section of teachers in all the
departments of faculty of Education, University of Ibadan.

Data collected were subjected to factor analysis; which is a statistical approach that can be used to
analyze interrelationship among a large number of variables and to explain these variables in term of their
common underlying dimension (factors).

4.0 Results
4.1 Research Question One
What perceived values are associated with teachers’ use of online Instruction?
Table: Teachers Perceived Values for Use of online instruction
S/N Statement SD D SLDA SLA A SA Mean Std.D

1. I believe the computer 7 - - - 9 76
can be useful tool for
teaching & learning (7.6) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (9.8) (82.6) 4.52 1.34

2. I don’t think there is 60 32 - - - -
need for me to explore
(62.5) (34.8) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 0.35 0.48
any concept through
computer and internet

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Table shows that the lecturers strongly agree that they believe the computer can be useful tool for teaching
and learning ( X =4.53). They also strongly disagree that they do not think there is need for them to explore
any concept through the computer and internet ( X = 0.35).
From these, it can be inferred that the teachers perceived values are:
(i) computers are useful tools for teaching and learning,
(ii) There is need for them to explore concepts through computer and internet.

4.2 Research Question Two
What is the influence of prior computer use experience on teacher in the current online instruction usage?
Table: Summary of T-test Statistics shows Differences between those with prior knowledge in
computer and those that do not have prior knowledge in Computer compare to their level of
computer usage.
Variable (Computer N Mean Standard T Degree of Sig/P Remark
usage) Deviation Freedom

Those without Not Significant
Prior knowledge of 7 21.0 4.8.6 -1.662 89 .100
computer

Those with prior

Knowledge of computer 84 26.3 8.27

Table shows that there is no significant difference between lecturers with prior knowledge and those
without computer experience in their level of computer usage. (t=-1.662); df = 89; p > 0.05. This implies
that prior knowledge has no significant influence on the computer usage of lecturers or prior computer
experience of teachers has no significant influence on their online instruction usage.
4.3 Research Question Three
What is the perceived influence of Organizational culture toward online instruction usage?
Table: Perceived influence of Organizational culture towards Online Instruction Usage.
1. Educational culture in the 10 13 10 5 46 8
faculty is ready for online
(10.6) (14.1) (10.7) (5.4) (50.0) (8.7) 2.96 1.59
instruction
2. Online instruction can be - 9 - 16 35 22
easily implemented in my
(0.0) (9.8) (0.0) (17.4) (38.0) (23.9) 3.55 1.24
department

3. The University Authority - 7 - 29 41 15

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plays an important role in (0.0) (7.6) (0.0) (31.5) (44.6) (16.3) 3.62 1.01
support of the use of online
instruction

4. There are no technical 14 7 6 9 33 23
supports for teacher to use
(15.2) (7.6) (6.5) (9.8) (35.9) (25.0) 3.18 1.76
online instruction in the
faculty

Table shows that the lecturers slightly agreed that the culture in the faculty is ready for online instruction (
X =2.96); they also agreed that the online instruction can be easily implemented in the department. ( X
=3.35); they agreed that the University Authority plays an important role in support of the use of online
instruction. ( X =3.62) and slightly agreed that there are no technical supports for teacher to use online
instruction in the Faculty ( X = 3.18). This shows that (i) Online instruction is welcomed in the
departments (ii) adequate support of the University Authority for online instruction (iv) Availability of
Technical supports for teacher to use online instruction.
4.4 Research Question four
What is the perceived benefit/drawback of using online instruction for teaching/ learning and research
among teachers?
4.4.1 Table: The Perceived Benefit of Using Online Instruction
1. Online instruction has - 7 - - 61 24
potential of practicing team
(0.0) (7.6) (6.0) (0.0) (66.3) (26.1) 4.03 0.98
work and sharing knowledge

2. Online instruction is able to 7 - - - 54 31
promote the acquisition of
(7.6) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (58.7) (33.7) 4.03 1.25
skills (e.g. communication
skills, computer skill,
problem solving skill etc)

Table shows that the lecturers agreed that online instruction has potential of practicing team work and
sharing knowledge ( X = 4.03); they also agreed that online instruction is able to promote the acquisition of
skills ( X = 4.03). This implies that the perceived benefits are: (i) The potentials of practicing teamwork
and sharing knowledge (ii) promoting the acquisition of skill (e.g. communication skills, computer skill and
problem solving skills).
4.4.2 Table: The Perceived drawbacks of using online instruction for teaching & learning.
S/N Statement SD D SLDA SLA A SA Mean SLD
1. There are insufficient number of 5 3 7 12 42 23
computers in my department for
(5.4) (3.3) (7.6) (13.0) (45.7) (25.0) 3.65 1.32
teaching and learning

2. There is insufficient internet 7 - - 3 36 46
access in my department for
(7.6) (0.0) (0.0) (3.3) (39.1) (50.0) 41.6 1.32
teaching and learning

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Table shows that the lecturers agreed that there are insufficient number of computer in their departments
for teaching and learning ( X = 3.65). They also agreed that there is insufficient internet access in their
departments for teaching and learning. This implies that the perceived drawbacks for using online
instruction in Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan are: (i) insufficient number of computer for
teaching and learning in the departments (ii) Insufficient internet access in the department.
4.5 Research Question five
Which of the following factors affect the perceived readiness of teachers for online instruction? enthusiasm,
classroom culture, social pressure perceived usefulness, confidence, time constraints obsession, ease of use,
inadequate facilities and manpower skills.

Table: Factors affecting perceived readiness of teachers for online instructions. Coefficients

Model Non-standardized Standardized T Position Sign.
Coefficients Coefficients
Β Std.err
or
Beta
Constants -2.958 .620 - -4.769 .000
Enthusiasm 1.236 .120 .352 10.316 3rd .000 Significant
Classroom -6.22E-02 .164 -0.052 -0.380 8th .705
culture
Social pressure -0.122 0.104 -0.32 -1.182 9th .241
Perceived .168 .068 .072 2.458 5th .016 Significant
usefulness
Confidence -338 .084 -.206 -4.034 4th .000 Significant
Time .227 .106 .067 2.152 6th .034 Significant
constraint
Obsession -.162 .065 -.062 -2.478 7th .015 Significant

Ease of use 1.623 .306 .414 5.299 2nd .000 Significant

Inadequate -4.34E.02 .069 -.020 -.628 10th .532
facilities
Manpower 772 .149 .573 5.185 1st .000 Significant
skills
The table above shows that manpower skills, has the highest significant contribution (β=0.573; t = 5.185; p
<0.05); followed by ease of use (β=0.414; t=5.299; p <0.05); followed by enthusiasm (β=0.352; t = 10.316;
p <0.05); followed by confidence (β= -0.206; t = -4.034; p <0.05); followed by perceived usefulness
(β=0.072; t = 2.458; p <0.05); followed by obsession (β=-0.062; t=-2.478; p<0.05). Other i.e., classroom
culture, social pressure and inadequate facilities have no significant contribution.
5.0 Findings;

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The findings show that the following factors affects the perceived readiness of teachers for online
instruction: Enthusiasm, Manpower skills, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use obsession,
confidence, time constraint, classroom culture social pressure, inadequate facilities.
It also shows factors affecting teachers perceived readiness and have significant contribution as;
manpower skill, confidence, perceived ease of use, time constraint, obsession, perceived usefulness and
enthusiasm while those factors with no significant contribution are; inadequate facilities, classroom-culture
and social pressure.

5.1 Implication of the Findings;

The findings from this study bring a number of issues to light.
• There is an obvious need for Universities to adopt a proactive approach to the issue of integrating
online instruction into the job functions of our Nigeria University lecturers. The current
technological deterministic approach is obviously flawed as this study has shown that by simply
providing computers or internet access does not ensure that the equipment will either be used at all
or used effectively by these lecturers.
• Organizational facilitation especially towards the use of online instruction by lecturers is
important. Their needs have to be catered for in the University especially the need to provide
functional resource centers where lecturers who have problems (with information and
communication equipment or software) can go and receive prompt attention whenever they run
into problems with using online instruction.
• Another implication of this is the need to ensure that academics are equipped with the skills to
effectively, search, retrieve and evaluate materials from the internet and they can also serve as role
models of effective internet use and help train peers, aside from formal training programmes that
might be organized by the University.
Over all, the findings indicates the need for a review of existing policies, training programmes and
infrastructural support, to help lecturers fully exploit online instruction in teaching, learning and research.
6.0 Conclusions;
It can be concluded from this study that the teachers have the right perception for online
instruction as they are aware of the perceived benefits and usefulness of online instruction in the
educational system. Time constraints, perceived usefulness, poor confidence, perceived ease of use, and
low enthusiasm are a relatively common phenomenon among lecturers in the faculty of Education,
University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Therefore awareness, seminar and workshop should be provided to
encourage the use of online instruction among lecturers in Nigeria Universities.

References
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Relevance of Competency Based Training in Polytechnic
Education for National Development
Emmanuel Amankwah
Email: trustee7a@ yahoo.com

Received: October 2nd, 2011

Abstract
The educational system in Ghana has undergone various forms of transformation over the last few decades.
These transformations aim at improving the educational system to produce the right caliber of graduates for
national development. The Ministry of Education in 1987 introduced new educational system which
gradually replaced the British-based G.C.E Ordinary and Advanced level systems. In September 2007, the
country gave birth to another educational reform which emphasized on Science, Mathematics, Technology,
and Technical & Vocational Educational Training (TVET). This is to provide employable skills for
graduates and help reduce the high rate of unemployment in the country. Over the years, TVET has been
limited to the apprenticeship, vocational and technical institutions. Learning at the tertiary level has always
been the acquisition of theoretical knowledge with very little hands on training. Industries have no other
alternative than to give their employees many weeks of “on the job training”. Introduction of Competency
Based Training (CBT) at the polytechnics which aims at providing graduates with the employable skills is
therefore welcoming news and must be cherished and sustained by all. CBT is the acquisition of
appropriate knowledge, attitudes, personal traits and skills to efficiently perform work place roles in
industry, commerce, management and administration. This paper highlights the need for polytechnics to
run their programmes on the principles of CBT. It outlines the importance of CBT in polytechnic
education, gives overview of the structure of the CBT curriculum, its development and implementation in
agricultural engineering, assessment criteria and challenges. It was concluded with some recommendations.
Keywords: competency based training, curriculum development, polytechnic education, competency and
skills

1.0 Introduction
The growing need of Technical and Vocational Educational Training for national development has brought
series of educational reforms over the last few decades. In 1987 the Ministry of Education introduced a new
educational system which gradually replaced the British-based ‘O’ and ‘A’ level system. After 20 years of
it existence, it has become necessary to introduce another reforms which could address pertinent national
and international challenges. The current reform which was introduced in September 2007 focuses on the
role of science, mathematics, technology, technical and vocational training and ICT. The goal is to impart
graduates with essential skills needed for personal growth, community development and exploitation of
economic opportunities.
The herald of Competency Based Training (CBT) into the polytechnic educational system will provide the
necessary skills and competencies in graduates for sustainable development (Gasper, 2005). The
Polytechnics have been mandated to train graduates for industry, commerce, business and administration.
This is indeed a challenge to our educational system. The concept and principle of CBT in the educational
paradigm could be connected to the 3Rs: learn what is relevant; learn far more rapidly; and learn for
redistribution. This statement emphasizes on the acquisition of basic skills and knowledge to produce the

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desired outcome. Competency Based Training has been found to be an appropriate training instrument for
industry and business (Delker, 1990).
1.1 Definitions
Competency: A competency is a combination of knowledge, skills, personality traits and attitude for
proper functioning of a professional situation.
Skill: A task or group of tasks performed to a specific level of competency or proficiency through the use
of instrument, equipment and other tools.
Competency Based Training is therefore a way of approaching (vocational) training that places primary
emphasis on what a person can do as a result of training (the product), and as such represents a shift away
from the emphasis on the process involved in training (the inputs). It is concerned with training to industry
specific standards rather than an individual's achievement relative to others in the group (Wolny, 1999).
A practical example of competency is that “when medical doctor is to persuade an overwrought and
headstrong patient to rest fully and take the proper medicine, the doctor will need the following to manage
the situation:
Knowledge: must be able to identify or diagnose the symptoms leading to overwrought (e.g. stress and
sleeplessness) and also prescribe the right medicine for the patient.
Skills: must be able to handle basic equipment such as stethoscope and communicate effectively. For
instance, he must be able to communicate unpleasant news to the family of a patient in a reassuring way to
make them accept the news with ease.
Personality traits: everybody has an innate trait which might be essential to the profession. The doctor
needs patience, exactitude, honesty and other characteristics to enable him persuade and convince his
patients that he is a good doctor.
Attitudes: every profession has standards, ethics and values. The doctor must work within these principles
and exhibit the right attitudes towards the profession.
Also a mechanical engineer must acquire all the above competencies in addressing a problem in
somebody’s vehicle. He must be able to diagnose a fault in an engine and fix that fault without difficulty
(Grit et al. 2006)
In summary, CBT= Do It Yourself (DIY) = Knowledge + Skills + Attitudes + Personality Traits
1.2 Principles of Competency Based Training
Student Centred
The student is the active player. The student generates the learning goals and is responsible for his or her
own learning activities in terms of time and rate. The lecturer as a coach guides the student to develop these
competencies.
Task Based
Learning activities are directed towards performing the professional task. This ensures active learning
instead of passive learning.
Competence Oriented
Learning tasks are formulated to develop competencies that are needed to perform the professional tasks of
the student’s future working environment.
1.3 Diagrammatic representation of the development of CBT curriculum of Agricultural Engineering
The development of Competency Based Training curriculum was quite strenuous and very expensive.
Below is a flow chart which represents the development of CBT.

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Professional task Personal Development Plan

Task Analysis Who am I
What are my capabilities?
What do I want to
become/achieve
Where do I fit in there?
Learning Task How do I get there?

Readers

Assessment

Lessons Practical Routines Demonstrations Trainings
Individual

studies
Figure 1: Flow chart of CBT curriculum development
1.4 Methodology and Expansion of the various items in the curriculum development of CBT

Professional Task: the Professional tasks are basically the modules of each course and was developed
using the results of job market survey undertaken by staff of the Agricultural Engineering Department of
Bolgatanga, Ho, Tamale and Wa Polytechnics. The staff was divided into 7 groups of 3 participants each.
They visited various industries, irrigation schemes, organizations and civil services in Tema, Ho, Accra and
the surrounding communities to find out the roles of agricultural engineers. The results were grouped and
similar jobs were combined and others were critically analysed. The professional tasks were then
formulated from the outcome of the job market surveyed.

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Learning task: the learning tasks were generated from the Professional tasks after a critical task analysis
had been carried out. The learning tasks were all geared towards the realization of the professional
assignment. Lesson plans (lectures), practical lessons, demonstrations and routines were prepared for the
students to enhance their acquisition of theoretical knowledge and practical skills. Time is also allocated
for their individual studies. The learning task is concrete, authentic and whole task experience. They are
organized in a simple to complex sequence of task classes. This implies that the learning tasks increase in
difficulty as the student progresses. It also enjoys high level of support at the initial stages and the support
disappears at the end of the task class. This process is referred to as scaffolding (Merrienboer et al. 2002).

Readers: readers are reference materials prepared for the students to facilitate their learning processes.
They contain all relevant information required to accomplish the professional task. References to specific
books, journals, magazines and reports are also given to the students to enhance their studies at the library.

Assessment: students are then assessed in theory and practical including industrial attachment. The
students must pass both the theory and practical assessment before they can progress to the next stage of
their studies.

Personal development plan is also prepared for the students and run concurrently with the professional
task. This is all about students’ goals, ambitions, and aims and how to realize them in relation to the
professional task and future career. Students are guided to develop their work on their development plan by
asking certain questions about their personality. This is to help shape their attitudes and personal traits.
They ask questions such as:
• Who am l?
• What are my capabilities?
• What do I want to become / achieve?
• Where do I fit?
• How do I get there?
Students will continue to manage and review their personal development plans until they complete their
programme of study.

2.0 Structure of Competency Based Training Curriculum
The structure of CBT involves the development of formats for the professional task, learning task which
comes with the various items as depicted in figure 1. The sample formats where were designed and
developed by the lecturers of the four polytechnics are presented at the annex. The curriculum also comes
with teaching guide which contains all the materials and information needed by the lecturer (coach) to
facilitate the learning process of the student and
learning guide, which also contains all materials and information required by the student to perform the
professional task.
3.0 Assessment in Competency Based Training
Students are assessed on knowledge, skills and attitudes but emphasis is on the acquisition of skills.
Assessment involves both internal and external assessors. During the assessment, a person from the
industry or any other organization with an in depth knowledge in the topic is invited to take part in the
assessment. Examinations are conducted to test students knowledge acquisition but do not form the basis
for progression. Assignments are based on the formulation of real life situation and the use of simulations.
A combination of ORCER (Observe, Record, Classify, Evaluate and Report) and LSD (Listening,

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Summarising and Deepening) methods are also used during the assessment of students in practical
examination sessions to assess the competencies of the students. List of generic competencies and their
descriptions are presented in the annex.
3.1 Rubrics
To avoid or reduce the temptation of awarding marks based on the lecturer’s opinion and judgment, Rubric
is used in assessing the students as well as the assessment criteria. Rubric is a set of criteria and standards
linked to the learning objectives. It makes grading simpler and more transparent. Sample of the rubric form
is presented in the annex.
3.2 Industrial Attachment
Industrial attachment forms an important component of CBT curriculum. It forms 16 credits of the total
credit hours. Various job profiles have been identified where students are expected to have their attachment
and possible placement after graduation. It is designed to help students to learn and familiarize themselves
with real life situation at the industries. It also helps students to network and make contacts so as to get job
easily after graduation. It also guides students to make appropriate choices in terms of career development.
Sample industrial attachment assessment form is presented in the annex.
4.0 Uniqueness of CBT in Polytechnic Education
While the new educational reform emphasises on science, mathematics and technology as well as technical
and vocational education and training to position the country for accelerated development, polytechnics are
to structure all their programmes to conform to the principles of CBT. Polytechnics unlike the universities
are mandated to provide tertiary education in the field of manufacturing, commerce, science, technology,
applied science and arts. The polytechnics therefore have a herculean task of training graduates to fill the
middle level man power needed for industry, commerce, business and administration. Competency Based
Training however, seeks to address the above challenges through the principle of “do it yourself”.
Nonetheless, CBT programme should be executed in an environment that duplicates or simulates the work
place (Norton, 1987).
Unlike the traditional method of teaching which results only in passive learning, CBT ensures that students
engage in active learning because the unit of progression is mastery of specific knowledge and skills. The
traditional system is associated with information or memory overload, inadequate time for real learning
process but rather memorization, lecturer directed and time bound; even though the traditional system also
has some advantages such as large students’ enrolment, large amount of information delivered per lecture
and the lecturer having command over the learning process.
Among the things which make CBT more relevant to polytechnic education are:
• The student requires less training on the job and acquires working experience more rapidly
• Industrial attachment forms a major component of the programme thus graduates fit more easily
into the job market after graduation.
• The students develop their own learning goals and time frame and learning experiences are
oriented by continuous feedback.
• The student develops competencies and skills relevant for the job market
• Learning is flexible but challenging, and does not require traditional examinations to determine the
progress of the students.
• Learning guide, practical manuals and readers (reference materials) are made available to students.
• CBL does not require detailed study of subjects that are irrelevant to the performance of the
Professional tasks.
• It makes teachers prepare thoroughly and in advance and respect the choice of the students.
• The curriculum is flexible in terms of study time per student. This means that students progress at
their own pace and not at the pace of the teacher.

4.1 Challenges

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CBT is very expensive and comes with its own challenges both in curriculum development and
implementation (Agodzo & Songsore, 2005). Already, there are plans to convert most of the polytechnic
programmes into CBT. The challenges outlined below and many others are to be considered seriously
before new CBT programmes are introduced by all polytechnics. The National Accreditation Board (NAB),
National Commission for Tertiary Education (NCTE) and National Board for Professional and Technical
Examination (NABPTEX) should therefore work together to address some of the pertinent challenges to
ensure the successful transition of polytechnic programmes into CBT. These challenges are likely to
impede the successful implementation of CBT programmes:

• Commitment of polytechnics to provide adequate resources, training materials and consumables
for CBT.
• Too much work load on lecturers thus they work beyond the recommended teaching load.
• Conflict of CBT time tabling and the traditional time table
• Difficulty in getting industrial attachment places for CBT students
• Lack of adequate equipment for CBT programmes
• Cost of photocopies of readers (reference materials) put too much financial stress on CBT students

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Conclusion
The CBT emphasises on the product students demonstrate after their training period and focuses on
practical training in ensuring that students acquire the necessary competencies and skills. It begins with a
clear identification of competencies and skills students need to master and state clearly the criteria and
conditions by which performance are assessed which are made available to the students in advance
(Norton, 1987)
Competency based system may be new to most of the polytechnics but the concept and approach have been
accepted worldwide in industries and many training organizations. Industrialists, scholars and opinion
leaders are all emphasising on technical and vocational training thus the polytechnics are challenged to
come out with new modalities and teaching methodologies that address the training needs of the nation.
Competency Based Training has therefore come at an appropriate time to ensure that graduates acquire the
necessary knowledge, skills, attitudes and personal traits to efficiently perform professional roles. This is in
line with the old Chinese proverb: “I hear and I forget; I see and I remember; I do and I understand.”
5.2 Recommendations
To ensure the success and sustainability of CBT, the following are recommended:
• There should be enough funding necessary for CBT training and purchase of equipment
• Stronger links and collaboration with industry and private sector for industrial attachment
• Commitment and support from all stakeholders in polytechnic education is necessary for
sustainability of CBT
• Trainers/lecturers should be motivated so as not to slip back to the traditional system of teaching
• Training materials and consumables should be made available by the polytechnics

Acknowledgement
I would like to thank the facilitators of the NUFFIC-NPT project which resulted in the replacement of the
traditional curriculum of the Agricultural Engineering programme into CBT. I want to also thank the
various Rectors of the four polytechnics (Bolgatanga, Ho, Tamale and Wa) for the leadership role they
played during the design, development and implementation of the CBT programme. I would like say bravo
to all my colleagues for the team work and the commitment exhibited to get the work done. I wish to also
thank the various authors whose works were used as references. Thank you all.

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References:
Afeti, G., Kantey R.A., Ibrahimah, M.Z. & Agodzo, S.K. (2006), Proposal for a new curriculum in
Agricultural Engineering at the polytechnics in Ghana based on Competency Based Learning.
Unpublished
Agodzo, S.K. & Songsore, J. (2005). Competency Based Learning; the Case of Wa Polytechnic of
Ghana. Proceedings of the Commonwealth Association of Polytechnics in Africa (CAPA) Seminar on
the Role of Technical Education in Africa in the Post Secondary Millennium Era)’ Qualitype Limited,
Accra.
Delker P.V. (1990), Basic Skills Education in Business and Industry: Factors for Success or Failure.
Contractor Report, Office of Technology Assessment, United States Congress.
Gasper, O.A. (2005), Competency Based Science, Technology and Engineering Curriculum for Human
Capital Development in Nigeria. Proceedings of the Commonwealth Association of Polytechnics in
Africa (CAPA) Seminar on the Role of Technical Education in Africa in the Post Secondary
Millennium Era)’ Qualitype Limited, Accra.
Grit, R., Guit, R & Sijde N.V. (2006), Managing Your Competencies; Personal Development Plan.
Wolters-Noordhoff Groningen / Houten. Netherlands
Merrienboer, J.J.G., Clark, R.E. & Croock, B.M. (2002), Blueprints for Complex Learning: The 4C /
ID-Model. Vol. 50, No. 2
Norton R. E. (1987), Competency-Based Education and Training: A Humanistic and Realistic
Approach to Technical and Vocational Instruction. Paper presented at the Regional Workshop on
Technical/Vocational Teacher Training in Chiba City, Japan. ERIC: ED 279910.
NUFFIC CBT workshops (2005-2008), Curriculum design, development and implementation.
Bolgatanga, Ho, Tamale and Wa Polytechnics.
Wolny, M. (1999), Competency Based Training in the Aviation Environment.

Appendix
Structure of Competency Based Training Curriculum
Professional Task format: Course AE 141: Irrigation Water Management
Short Description
Time
LT 1
LT 2
LT 3
LT 4
LT 5
LT 6
L.SOURCES
Supportive
information

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Total Materials
General Competencies
trained
Assessment

Learning Task Format: LT 131.1: Estimating the water requirement of the crop
Short Description
Supportive Info
JIT-info
Level of Support
Materials

Steps
Ex

Activities

Attend Lecture
Individual Study
Supporting learning activities

Group Work
Attend Demo
Do Practical
Acquire skills-routine
Participate in
workshop
Train Competency

Hrs
Total

Lesson Plan Format: L 1.1 Introduction to water management in irrigation
Subject
Specific Objectives
Time Phase Resources
120min Remarks
20 min Orientation
50 min Exploration

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30 min Evaluation
20 min Transfer

Field Practical Format: P 141.1 Taking Field Data on the Soil
Student instruction
Practical subject
Time
Learning objectives
Context
Description of assignment
Instruction
Reflection
Lecturer instruction
Organization
Activities of lecturer
NUFFIC Workshop, 2007

Format of Competency Assessment
Assessment form task AE131 score
Assessment criteria Fail Pass Good Excellent
Has the student:

1. PLAN AND ORGANISE
Students organize work in an appropriate sequence
1. Clear statement of the objective. {level 2 No 1}
2. Written presentation of sequential arrangement of
things to be done. {level 2 No 2}
3. Good time plan with respect to the sequence of things
to be done. {level 2 No 3
4. Adequate organizational skills. {level 2 No 4}

2. TO GATHER INFORMATION
On appropriate materials, tools, and methods.
1. Has the student been using the right toolsequipment
in getting the information? {level 2 No 1}
2. Has the student been using the right approach?
{level 2 No 2}

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3. Is the information gathered relevant to the PT?
{level 2 No 3}
4. Has sufficient information been gathered? {level 2
No 4}
Total Grade

Rubrics for competencies
Competency Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4

INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT ASSESMENT FORM
Please complete this confidential assessment form and give it to the student in a sealed envelope. Kindly sign
across the envelope before giving to the student.
NAME OF STUDENT
INDEX NUMBER / YEAR OF STUDENT HND
PROGRAMME/COURSE
NAME & ADDRESS OF ORGANIZATION
(name, addr, tel, mail)
DEPARTMENT ASSIGNED
DURATION OF ATTACHMENT
0 = Void 1 = Weak 2 = Minimum 3 = Average
COMPETENCIES 4 = Good 5 = Outstanding
0 1 2 3 4 5 COMMENTS
SPECIFIC TASKS

1 0 1 2 3 4 5

2 0 1 2 3 4 5

3 0 1 2 3 4 5

4 0 1 2 3 4 5
GENERAL EMPLOYMENT SKILLS

1 Ability to complete work on schedule 0 1 2 3 4 5

2 Ability to follow instructions carefully 0 1 2 3 4 5
3 Ability to take initiative 0 1 2 3 4 5

4 Ability to work with a little bit of supervision 0 1 2 3 4 5

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5 Ability to work with other staff 0 1 2 3 4 5

6 Adherence to organization’s rules & regulations 0 1 2 3 4 5

7 Adherence to safety and environmental rules 0 1 2 3 4 5
8 Resourcefulness 0 1 2 3 4 5
ATTITUDE TO WORK
1 Attendance to work 0 1 2 3 4 5
2 Punctuality 0 1 2 3 4 5
3 Desire to work 0 1 2 3 4 5
4 Willingness to accept new ideas and suggestions 0 1 2 3 4 5
HUMAN RELATIONS
1 Relationship with subordinates 0 1 2 3 4 5
2 Relationship with colleagues 0 1 2 3 4 5
3 Relationship with superiors 0 1 2 3 4 5
4 Ability to control emotions when provoked 0 1 2 3 4 5
Additional Comments

Total score Name of Supervisor:
General remarks ……………………………………….
(TO BE COMPLETED BY HEAD OF DEPARTMENT) Signature and Stamp
Number of credit hours …………………………..
Recommended score / grade Place: Date:
Signature: Date: ……………………., ……………….
Source: CBL – NUFFIC Workshop, 2007

List of generic competencies and their descriptions
.Generic Competencies Description
To Observe Observe and identify with respect to the task the signal, problems, trends, needs and
opportunities in the performance of a whole job.
To Reflect Describe properly own behaviour and performance and make an analysis to detect
points for change or improvement.
To Train Provide a participatory training using different teaching methods.
To Coach Coach and guide workers and learners.

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To Record/Report Prepare a report, arranging the topics / chapters oriented on specific target groups of
readers.
To Work methodically Work in a methodical way using appropriate tools at the right moment, using
adequate procedures.
To Gather information Gather information relevant for optimization of the analysis.
To Plan/Organize Derive a plan from the objectives to be achieved and plan / organize the work within
the standard schedule for execution.
To Implement/Execute Implement by following strictly the supplied instructions.
To make Oral presentation Give an understandable presentation in very clear, orderly, logical well structured
way.
To Optimize Optimize the performance of people, materials and other inputs by following
instructions.
To Assess Assess the analysis following the standard instruction and map out standard
strategies to provide solutions.
To cooperate Ability to work with others (peers, known people) without difficulties in the group.
A requirement for associates with people, group work, listening ability, devotion and
confidence in people.
To Control Control the quality and quantity of the materials and product, by comparing at
recommended acceptable standard.
To Analyse Analyze the gathered information, by comparing the standard instruction and
information.
Source: Afeti et al. Proposal for a new CBL curriculum in Agric. Eng., 2006.

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Parliamentary Committee System in Bangladesh: Functional
Analysis of different Parliamentary Committee.
Md. Ruhul Amin (Corresponding Author)
Lecturer, Department of Public Administration, Comilla University. Bangladesh.
Cell: +8801712290298; E-mail: rubel_2008iu@yahoo.com
Mohammad Maksudur Rahman, MBA
Deputy Registrar, South East University, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Cell: +8801715702222; E-mail: Maksud927@yahoo.com
Mst. Saria Sultana
M.Phil (Researcher), Islamic University, Kushtia, Bangladesh.
Cell: +8801719185130; E-mail: sariasultana_kst@yahoo.com

Received: October 1st, 2011

Abstract:
“Parliamentary Committee System in Bangladesh: Functional Analysis of different Parliamentary
Committee.” this article examines the patterns and performance of Parliamentary Committees in
Bangladesh. Committees are ubiquitous. They are found in all types of parliamentary old or new, large or
small, The Jatiya Sangsad, as the parliament is called in Bangladesh, is no exception. The evidence
presented in this paper clearly shows that the committees set up by recent parliaments have fared far better
than their predecessors in almost every function, including scrutinizing legislation and exercising oversight
over executive departments. The creation of an elaborate committee system is necessary, but is not
sufficient to ensure that it will work unless some other conditions are met. Comparative experience shows
that the recommendations of Parliamentary Committees are generally honored. But Bangladesh appears to
be a deviant case.
Keywords: Jatiya Sangsad (JS), Public Accounts Committee (PAC), Committee on Government Assurance
(CGA), ad hoc.
1. Introduction:
Bangladesh is a small but resourceful country of South Asia. Despite years of military and autocratic rule,
Bangladesh enjoyed a popular familiarity with parliament that was much deeper than in many other
countries in the Third World. The parliament in Bangladesh is called Jatiya Sangsad (JS) and it is a
unicameral parliament patterned after the Westminster model.
In modern democracies, parliament has numerous duties. As a key state organ it examines the legislative
legislative proposals in the process of their passage and is entrusted with overseeing executive
responsibilities and keeps an eye on government activities. Parliamentary committee system is the most vital
structure that permits the legislators to divide up their labor and specialize in particular areas of
activities. It is therefore the most significant legislative mechanism and is often referred to as
“miniature legislatures” or “microcosms" of their parent bodies. Parliamentary committees in Bangladesh
owe their origin to and gain legitimacy from two sources: the Constitution of the People’s Republic of

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Bangladesh, and the Rules of Procedure of Parliament (rules). The constitution makes it mandatory for
parliament to set up a Public Accounts Committee (PAC) and a Privileges Committee, and empowers it to
constitute as many standing committees as it considers necessary. Committee members enjoy immunity for
whatever they say and/or the way they vote. Thus, parliamentary committees in Bangladesh formally enjoy
important status and extensive powers.
The Jatiya Sangsad (JS) has traditionally setup three types of committees: standing committees, select
committees, and special committees. The main difference between the different committees centre’s on their
nature of appointment. Standing committees are relatively permanent; they are normally constituted for the
duration of the parliament. Special and select committees are ad hoc bodies; they cease to exist when their
job is completed. Standing committees are generally classified into a number of categories, the most
important of which are DPCs. The other categories are scrutinizing committees, financial committees and
house committees.

2. Objectives of the Study:
Focusing on the following issues this article attempts to assess the parliamentary committee system in
Bangladesh: An Analysis of its working, Bangladesh Parliaments with necessary Example and illustrations.
1) Formal arrangements of the committee system including composition, structure and functions of the
committees.
2) Institutional mechanism affecting the functioning of the committee system in Bangladesh.
3) Performance of the committees of the Jatiya Sangsad regarding the legislative and overseeing
processes.
4) The parliamentary committees and the society nexus focusing on the role of the media and the civil
society.
In today’s political systems, the legislative organ as the national representative body is considered
indispensable for proper governance. In democratic framework the working of the parliament and
parliamentary structures in establishing responsible government can hardly be overemphasized. It is
therefore argued that of all political institutions, none is more vital to the process of linking governors and
governed in relationships of authority, responsibility, and legitimacy, than the modern legislature.
3. Methodology of the study:
The methodology applied in this Article is a combination of qualitative & quantitative approaches. Adopting
the above approaches present Article intends to identify the role of historical forces and factors in the
evolution and development of parliamentary committee system in Bangladesh.
The Present Article analyzes working of the committees in the Bangladesh Jatiya Sangsad (JS) by bringing
together new information and data, most of which were unavailable in the existing literature. Data and
information for this are collected from two sources: primary and secondary. The secondary source includes
books, articles published in various journals, working papers and study reports which are found relevant for
the study. Seminar papers and publications of different political parties are also taken into consideration. In
addition to the secondary sources, information and data are also collected from the primary sources. Much of
the analyses are based on the examination of the parliamentary proceedings, committee reports and Rules of
Procedure of the JS. The socio-political characteristics of the committee members are calculated through
parliamentary records. Information is also gathered from the discussion with prominent political leaders,
civil servants and academia.
4. Literature Review:
The role of parliamentary committee system can be understood in the contexts of its emergence and
working. Here, a review of the existing literature about various issues of the committee system will be
discussed. In the age of parliament, Committees, however, are referred to as working horses of the
parliament. Until 1950s, parliamentary committee system was not studied deeply and extensively by the

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scholars. A pioneering comparative research on committee system was carried out in 1979 by a group of
scholars, titled Committees in Legislatures: A Comparative Analysis, edited by John D. Lees and Malcolm
Shaw. The Journal of Legislative Studies published a special issue in 1998, with some of these papers and
again appeared in a book in 1998 titled. The New Roles of Parliamentary Committees, edited by Lawrence
D. Longley and Roger H. Davidson. In this book, scholarly works illustrate changing pattern of nine
committee structures. They show that in many ways parliamentary committees have emerged as vibrant and
nerve centre of democratic parliaments and have begun to define new and changing roles for themselves.
Bangladesh Institute of Parliamentary Studies (BIPS) has taken a significant step in doing some research
works on the Bangladesh parliament from different aspects. With the assistance of UNDP, BIPS has
published nine monographs. This section reviews some of these monographs, particularly, which included
parliamentary committees in their discussions. Riazur Rahman Chowdhury analyses the parliamentary duties
of the CAG in ensuring public sector accountability in the monograph titled Parliamentary Duties of the
Comptroller and Auditor-General in Bangladesh. This monograph examines the relationship between CAG
and parliamentary committees (particularly PAC). In the monograph Women, Democracy and Parliament,
author Barrister Rabia Bhuiyan analyses women representation in the parliament from historical aspects. The
author also examines their position in different political parties. In this research, the author gives a detailed
account about women participation in the committee proceedings. She noted that during the seventh
parliament, although the opposition Members boycotted the parliament, they were regular in the committee
sessions. As a result the Members in the committees exerted more power and control over the Executive than
in the parliament. It is worth mentioning that during the seventh parliament women members have been
included in all committees. The author also identifies barriers to women’s participation in legislative process.
Al Masud Hasanuzzamn in his Role of Opposition in Bangladesh Politics exclusively studies opposition
politics in Bangladesh from the first parliament to the seventh parliament. The writer in his research work
shows that some of the important standing committees became moribund due to lack of legislative
compromise between the Treasury Bench and the opposition both in the fifth and the seventh legislatures.
After the election of the fifth JS, committees were given greater emphasis in making the parliament
effective. From this aspect, this article analyzes the performance of the committees. Similarly Nizam Ahmed
gives a detailed account of the committee structure and procedure in his article, “Parliamentary Committees
and Parliamentary Government.” From this brief survey of the sources referred to above it is evident that
partially they may shed Luster on some points or aspects of the research to be undertaken. They may come to
use for the clarification of some ambiguities pertaining to the work. It is, therefore, reasonable to assume that
this work will fit in the gap and ventilate or the materials relating to this work.
5. Parliamentary Structure in Bangladesh: A Historical Account:

Until the promulgation of martial law in 1958, there were two legislative assemblies constituted in the
province of East Pakistan. The first Legislative Assembly was constituted in 1947 and continued until
March 1954. The second Assembly was elected in March 1954 and was dissolved in October 1958, when
the military took over the state power. The parliamentary procedure, devices and committee structure were
inherited from the Bengal Legislative Assembly in accordance with the section 84(1) of the Government of
India Act 1935. The Assembly first appointed a Rules Committee on October 2, 1956 to make a draft Rules
of Procedure for the Assembly that appeared in 1958. But the Assembly was dissolved before its
presentation to the House. Like the National Assembly, there were two types of committees: the standing
committees and the ad hoc select committees. The select committees were either selected by the Speaker or
elected by the House. The Select committees were elected in the Assembly on the spur of the moment to
scrutinize a particular bill as referred to them by the plenary. Such committees were ad hoc in nature as
their terms of reference were limited to examine and report on the referred bill. The Committee was
constituted with not more than 17 members representing various parties and was chaired by the Minister in
charge of the concerned department. At the committee stage, bills were discussed clause-by-clause. Experts
and representatives of special interest groups were called for gathering or for gaining opinions. Most of the
bills passed by the Assembly were not sent to select committee. These were mostly non-controversial in
nature or ordinary amendment bills.

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Among the standing committees the PAC was set up for each financial year with nine members including
the Finance Minister as an ex-officio member. The committee members were elected by the assembly and
the chairperson was elected from among its members. The committee composition was roughly
proportional to the party strength in the Assembly. Its responsibilities were to scrutinize and report on
appropriation of accounts of the provincial government by examining the report of the Auditor General.
The experiences reveal that such a potential and powerful watchdog weapon could not work properly. The
reasons that made the committees dysfunctional are as follows: firstly, the Auditor-General’s office did not
submit audit report to the Assembly duly; and secondly, the PAC meetings were not called regularly. For
example, between 1948 and 1953, committee did not call any meeting. Explaining the delay the Chief
Minister accused the Auditor-General’s office for not submitting any appropriation statement since 1947.
Despite all of these limitations, the PAC attempted to find out the irregularities in various government
agencies and criticized some of them for lack of proper control of expenditure.61 Comparatively, PAC of
the Second Assembly was far more active. It met more frequently and scrutinized more audit reports. From
August to December 1957, the PAC met nine times and examined the audit reports up to the period from
1951-52.

The House Committee was constituted with the Deputy Speaker as the chairperson and with six members.
This committee looked after all the matters connected with the comfort of the members. The
Accommodation Committee was added to the Second Assembly to deal with any matter affecting
accommodation of the members in or out of the session. This committee consisted of six members with the
Chief Minister as the chairperson. The committee members were elected on the basis of proportional
representation of the party. The parliament and the committee structure that were transplanted in Pakistan
did not function properly. The legislators failed to develop necessary skill to compromise as solutions to
conflicts. The parliaments at the central and provincial level could not resolve a wide variety of conflicts
and differences within the society. In fact, the political elites who were in the government did not try to
accommodate the ideas of the opposition in the decision-making process. House was regulated by the old
ROP and from July 22, 1974 onwards by the new ROP. According to the provisions of the old ROP (Rules
77 to 233A), the JS had set up seven standing committees and the new ROP provided for four more
standing committees. The first parliament constituted eleven standing committees including three financial
committees; two investigative committees (i.e. the Petitions Committee and the Government Assurance
Committee) and six domestic committees. According to the ROP, the House appointed select committees
only three times for the scrutiny of bills.65 It is observed that the first parliament could not ensure its
supremacy over the executive due to overwhelming majority of the government party and their refusal to
recognize the opposition party officially. Soon, the parliamentary form of government was replaced by one
party presidential form of the government in 1975.

In a sweeping change, Bangladesh was placed under military rule in August 1975 and remained under
military dominated civilian regimes until December 1990. It is important to find out the nature of the
military, which ruled over Bangladesh for such a long time. The political scientists observed that the
process of politicization of armed forces in Bangladesh was linked with the tradition of colonial rule.
During the colonial rule the British-Indian Army was not politically neutralized. They were trained with a
view to promoting imperial interest. They were by nature anti-national, anti-political and anti-democratic
and they kept themselves away from the mass peoples. After the independence in 1947, the Indian
government did not follow the methods of training, recruitment and motivation applied by the colonial
rulers. On the contrary, the structures and regulations of the Pakistan army in many ways developed a close
resemblance to those of the British Indian Army. Hamza Alavi argued that the Pakistan army, which was
the predecessor of the Bangladesh army, remained culturally and physically distanced from the civilian
sector. This was reflected in their attitudes towards the political institutions. Regarding this aspect, the
political scientists analyze that the ambition of the army to capture political power was one of the main
reasons for the declaration of martial law in Pakistan in 1958. It is also argued that the Bangladesh army,
which is the lineal descendant of the British-Indian and Pakistan Army, has inherited its orientation against
civilian rule and its sensitivity to state power. Most of the military officers who led military coups since
1970s were recruited and trained under the shadow of Ayub Khan’s martial law regime. The Ayub regime

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had affected them in many ways: they became confident that the military could play important rule in the
political system and they became sensitive to political power. Since the independence, the Bangladesh
army was in state power directly and indirectly about 15 years. During these periods, three parliaments
have been formed to civilianize the civil military government. It was expected that parliament would play a
proper role in establishing parliamentary supremacy over the executive. But none of them had any real
scope to minimize the executive dominance. In the real sense, the public did not have positive image of
these parliaments. The legislative power of the parliament passed into the hands of the executive. The
parliament was frequently used as a tool for endorsing policies and granting legitimacy to rulers who
assumed power through unconstitutional means. The parliamentary image began to change after the fall of
the military dominated civilian government in December 1990 by a mass upsurge. After the fall of
authoritarian regime, the parliamentary system of government was reintroduced in 1991. From the
beginning of the democratic set up, committee system has gained importance for strengthening
parliamentary democracy in the country.

6. Parliamentary committee’s formal-legal frame work:
Parliamentary committees in Bangladesh owe their origin to and gain legitimacy from two sources: the
Constitution of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, and the Rules of Procedure of Parliament (Rules). The
constitution makes it mandatory for parliament to set up a Public Accounts Committee (PAC) and a
Privileges Committee, and empowers it to constitute as many standing committees as it consider s necessary.
The Rules, on the other hand, specify the actual number of committee s to be set up and delineate their
formal scope of operation. These also specify the composition of different committees and prescribe some
other important matters, such as the way(s) decisions are to be taken, the procedures to be followed to
convene meetings of a committee and the methods used for examining witness. A committee can sit while
the parliament is in session. Normally, the sittings of a committee are held within the precincts of the House.
However, if it becomes necessary to change the place of the sitting outside the House, it can be done with the
permission of the Speaker. Committee meetings are held in private and are not open to the public. Except for
committee members and staff, no outsider s may attend when a committee is deliberating. A committee can
regulate its sittings and the way it conducts its business. It can obtain cooperation if deemed necessary. A
committee may appoint as many subcommittee s as it considers necessary. Each subcommittee has the power
of the main committee. The Rules, however, require that the order of reference to a sub-committee must
clearly state the point(s) for investigation. A committee has the power to send for persons, papers and
records. No document submitted to a committee can be withdrawn or altered without its knowledge. The
constitution also authorizes parliament to confer on committee s powers for enforcing the attendance of
witness and examining them on oath, as well as for compelling the production of documents. Paradoxically,
parliament, rather than taking measures to give effect to these provisions, has empowered the government to
decline to produce a document on the grounds that its disclosure would be prejudicial to the safety or interest
of the state. Committee members enjoy immunity for whatever they say and/or the way they vote. Thus,
parliamentary committee s in Bangladesh formally enjoys important status and extensive powers.
7. Working of different parliamentary committee system in Bangladesh:

Parliamentary Committees formed exclusively of members of the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) (Parliament) for such
purposes as to evaluate legislative proposals and scrutinize activities of the executive government. In effect,
these committees in most democracies provide a means of keeping the parliamentarians busy and feeling
useful and remaining watchful on the policy-management processes.

The Constitution of Bangladesh provides provisions for establishing various parliamentary committees.
The Bangladesh Jatiya Sangsad (JS) is empowered through Article 76 of the Constitution to appoint a
number of standing committees, including the Public Accounts Committee and the Committee of
Privileges, for the purposes of examining legislative proposals, considering bills, inquiring or investigating
into the performance of the ministries, and reviewing measures for enforcement of laws for proper
governance. The rules of procedure framed by the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) itself guide and regulate functional
details, overall operation and terms of reference of these committees. There are provisions also for the

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formation of sub-committees within the committees. The standing committees in Bangladesh are generally
grouped into such categories as ministerial committees, finance and audit committees, and a number of
other committees of standing nature. These however, exclude select or special committees.

The members of the standing committees are either appointed by the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) itself or
nominated by the Speaker. Members of the financial and ministerial committees, including those of the
committees on privileges, government assurances, rules of procedure and private members' bills, are
appointed by the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) while the members of the house committee and the business advisory
committee, including the two committees on petitions and library, are nominated by the Speaker. The
sittings of the committees and their hearings and deliberations are held in private. In order to have quorum
for the sitting of a committee, the presence of one-third of the committee members is required. Agenda of
the committees are addressed by a majority of the members present. The committee chair has a casting vote
in case of a tie of votes. The committees prepare their respective reports that are subsequently placed before
the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) in session.

The standing committees involve themselves in activities of the day-to-day parliamentary business and in
such other matters as facilities to be provided to the members of Jatiya Sangsad (JS), control of financial
actions of the executive, examination of the functions of various ministries, and scrutinizing on matters of
specific issues. The select committees are appointed on ad hoc basis to deal with the proposed bills. In
order to examine and report on certain assigned subjects, special committees are also formed temporarily.
The standing committees on ministries examine the activities of the executive government. They also
review bills and other issues referred to them from time to time by the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) in session. They
are supposed to meet at least once a month to review and examine various affairs of the administration.

Finance and audit committees are considered as special mechanisms of the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) to perform
its supervisory role over the government expenditures. Thus the Public Accounts Committee chaired by a
member of the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) scrutinizes annual financial accounts and appropriations as approved,
and pinpoints the irregularities of the government bodies with necessary recommendations and remedial
measures. The Committee on Estimates examines estimates throughout the financial year and gives
suggestions for ensuring economy and efficiency in governance process. Accounts and reports of public
institutions are reviewed by the Public Undertaking Committee, which points out the gap between the
affairs of the public offices and the on-going government policies. The functions which are discharged by
other standing committees include: rights and immunities of the members of Jatiya Sangsad (JS), specific
complaints made in the petitions, allocation of time for the stages of government bills, private members'
bills, conduct of business in the house of Jatiya Sangsad and matters of procedure, enhancement of library
facilities, and accommodation facilities and other services for the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) members.

Through the parliamentary committee system attempts are made to demand transparency and accountability
of the government. The meetings of the standing committees are attended by senior members of
bureaucracy who explain their respective performance and, whenever necessary, submit information before
the concerned committee. While scrutinizing administrative actions in the committees on ministries, the
people's representatives keep themselves informed of the ongoing state business. In the process of
examining accounts and public expenditure, the financial committees determine whether the government's
financial powers are exercised properly and public money has been spent following the approved
procedures.

Bangladesh Jatiya Sangsad (JS) has altogether organized its committee structure. The first Jatiya Sangsad
(JS) had eleven committees. With the passage of time and increase of state business, the number of
standing committees rose to 49 in the fifth Jatiya Sangsad (JS) and 46 in the seventh Jatiya Sangsad (JS).
With this the number of sub-committees has also increased. Until the sitting of the seventh Jatiya Sangsad
(JS) the ministers themselves headed the committees on ministries. In the fifth session of the seventh Jatiya
Sangsad (JS) an amendment to the rules of procedure was adopted under which no minister but only a

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