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Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.6, 2013
36
Farmers’ Perception of Climate Change in Ikwuano Local
Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria
Agbo, Festus Ugwuoke, Ph.D. 1
Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Phone: +2348066592181
E-mail: fuagbo4real@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study examines farmers’ general understanding of climate change in Ikwuano LGA of Abia State, Nigeria.
Data were collected by use of structured questionnaire administered to 420 farmers randomly selected from eight
communities in the study area. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze data obtained from the survey. A
4-point Likert Rating Scale was used to gauge farmers’ response to 29 perception questions posed in the
questionnaire. The result showed that the prevalent changes in climate in the study area are increased
temperature, change in patterns of rainfall, uncertain patterns of relative humidity, high sunshine intensity and
change in harmattan period. The consequence of climate change included poor health conditions of the farmers
as well as poor yields from their farms. The main causes of climate change, by the farmers’ perception, include
deforestation, overgrazing of farm lands, blockage of water ways, careless discharge of liquid waste and air
pollution from automobile exhaust. The major techniques employed by farmers to mitigate the effects of climate
change were planting of more resistant local varieties and diversification of their portfolios.
Key words: Farmers, perception, climate, change.
1.0 Introduction
Climate change is a long term shift in the climatic patterns of a specific place or region measured by changes in
the behaviour of climate elements such as temperature, wind patterns and precipitation resulting in changes in
ecosystems and socioeconomic activities. Such changes bring about uncertainties in the sustainability of
agriculture and agro-allied ventures (Urama and Ozor, 2011). Climate change is seen as the most serious
environmental threat facing farmers today. It is known that as the planet earth warms, rainfall patterns shift and
extreme events such as drought, flood or forest fires become more frequent (Zoellick, 2009). This has resulted in
poor and unpredictable yields from agriculture and agro-allied activities (UNFCCC, 2007). The impact of
climate change is more pronounced in climes that agriculture still remains the main source of livelihood as in
developing countries like Nigeria (Agwu et. al., 2010).
Paradoxically, agriculture is considered both culprit and victim of climate change. Culprit in the sense that Green
House Gas (GHG) emissions from food and the agriculture sector account for over one-third of the current
annual total emissions; the livestock sector accounts for about 18% of global green house gas emissions,
deforestation also accounts for 18% of carbon dioxide emissions. The world’s 130 million ha of rice paddies are
estimated to produce 50 to 100 million metric tonnes of methane annually (Shrotriya and Prakash, 2011).
Human activities involving deforestation and other activities that alter the equilibrium of the ecosystem like
mining, road construction, housing development activities reduce the natural sinks that withdraw green house
gas from circulation. A balance between sources and sinks of green house gases determines the level of extreme
weather events occurrence (Khanal, 2009).
In Africa, climatic change is expected to, and in some parts, it has already begun to, alter the dynamics of
droughts, rainfall and heat waves, and trigger secondary stresses such as the spread of pests, increased
competition for resources, and attendant biodiversity losses (Enete and Amusa, 2010). Rapid changes in the
behaviour of climate elements are expected to undermine the systems that provide for food security in Africa
(Gregory et al., 2005).
Whilst farmers in some regions may benefit from longer growing seasons and higher yields, the general
consequences for Africa (Mendelsohn et al., 2000) are expected to be adverse, and particularly more adverse for
the poor and marginalized farm households, who do not have the means to withstand drastic changes. Evidence
from the IPCC suggests that areas south of the Sahara are likely to emerge as the most vulnerable to climate
1
*The author wishes to acknowledge all sources and contributions cited in this paper while accepting responsibility for all
errors found in the paper.
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.6, 2013
37
change with likely agricultural losses ranging from 2 to 7%.
A Nigerian study applied the Erosion Productivity Impact Calculator (EPIC) crop model to give projections of
crop yield during the 21st
century. The study modelled worst case climate change scenarios for maize, sorghum,
rice, millet and cassava (Adejuwon, 2006). The indications from the projections are that in general there will be
increases in crop yield across all low land ecological zones as the climate changes during the early parts of the
21st
century. However, towards the end of the century, the rate of increases will tend to slow down. This could
result in lower yields in the last quarter than in the third quarter of the century.
The decreases in yield could be explained in terms of the very high temperatures which lie beyond the range of
tolerance for the current crop varieties and cultivars. Another study carried out in Egypt compared crop
production under current climate conditions with those projected for 2050 and forecast a decrease in national
production of many crops, ranging from -11% for rice to -28% for soybeans (Eid et al., 2006). Other potential
impacts linked to agriculture include erosion that could be exacerbated by expected increased intensity of rainfall
and the crop growth period that is expected to be reduced in some areas (Agoumi, 2003).
Changes are also expected in the onset of the rainy season and the variability of dry spells (Peason, 2007).
Thornton et al. (2006) mapped climate variability with a focus on the livestock sector. The areas they identified
as being particularly prone to climate change impacts included arid-semiarid rangeland and the drier mixed
agro-ecological zones across the continent, particularly Southern Africa and the Sahel, and coastal systems in
East Africa. An important point they raise is that macro-level analyses can hide local variability around often
complex responses to climate change.
It is projected that crop yield in Africa may fall by 10-20% by 2050 or even up to 50% due to climate change
(Jones and Thornton, 2003). This has dire consequences for Africa in view of the World Bank’s projection that
food demand will double by 2030 (Birchall, 2008).
Nigeria is an agrarian nation and despite the oil boom agriculture remains a core economic activity that provides
food for the nation. Agriculture will still remain in the foreseeable future, the linchpin of the economy and the
primary source of ensuring national food security. Hence any threat to its optimal productivity need to be
handled with all amount of seriousness (Adejuwon, 2006).
Fundamentally, the location, size and characteristic relief of Nigeria give rise to a variety of climates ranging
from tropical rainforest climate along the coast to the Sahel climate in the Northern part of the country, each
being different in its annual precipitation, sunshine and other climate elements (Adejuwom, 2004). In spite of
this Nigeria is yet to put in place an agency that would negotiate and co-ordinate the nation’s climate change
activities (Agwu, et al., 2011).
Farmers in trying to come to terms with climate change have developed strategies for adaptation and mitigation
of its effects. Some of these measures include cover cropping, early planting, prompt weeding, regulated use of
agro-chemicals and use of tolerant varieties (DelPHE, 2010). However, reports from the field indicate that
previous adaptive measures used by farmers become rapidly obsolete and ineffective due to the pace at which
adverse climate events take place (Enete et al., 2011).
Action Aid (2008) reports that farmers in the Southeastern part of Nigeria have continued to complain of
reduction in farm output arising from the uncertainty of rainfall patterns, increased erosion resulting from heavy
down pour which simultaneously destroy the fertility and at times washing away of plants and human
settlements.
The unfortunate aspect of the climate change dilemma in Nigeria is that most of the farmers do not understand or
appreciate their contributions to climate change devastations. This is more so among rural farmers who still
engage in traditional forms of slash and burn system of farming (Agwu et al., 2011). Evidence abounds in
climate change literature that farmers are aware that the climate has changed and that this change has affected
negatively their output (Enete et al., 2011) but what they do not seem to appreciate is how their farming
activities drive climate change.
It is, therefore, important to investigate how farmers, who are major environmental stakeholders, perceive the
issue of climate change, what types of changes they have observed in the past and how they have coped with
them. Answers to these and other several related questions constitute the purpose of this study.
2.0 Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this study was to examine how farmers in Ikwuano Local Government Area (LGA)
perceive the phenomenon. In specific terms the study was intended to:
i. assess the farmers’ general understanding of climate change in the study area;
ii. identify the types of climate change experienced by these farmers;
iii. identify the causes of climate change observed in the area; and
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.6, 2013
38
iv. identify measures used by these farmers to reduce the effects of climate change.
3.0 Materials and Methods
Ikwuano LGA in the humid forest zone of Nigeria. The LGA has an average rainfall of 2351 mm, average
minimum diurnal temperature of 22.90
C and relative humidity range between 80-90% (NRCRI, 2011). The
people are predominantly farmers. Most of the crops grown in the area are okra, maize, cassava, yam, potato,
garden egg and cocoyam.
A multi-stage random sampling technique was used in the selection of respondents. First step involved random
selection of eight out of the 13 autonomous communities in the LGA. Further, 53 farm households were
randomly selected from each of the autonomous communities. This gave a total sample size of 424 respondents.
The head of each household was interviewed irrespective of gender. Structured questionnaires were used to
collect information. At the end of the survey four questionnaires were not properly completed such that 420 were
used for analysis.
Descriptive statistical tools were used to draw inferences from data collected while the perception of respondents
was gauged by use of Likert Rating Scale. Twenty-nine perception questions on climate change were asked and
responses were received based on respondents’ level of agreement or disagreement. A 4-point Likert Rating
Scale was employed. The mean score of respondents was computed as follows: 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = = 2.5. Using
an interval scale of 0.05, the upper limit is 2.55 while the lower limit is 2.45. Scores equal to or above 2.55 are
accepted as significant while those equal to or below 2.45 are regarded as not significant.
4.0 Results and Discussion
4.1 Farm Level Information
Farm level information in respect of years of farming/farming experience, nature of farming, farm size, cropping
system, membership of farmer organisations, farm tools used and cultural practices often used was obtained from
respondents (Table 1). Majority (84.28%) of the respondents had more than 15 years of unbroken farming
experience (Table 1A). This is long enough time to give credible evidence of climate change and its effects.
More than 50% of the respondents are full time farmers (Table 1B). This also adds credibility to information
received from them. Though the average farm size in the survey was 0.9 ha (Table 1C) there were respondents
with farm size of up to 3 hectares. This size is substantial in view of the subsistence agriculture practiced in this
area with its characteristic atomistic farm sizes (Enete et al., 2011).
Most of the farmers (66.67%) practiced mixed cropping (Table 1D). Mixed cropping increases the intensity of
soil nutrient utilization which if not properly balanced may lead to poor yield. Majority of the farmers (61.67%)
do not belong to any farm organisation. This might limit their ability to share experiences with other farmers on
issues pertaining to climate change.
Most of the farmers (66.91%) still engage in use of crude farm implements that exacerbate the effects of climate
change (Table 1F). Land clearing involving slashing and burning constituted the most frequently used cultural
practice (Table 1G). This practice, as has already been noted, aggravates the effects of climate change.
4.2 Farmers’Perception of Climate Change
To establish the farmers’ perception of climate change 29 perception questions were raised. These questions were
structured to capture issues like general understanding of the farmers of what climate change is, types of changes
being experienced, causes of these changes and measures they have adopted in the past to mitigate the effects of
climate change (Tables 2-7).
On the whole, majority of the farmers indicated that they are aware of the various changes in the climate that
have affected their agricultural enterprise (Table 2) their perception of the types of climate change experienced in
the study area was captured by use of Likert Scale Rating. Likert scores below 2.55 were tagged ‘Disagree’ equal
to or above 2.55 were tagged ‘Agree’ (Table 3). Only excessive storm/lightening was rejected as a common
climate change phenomenon in the study area. Respondents agreed that the type of climate change experienced
in the area include increase in temperature, change in pattern of rainfall, poor relative humidity, high sunshine
intensity, change in harmattan period, poor fertility of most soils, increased rate of erosion, increased drought,
overflooding in many places, decrease in agricultural yield, and poor health condition of farmers.
When Likert ratio was computed for respondents perception of causes of climate change they disagreed that
seven out of the 17 items they were asked to rate cause climate change. These included agrcohemicals,
continuous cropping, over-grazing, swamp crop production, animal droppings, bush burning and
over-construction on land (Table 4). Though these can be veritable causes of climate change elsewhere but in the
specific case of the study area their influence on the environment has not been adjudged prominent.
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online)
Vol.3, No.6, 2013
39
Respondents rating of the severity of the identified causes of climate change confirmed the fact that variables
mentioned earlier (Table 4) either did no damage to the environment or they did not know the effects of these
variables on the environment.
On the strategies employed by the respondents to mitigate the effects of climate change on their outputs quite a
few of them (4%) stated that they adopted agricultural innovation. About 5.2% made adjustments to their farm
operations to cope with changes emanating from climate conditions (Table 6). Other measures adopted included
mixed cropping (8.6%), crop rotation (3.87%), cover cropping (7.6%) and use of organic manure (7.9%).
Majority of the respondents (10.13%) engaged in traditional measures like diversification of portfolio and
planting resistant local breeds of their crops. The local varieties of crops were found to be more successful than
their improved counterparts when confronted by adverse environmental and climatic conditions. Soil
conservation was another very important measure adopted by respondents.
Majority of the respondents identified financial handicap, poor climatic information, insufficient extension
visits and insufficient environmental scientists as constraints to climate change mitigation in the study area
(Table 7).
5.0 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Summary
The study confirmed that farmers in the study area were aware of the incidence of climate change. Perception
results indicate that most of the farmers were aware of some specific changes including the fact that temperature
is increasing and the level of rainfall is declining. The area is getting warmer and drier with increased frequency
of drought stemming from high sunshine intensity and poor relative humidity. Observed trend of change in
harmattan period, poor fertility of most soils, increased rate of erosion, over-flooding in many places, decrease in
agricultural yield, and poor health condition of farmers were perceived as the evidences of climate change in the
area. The implication is that farmers need to adjust their management practices to ensure that they keep pace
with the changing situation of the climate in order to stay in business.
The farmers agreed that the major drivers of climate change are deforestation, industrialization, wrong pathways,
lack of estate plan, over congestion of animal on land, blockage of water pathway, overexploitation of mineral
resources, liquid waste, air pollution, and engine oil/gas. Farmers identified financial handicap, poor climate
information, insufficient extension workers and insufficient environmental scientists as important constraints to
checkmating the drivers of climate change in the study area.
5.2 Conclusion
The farmers’ socioeconomic characteristics had serious implications for their awareness of climate change and
the knowledge of the measures to combat it. Farmers age, level of education, farming experience are some of the
important socio-economic characteristics that influence farmers’ adaptation strategies. Farmers in the study area
need to adjust to the changing climate trend in order to save their means of livelihood. Addressing the climate
change issues observed in the study will significantly help famers remain in business.
5.3 Recommendations
Supporting farmers to increase their adaptation capacities through providing the necessary resources such as
credit, information and training can significantly help them increase and sustain high levels of productivity even
under changing climatic conditions. Government policies need to support research and development of
appropriate technologies to help farmers adapt to changes in climatic conditions. Government responsibilities
include putting in place policy measures to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change on farmers. Examples
of these policy measures include introduction of drought resistant crop varieties, improving climate information
forecasting and dissemination, or promoting farm-level adaptation measures, such as the use of irrigation
technologies. Accessibility to key agricultural production information like water and soil conservation techniques
as well as the other adaptation options identified is expected to boost farmers’ coping strategies.
References
Action Aid, (2008). Climate change and food production in sub-Saharan Africa. Gregory Press. Prepared by ICF
Marbek.
Adejuwon, J. (2006). Food crop production in Nigeria: potential effects of climate change. Climate Research 32:
299-245.
Agoumi, A. (2003). Vulnerability of North African Countries to Climate Changes: Adaptation and
Implementation Strategies for Climate Change. In Developing Perspectives on Climate Change: Issues and
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Analysis from Developing Countries and Countries with Economies in Transition IISD/Climate Change
Knowledge Network, 14pp.
Agwu, E.A., Egbule, C.L., Amadu, F.O., Morlai, T.A. Wollor, E.T. and Cegbe, L.W. (2011). What Policy Options
can Promote Agricultural Innovations for Climate Change and Adaption and Food Security in the West African
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Aselm, A. Enete and Taofeeq A. Amusa (2010). Challenges of Agricultural Adoptations to Climate Change in
Nigeria: a Synthesis from the Literature. Field Actions Science Reports, Vol. 4/2010.
Birchall, (2008). The seasons, global temperature, and precession Science 268: 59-68.
Development Partnership in Higher Education (DelPHE, 2010). A Framework for Agricultural Adaptation to
Climate Change in Southern Nigeria, Project 326, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria.
Eid, H.M., El-Marsafawy, S.M. and Ouda, S.A. (2006). Assessing the impacts of climate change on agriculture
in Egypt: A ricardian approach. Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa (CEEPA). Discussion
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Enete, A.A. and Thornton, P.K. (2011). Effect of climate change and climate change mitigation. S/D.
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Gregory, P.J., Ingram, J.S. and Brklacich, M. (2005). Climate change and Food Security Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B. Vol. 36: 2139-2148.
Jones, P.G. and Thornton, P.K. (2003). Croppers to livestock keepers: Livelihood transition to 2010 in Africa due
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Mendelsohn, R., Dinar, A. and Dalfelt A. (2000). Climate Change Impacts on African Agriculture. Preliminary
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National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike (NRCRI, 2011). Climate Change Bulletin, No. 5.
Pearson Education (2007), Droughts and Famines. http://www.factmonster.com/world.html.
Shrotriya, G.C. and Daman Prakash (2011). Climate change and Agricultural Cooperatives, IFFCO Foundation,
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Table 1: Farm Level Information
(A) Farming experience
1 – 5 15 3.57
6 – 10 11 2.62
11 – 15 40 9.52
16 – 20 203 48.33
21 – 25 151 35.95
Total 420 100
Mean farming experience = 18.52
(B) Nature of farming
Part-time 180 42.86
Full-time 240 57.14
Total 420 100
(C) Farm size (Hectare)
0.1 – 0.5 100 23.81
0.6 – 1.0 163 38.81
1.1 – 1.5 140 33.33
1.6 – 2.0 11 2.62
2.6 – 3.0 6 1.43
Total 420 100
Mean farm size = 0.9
(D) Cropping system
Sole cropping 58 13.81
Mixed cropping 280 66.67
All of the above 82 19.52
Total 420 100
(E) Membership to a farm organization
Member 161 38.33
Not a member 259 61.67
Total 420 100
(F) Farm tool used mostly
Hoe 281 66.91
Cutlass 129 30.71
Rake 6 1.43
Shovel 2 0.48
Tractor and its implements 2 0.48
All of the above 0 0
420 100
(G) Cultural practices done the most
Land cleaning 156 37.14
Burning 140 33.33
Tilling 5 1.19
Weeding 119 28.33
Total 420 100
Source: Field Survey, 2012
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Table 2: Awareness of Respondents Based on the Type of Climate Change Experienced in the Study Area
Climate Factors Highly Aware Aware Fairly Aware Not Aware Verdict
Increase in temperature 40 260 104 16 Aware
Change in pattern of rainfall 180 209 29 2 Aware
Poor relative humidity 76 177 159 8 Aware
High sunshine intensity 200 83 130 7 Highly Aware
Change in harmattan period 121 215 73 11 Aware
Excessive storm/lightening 33 111 270 6 Fairly Aware
Poor fertility of most soil 70 220 103 27 Aware
Increased rate of erosion 100 150 100 70 Aware
Increased drought 169 200 50 1 Aware
Over flooding in many places 203 169 48 0 Highly Aware
Decrease in agric. output 150 213 48 9 Aware
Poor health condition of farmers 211 100 100 9 Highly Aware
Source: Field Survey, 2012
Table 3: Analysis of Farmers’ Perception of the Type of Climate Change Experienced in the Study Area
Climate Factors H.A A F.A N.A L.R Verdict
Increase in temperature 160 780 208 16 2.77 Agree
Change in pattern of rainfall 720 627 58 2 3.35 Agree
Poor relative humidity 304 531 318 8 2.76 Agree
High sunshine intensity 800 249 260 7 3.13 Agree
Change in harmattan period 484 645 146 11 3.06 Agree
Excessive storm/lightening 132 333 540 6 2.41 Disagree
Poor fertility of most soil 280 660 206 27 2.79 Agree
Increased rate of erosion 400 450 200 70 2.67 Agree
Increased drought 676 600 100 1 3.28 Agree
Over flooding in many places 812 507 96 0 3.37 Agree
Decrease in agric. output 600 639 96 9 3.20 Agree
Poor health condition of farmers 844 300 200 9 3.22 Agree
Where: Verdict
L.R = Likert Ratio
H.A = Highly Aware
A = Aware
F.A = Fairly Aware
N.A = Not Aware
Ratio < 2.55 = Disagree
Ratio > 2.55 = Agree
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Table 4: Analysis of Farmers’ Perception of the Causes of Climate Change
S/N Environmental/Human Factors
Extent of Damage
VerdictG.D L.D N.D I L.R
1 Agrochemicals 672 150 0 202 2.44 Disagree
2 Continuous cropping 32 105 218 68 1.01 Disagree
3 Overgrazing grazing 240 480 34 183 2.23 Disagree
4 Swamp crop production 32 309 224 197 1.81 Disagree
5 Animal droppings 4 195 700 4 2.15 Disagree
6 Bushing burning 252 390 296 79 2.42 Disagree
7 Deforestation 844 195 24 94 3.03 Agree
8 Industrialization 560 390 82 89 2.81 Agree
9 Over-construction on land 204 309 34 258 1.85 Disagree
10 Wrong pathways 876 450 6 9 3.47 Agree
11 Lack of estate plan 444 282 120 49 2.89 Agree
12 Over congestion of animal on land 524 567 238 50 2.79 Agree
13 Blockage of water pathway 704 600 30 29 3.25 Agree
14 Overexploitation of mineral resources 1108 264 8 51 3.41 Agree
15 Liquid waste 1236 291 16 6 3.69 Agree
16 Air pollution 1200 279 0 27 3.59 Agree
17 Engine oil/gas 1248 318 0 2 3.73 Agree
Where: Inference
L.R = Likert Ratio
G.D = Great Damage
L.D = Little Damage
N.D = No Damage
I = Indifferent
Ratio < 2.55 = Disagree
Ratio > 2.55 = Agree
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Table 5: Severity of Climate Change in the Study Area
S/N Environmental/Human Factors
Extent of Damage
VerdictG.D L.D N.D I
1 Agrochemicals 168 50 0 202 Indifferent
2 Continuous cropping 8 35 109 68 No Damage
3 Overgrazing grazing 60 160 17 183 Indifferent
4 Swamp crop production 8 103 112 197 Indifferent
5 Animal droppings 1 65 350 4 No Damage
6 Bushing burning 63 130 148 79 No Damage
7 Deforestation 211 103 12 94 Great Damage
8 Industrialization 140 150 41 89 Little Damage
9 Over-construction on land 51 94 17 258 Indifferent
10 Wrong pathways 219 189 3 9 Great Damage
11 Lack of estate plan 111 200 60 49 Little Damage
12 Over congestion of animal on land 131 120 119 50 Great Damage
13 Blockage of water pathway 176 200 15 29 Little Damage
14 Overexploitation of mineral resources 277 88 4 51 Great Damage
15 Liquid waste 309 97 8 6 Great Damage
16 Air pollution 300 93 0 27 Great Damage
17 Engine oil/gas 312 106 0 2 Great Damage
Source: Field Survey, 2012.
Where:
G.D = Great Damage
L.D = Little Damage
N.D = No Damage
I = Indifferent
Table 6: Measures/Strategies Employed by Farmers to Reduce the Effect of Climate Change in the Study Area
Variables Frequency* Percentage (%)
Adoption of agricultural innovation 161 4.00
Application of different farming system 209 5.19
Good cropping system 240 5.96
Mixed cropping 350 8.69
Crop rotation 156 3.87
Use of cover crops 307 7.62
Change of planting time 119 2.95
Use of organic manure 319 7.92
Land rotation 97 2.41
Bush fallow 158 3.92
Erosion control measures 203 5.04
Mulching 297 7.37
Planting of shed trees 200 4.96
Expert advice 103 2.56
Communal effort 217 5.39
Government assistance 100 2.48
Traditional measures 408 10.13
Soil preservation 385 9.56
Source: Field Survey, 2012.
* = Multiple responses
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Vol.3, No.6, 2013
45
Table 7: Constraints to Control of Climate Change
Constraints* Yes % No %
Financial handicap 350(83) 70(17)
Poor climatic information 309(74) 111(26)
Lack of education 216(51) 204(49)
Insufficient extension visits 344(82) 76(18)
Personal constraints 128(30) 292(70)
Insufficient environmental scientists 288(69) 132(31)
Source: Field Survey, 2012
* = Multiple responses

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Farmers’ perception of climate change in ikwuano local government area of abia state, nigeria

  • 1. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.6, 2013 36 Farmers’ Perception of Climate Change in Ikwuano Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria Agbo, Festus Ugwuoke, Ph.D. 1 Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka Phone: +2348066592181 E-mail: fuagbo4real@yahoo.com Abstract This study examines farmers’ general understanding of climate change in Ikwuano LGA of Abia State, Nigeria. Data were collected by use of structured questionnaire administered to 420 farmers randomly selected from eight communities in the study area. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze data obtained from the survey. A 4-point Likert Rating Scale was used to gauge farmers’ response to 29 perception questions posed in the questionnaire. The result showed that the prevalent changes in climate in the study area are increased temperature, change in patterns of rainfall, uncertain patterns of relative humidity, high sunshine intensity and change in harmattan period. The consequence of climate change included poor health conditions of the farmers as well as poor yields from their farms. The main causes of climate change, by the farmers’ perception, include deforestation, overgrazing of farm lands, blockage of water ways, careless discharge of liquid waste and air pollution from automobile exhaust. The major techniques employed by farmers to mitigate the effects of climate change were planting of more resistant local varieties and diversification of their portfolios. Key words: Farmers, perception, climate, change. 1.0 Introduction Climate change is a long term shift in the climatic patterns of a specific place or region measured by changes in the behaviour of climate elements such as temperature, wind patterns and precipitation resulting in changes in ecosystems and socioeconomic activities. Such changes bring about uncertainties in the sustainability of agriculture and agro-allied ventures (Urama and Ozor, 2011). Climate change is seen as the most serious environmental threat facing farmers today. It is known that as the planet earth warms, rainfall patterns shift and extreme events such as drought, flood or forest fires become more frequent (Zoellick, 2009). This has resulted in poor and unpredictable yields from agriculture and agro-allied activities (UNFCCC, 2007). The impact of climate change is more pronounced in climes that agriculture still remains the main source of livelihood as in developing countries like Nigeria (Agwu et. al., 2010). Paradoxically, agriculture is considered both culprit and victim of climate change. Culprit in the sense that Green House Gas (GHG) emissions from food and the agriculture sector account for over one-third of the current annual total emissions; the livestock sector accounts for about 18% of global green house gas emissions, deforestation also accounts for 18% of carbon dioxide emissions. The world’s 130 million ha of rice paddies are estimated to produce 50 to 100 million metric tonnes of methane annually (Shrotriya and Prakash, 2011). Human activities involving deforestation and other activities that alter the equilibrium of the ecosystem like mining, road construction, housing development activities reduce the natural sinks that withdraw green house gas from circulation. A balance between sources and sinks of green house gases determines the level of extreme weather events occurrence (Khanal, 2009). In Africa, climatic change is expected to, and in some parts, it has already begun to, alter the dynamics of droughts, rainfall and heat waves, and trigger secondary stresses such as the spread of pests, increased competition for resources, and attendant biodiversity losses (Enete and Amusa, 2010). Rapid changes in the behaviour of climate elements are expected to undermine the systems that provide for food security in Africa (Gregory et al., 2005). Whilst farmers in some regions may benefit from longer growing seasons and higher yields, the general consequences for Africa (Mendelsohn et al., 2000) are expected to be adverse, and particularly more adverse for the poor and marginalized farm households, who do not have the means to withstand drastic changes. Evidence from the IPCC suggests that areas south of the Sahara are likely to emerge as the most vulnerable to climate 1 *The author wishes to acknowledge all sources and contributions cited in this paper while accepting responsibility for all errors found in the paper.
  • 2. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.6, 2013 37 change with likely agricultural losses ranging from 2 to 7%. A Nigerian study applied the Erosion Productivity Impact Calculator (EPIC) crop model to give projections of crop yield during the 21st century. The study modelled worst case climate change scenarios for maize, sorghum, rice, millet and cassava (Adejuwon, 2006). The indications from the projections are that in general there will be increases in crop yield across all low land ecological zones as the climate changes during the early parts of the 21st century. However, towards the end of the century, the rate of increases will tend to slow down. This could result in lower yields in the last quarter than in the third quarter of the century. The decreases in yield could be explained in terms of the very high temperatures which lie beyond the range of tolerance for the current crop varieties and cultivars. Another study carried out in Egypt compared crop production under current climate conditions with those projected for 2050 and forecast a decrease in national production of many crops, ranging from -11% for rice to -28% for soybeans (Eid et al., 2006). Other potential impacts linked to agriculture include erosion that could be exacerbated by expected increased intensity of rainfall and the crop growth period that is expected to be reduced in some areas (Agoumi, 2003). Changes are also expected in the onset of the rainy season and the variability of dry spells (Peason, 2007). Thornton et al. (2006) mapped climate variability with a focus on the livestock sector. The areas they identified as being particularly prone to climate change impacts included arid-semiarid rangeland and the drier mixed agro-ecological zones across the continent, particularly Southern Africa and the Sahel, and coastal systems in East Africa. An important point they raise is that macro-level analyses can hide local variability around often complex responses to climate change. It is projected that crop yield in Africa may fall by 10-20% by 2050 or even up to 50% due to climate change (Jones and Thornton, 2003). This has dire consequences for Africa in view of the World Bank’s projection that food demand will double by 2030 (Birchall, 2008). Nigeria is an agrarian nation and despite the oil boom agriculture remains a core economic activity that provides food for the nation. Agriculture will still remain in the foreseeable future, the linchpin of the economy and the primary source of ensuring national food security. Hence any threat to its optimal productivity need to be handled with all amount of seriousness (Adejuwon, 2006). Fundamentally, the location, size and characteristic relief of Nigeria give rise to a variety of climates ranging from tropical rainforest climate along the coast to the Sahel climate in the Northern part of the country, each being different in its annual precipitation, sunshine and other climate elements (Adejuwom, 2004). In spite of this Nigeria is yet to put in place an agency that would negotiate and co-ordinate the nation’s climate change activities (Agwu, et al., 2011). Farmers in trying to come to terms with climate change have developed strategies for adaptation and mitigation of its effects. Some of these measures include cover cropping, early planting, prompt weeding, regulated use of agro-chemicals and use of tolerant varieties (DelPHE, 2010). However, reports from the field indicate that previous adaptive measures used by farmers become rapidly obsolete and ineffective due to the pace at which adverse climate events take place (Enete et al., 2011). Action Aid (2008) reports that farmers in the Southeastern part of Nigeria have continued to complain of reduction in farm output arising from the uncertainty of rainfall patterns, increased erosion resulting from heavy down pour which simultaneously destroy the fertility and at times washing away of plants and human settlements. The unfortunate aspect of the climate change dilemma in Nigeria is that most of the farmers do not understand or appreciate their contributions to climate change devastations. This is more so among rural farmers who still engage in traditional forms of slash and burn system of farming (Agwu et al., 2011). Evidence abounds in climate change literature that farmers are aware that the climate has changed and that this change has affected negatively their output (Enete et al., 2011) but what they do not seem to appreciate is how their farming activities drive climate change. It is, therefore, important to investigate how farmers, who are major environmental stakeholders, perceive the issue of climate change, what types of changes they have observed in the past and how they have coped with them. Answers to these and other several related questions constitute the purpose of this study. 2.0 Objectives of the Study The main objective of this study was to examine how farmers in Ikwuano Local Government Area (LGA) perceive the phenomenon. In specific terms the study was intended to: i. assess the farmers’ general understanding of climate change in the study area; ii. identify the types of climate change experienced by these farmers; iii. identify the causes of climate change observed in the area; and
  • 3. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.6, 2013 38 iv. identify measures used by these farmers to reduce the effects of climate change. 3.0 Materials and Methods Ikwuano LGA in the humid forest zone of Nigeria. The LGA has an average rainfall of 2351 mm, average minimum diurnal temperature of 22.90 C and relative humidity range between 80-90% (NRCRI, 2011). The people are predominantly farmers. Most of the crops grown in the area are okra, maize, cassava, yam, potato, garden egg and cocoyam. A multi-stage random sampling technique was used in the selection of respondents. First step involved random selection of eight out of the 13 autonomous communities in the LGA. Further, 53 farm households were randomly selected from each of the autonomous communities. This gave a total sample size of 424 respondents. The head of each household was interviewed irrespective of gender. Structured questionnaires were used to collect information. At the end of the survey four questionnaires were not properly completed such that 420 were used for analysis. Descriptive statistical tools were used to draw inferences from data collected while the perception of respondents was gauged by use of Likert Rating Scale. Twenty-nine perception questions on climate change were asked and responses were received based on respondents’ level of agreement or disagreement. A 4-point Likert Rating Scale was employed. The mean score of respondents was computed as follows: 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = = 2.5. Using an interval scale of 0.05, the upper limit is 2.55 while the lower limit is 2.45. Scores equal to or above 2.55 are accepted as significant while those equal to or below 2.45 are regarded as not significant. 4.0 Results and Discussion 4.1 Farm Level Information Farm level information in respect of years of farming/farming experience, nature of farming, farm size, cropping system, membership of farmer organisations, farm tools used and cultural practices often used was obtained from respondents (Table 1). Majority (84.28%) of the respondents had more than 15 years of unbroken farming experience (Table 1A). This is long enough time to give credible evidence of climate change and its effects. More than 50% of the respondents are full time farmers (Table 1B). This also adds credibility to information received from them. Though the average farm size in the survey was 0.9 ha (Table 1C) there were respondents with farm size of up to 3 hectares. This size is substantial in view of the subsistence agriculture practiced in this area with its characteristic atomistic farm sizes (Enete et al., 2011). Most of the farmers (66.67%) practiced mixed cropping (Table 1D). Mixed cropping increases the intensity of soil nutrient utilization which if not properly balanced may lead to poor yield. Majority of the farmers (61.67%) do not belong to any farm organisation. This might limit their ability to share experiences with other farmers on issues pertaining to climate change. Most of the farmers (66.91%) still engage in use of crude farm implements that exacerbate the effects of climate change (Table 1F). Land clearing involving slashing and burning constituted the most frequently used cultural practice (Table 1G). This practice, as has already been noted, aggravates the effects of climate change. 4.2 Farmers’Perception of Climate Change To establish the farmers’ perception of climate change 29 perception questions were raised. These questions were structured to capture issues like general understanding of the farmers of what climate change is, types of changes being experienced, causes of these changes and measures they have adopted in the past to mitigate the effects of climate change (Tables 2-7). On the whole, majority of the farmers indicated that they are aware of the various changes in the climate that have affected their agricultural enterprise (Table 2) their perception of the types of climate change experienced in the study area was captured by use of Likert Scale Rating. Likert scores below 2.55 were tagged ‘Disagree’ equal to or above 2.55 were tagged ‘Agree’ (Table 3). Only excessive storm/lightening was rejected as a common climate change phenomenon in the study area. Respondents agreed that the type of climate change experienced in the area include increase in temperature, change in pattern of rainfall, poor relative humidity, high sunshine intensity, change in harmattan period, poor fertility of most soils, increased rate of erosion, increased drought, overflooding in many places, decrease in agricultural yield, and poor health condition of farmers. When Likert ratio was computed for respondents perception of causes of climate change they disagreed that seven out of the 17 items they were asked to rate cause climate change. These included agrcohemicals, continuous cropping, over-grazing, swamp crop production, animal droppings, bush burning and over-construction on land (Table 4). Though these can be veritable causes of climate change elsewhere but in the specific case of the study area their influence on the environment has not been adjudged prominent.
  • 4. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.6, 2013 39 Respondents rating of the severity of the identified causes of climate change confirmed the fact that variables mentioned earlier (Table 4) either did no damage to the environment or they did not know the effects of these variables on the environment. On the strategies employed by the respondents to mitigate the effects of climate change on their outputs quite a few of them (4%) stated that they adopted agricultural innovation. About 5.2% made adjustments to their farm operations to cope with changes emanating from climate conditions (Table 6). Other measures adopted included mixed cropping (8.6%), crop rotation (3.87%), cover cropping (7.6%) and use of organic manure (7.9%). Majority of the respondents (10.13%) engaged in traditional measures like diversification of portfolio and planting resistant local breeds of their crops. The local varieties of crops were found to be more successful than their improved counterparts when confronted by adverse environmental and climatic conditions. Soil conservation was another very important measure adopted by respondents. Majority of the respondents identified financial handicap, poor climatic information, insufficient extension visits and insufficient environmental scientists as constraints to climate change mitigation in the study area (Table 7). 5.0 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations 5.1 Summary The study confirmed that farmers in the study area were aware of the incidence of climate change. Perception results indicate that most of the farmers were aware of some specific changes including the fact that temperature is increasing and the level of rainfall is declining. The area is getting warmer and drier with increased frequency of drought stemming from high sunshine intensity and poor relative humidity. Observed trend of change in harmattan period, poor fertility of most soils, increased rate of erosion, over-flooding in many places, decrease in agricultural yield, and poor health condition of farmers were perceived as the evidences of climate change in the area. The implication is that farmers need to adjust their management practices to ensure that they keep pace with the changing situation of the climate in order to stay in business. The farmers agreed that the major drivers of climate change are deforestation, industrialization, wrong pathways, lack of estate plan, over congestion of animal on land, blockage of water pathway, overexploitation of mineral resources, liquid waste, air pollution, and engine oil/gas. Farmers identified financial handicap, poor climate information, insufficient extension workers and insufficient environmental scientists as important constraints to checkmating the drivers of climate change in the study area. 5.2 Conclusion The farmers’ socioeconomic characteristics had serious implications for their awareness of climate change and the knowledge of the measures to combat it. Farmers age, level of education, farming experience are some of the important socio-economic characteristics that influence farmers’ adaptation strategies. Farmers in the study area need to adjust to the changing climate trend in order to save their means of livelihood. Addressing the climate change issues observed in the study will significantly help famers remain in business. 5.3 Recommendations Supporting farmers to increase their adaptation capacities through providing the necessary resources such as credit, information and training can significantly help them increase and sustain high levels of productivity even under changing climatic conditions. Government policies need to support research and development of appropriate technologies to help farmers adapt to changes in climatic conditions. Government responsibilities include putting in place policy measures to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change on farmers. Examples of these policy measures include introduction of drought resistant crop varieties, improving climate information forecasting and dissemination, or promoting farm-level adaptation measures, such as the use of irrigation technologies. Accessibility to key agricultural production information like water and soil conservation techniques as well as the other adaptation options identified is expected to boost farmers’ coping strategies. References Action Aid, (2008). Climate change and food production in sub-Saharan Africa. Gregory Press. Prepared by ICF Marbek. Adejuwon, J. (2006). Food crop production in Nigeria: potential effects of climate change. Climate Research 32: 299-245. Agoumi, A. (2003). Vulnerability of North African Countries to Climate Changes: Adaptation and Implementation Strategies for Climate Change. In Developing Perspectives on Climate Change: Issues and
  • 5. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.6, 2013 40 Analysis from Developing Countries and Countries with Economies in Transition IISD/Climate Change Knowledge Network, 14pp. Agwu, E.A., Egbule, C.L., Amadu, F.O., Morlai, T.A. Wollor, E.T. and Cegbe, L.W. (2011). What Policy Options can Promote Agricultural Innovations for Climate Change and Adaption and Food Security in the West African Sub-region? African Technology Policy Studies Network TECHNOPOLICY BRIEF No. 29 Website www.atpsmet.org. Aselm, A. Enete and Taofeeq A. Amusa (2010). Challenges of Agricultural Adoptations to Climate Change in Nigeria: a Synthesis from the Literature. Field Actions Science Reports, Vol. 4/2010. Birchall, (2008). The seasons, global temperature, and precession Science 268: 59-68. Development Partnership in Higher Education (DelPHE, 2010). A Framework for Agricultural Adaptation to Climate Change in Southern Nigeria, Project 326, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria. Eid, H.M., El-Marsafawy, S.M. and Ouda, S.A. (2006). Assessing the impacts of climate change on agriculture in Egypt: A ricardian approach. Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa (CEEPA). Discussion Paper No. 16, Special Series on Climate Change and Agriculture in Africa, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 1-33. Enete, A.A. and Thornton, P.K. (2011). Effect of climate change and climate change mitigation. S/D. http://wwwnccarf.edu.au/node/585.retrievedon21/7/2011. Gregory, P.J., Ingram, J.S. and Brklacich, M. (2005). Climate change and Food Security Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. Vol. 36: 2139-2148. Jones, P.G. and Thornton, P.K. (2003). Croppers to livestock keepers: Livelihood transition to 2010 in Africa due to climate change. Global Environmental Change, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. Khanal, R.C. (2009). Climate change and organic agriculture. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment, Vol. 10, pp. 100-110. Mendelsohn, R., Dinar, A. and Dalfelt A. (2000). Climate Change Impacts on African Agriculture. Preliminary analysis prepared for the World Bank, Washington, District of Columbia, PP 25. National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike (NRCRI, 2011). Climate Change Bulletin, No. 5. Pearson Education (2007), Droughts and Famines. http://www.factmonster.com/world.html. Shrotriya, G.C. and Daman Prakash (2011). Climate change and Agricultural Cooperatives, IFFCO Foundation, New Delhi, India. UNFCCC, (2007). Climate change: the Scientific Basis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Urama, K. and N. Ozor (2011). Agriculture innovations for climate change adaptation and food security in western and central Africa. Agro-Science, Vol. 9(1), pp. 1-6. Zoellick, 2009, Bello, N.J. (2010). Impact of climate change on food security in sub-Saharan Africa. In: Impacts of climate change on food security in sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of the 14th Annual Symposium of the International Association of Research Scholars and Fellows, IITA, Ibadan: 25th February, 2010. pp.13-25.
  • 6. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.6, 2013 41 Table 1: Farm Level Information (A) Farming experience 1 – 5 15 3.57 6 – 10 11 2.62 11 – 15 40 9.52 16 – 20 203 48.33 21 – 25 151 35.95 Total 420 100 Mean farming experience = 18.52 (B) Nature of farming Part-time 180 42.86 Full-time 240 57.14 Total 420 100 (C) Farm size (Hectare) 0.1 – 0.5 100 23.81 0.6 – 1.0 163 38.81 1.1 – 1.5 140 33.33 1.6 – 2.0 11 2.62 2.6 – 3.0 6 1.43 Total 420 100 Mean farm size = 0.9 (D) Cropping system Sole cropping 58 13.81 Mixed cropping 280 66.67 All of the above 82 19.52 Total 420 100 (E) Membership to a farm organization Member 161 38.33 Not a member 259 61.67 Total 420 100 (F) Farm tool used mostly Hoe 281 66.91 Cutlass 129 30.71 Rake 6 1.43 Shovel 2 0.48 Tractor and its implements 2 0.48 All of the above 0 0 420 100 (G) Cultural practices done the most Land cleaning 156 37.14 Burning 140 33.33 Tilling 5 1.19 Weeding 119 28.33 Total 420 100 Source: Field Survey, 2012
  • 7. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.6, 2013 42 Table 2: Awareness of Respondents Based on the Type of Climate Change Experienced in the Study Area Climate Factors Highly Aware Aware Fairly Aware Not Aware Verdict Increase in temperature 40 260 104 16 Aware Change in pattern of rainfall 180 209 29 2 Aware Poor relative humidity 76 177 159 8 Aware High sunshine intensity 200 83 130 7 Highly Aware Change in harmattan period 121 215 73 11 Aware Excessive storm/lightening 33 111 270 6 Fairly Aware Poor fertility of most soil 70 220 103 27 Aware Increased rate of erosion 100 150 100 70 Aware Increased drought 169 200 50 1 Aware Over flooding in many places 203 169 48 0 Highly Aware Decrease in agric. output 150 213 48 9 Aware Poor health condition of farmers 211 100 100 9 Highly Aware Source: Field Survey, 2012 Table 3: Analysis of Farmers’ Perception of the Type of Climate Change Experienced in the Study Area Climate Factors H.A A F.A N.A L.R Verdict Increase in temperature 160 780 208 16 2.77 Agree Change in pattern of rainfall 720 627 58 2 3.35 Agree Poor relative humidity 304 531 318 8 2.76 Agree High sunshine intensity 800 249 260 7 3.13 Agree Change in harmattan period 484 645 146 11 3.06 Agree Excessive storm/lightening 132 333 540 6 2.41 Disagree Poor fertility of most soil 280 660 206 27 2.79 Agree Increased rate of erosion 400 450 200 70 2.67 Agree Increased drought 676 600 100 1 3.28 Agree Over flooding in many places 812 507 96 0 3.37 Agree Decrease in agric. output 600 639 96 9 3.20 Agree Poor health condition of farmers 844 300 200 9 3.22 Agree Where: Verdict L.R = Likert Ratio H.A = Highly Aware A = Aware F.A = Fairly Aware N.A = Not Aware Ratio < 2.55 = Disagree Ratio > 2.55 = Agree
  • 8. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.6, 2013 43 Table 4: Analysis of Farmers’ Perception of the Causes of Climate Change S/N Environmental/Human Factors Extent of Damage VerdictG.D L.D N.D I L.R 1 Agrochemicals 672 150 0 202 2.44 Disagree 2 Continuous cropping 32 105 218 68 1.01 Disagree 3 Overgrazing grazing 240 480 34 183 2.23 Disagree 4 Swamp crop production 32 309 224 197 1.81 Disagree 5 Animal droppings 4 195 700 4 2.15 Disagree 6 Bushing burning 252 390 296 79 2.42 Disagree 7 Deforestation 844 195 24 94 3.03 Agree 8 Industrialization 560 390 82 89 2.81 Agree 9 Over-construction on land 204 309 34 258 1.85 Disagree 10 Wrong pathways 876 450 6 9 3.47 Agree 11 Lack of estate plan 444 282 120 49 2.89 Agree 12 Over congestion of animal on land 524 567 238 50 2.79 Agree 13 Blockage of water pathway 704 600 30 29 3.25 Agree 14 Overexploitation of mineral resources 1108 264 8 51 3.41 Agree 15 Liquid waste 1236 291 16 6 3.69 Agree 16 Air pollution 1200 279 0 27 3.59 Agree 17 Engine oil/gas 1248 318 0 2 3.73 Agree Where: Inference L.R = Likert Ratio G.D = Great Damage L.D = Little Damage N.D = No Damage I = Indifferent Ratio < 2.55 = Disagree Ratio > 2.55 = Agree
  • 9. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.6, 2013 44 Table 5: Severity of Climate Change in the Study Area S/N Environmental/Human Factors Extent of Damage VerdictG.D L.D N.D I 1 Agrochemicals 168 50 0 202 Indifferent 2 Continuous cropping 8 35 109 68 No Damage 3 Overgrazing grazing 60 160 17 183 Indifferent 4 Swamp crop production 8 103 112 197 Indifferent 5 Animal droppings 1 65 350 4 No Damage 6 Bushing burning 63 130 148 79 No Damage 7 Deforestation 211 103 12 94 Great Damage 8 Industrialization 140 150 41 89 Little Damage 9 Over-construction on land 51 94 17 258 Indifferent 10 Wrong pathways 219 189 3 9 Great Damage 11 Lack of estate plan 111 200 60 49 Little Damage 12 Over congestion of animal on land 131 120 119 50 Great Damage 13 Blockage of water pathway 176 200 15 29 Little Damage 14 Overexploitation of mineral resources 277 88 4 51 Great Damage 15 Liquid waste 309 97 8 6 Great Damage 16 Air pollution 300 93 0 27 Great Damage 17 Engine oil/gas 312 106 0 2 Great Damage Source: Field Survey, 2012. Where: G.D = Great Damage L.D = Little Damage N.D = No Damage I = Indifferent Table 6: Measures/Strategies Employed by Farmers to Reduce the Effect of Climate Change in the Study Area Variables Frequency* Percentage (%) Adoption of agricultural innovation 161 4.00 Application of different farming system 209 5.19 Good cropping system 240 5.96 Mixed cropping 350 8.69 Crop rotation 156 3.87 Use of cover crops 307 7.62 Change of planting time 119 2.95 Use of organic manure 319 7.92 Land rotation 97 2.41 Bush fallow 158 3.92 Erosion control measures 203 5.04 Mulching 297 7.37 Planting of shed trees 200 4.96 Expert advice 103 2.56 Communal effort 217 5.39 Government assistance 100 2.48 Traditional measures 408 10.13 Soil preservation 385 9.56 Source: Field Survey, 2012. * = Multiple responses
  • 10. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol.3, No.6, 2013 45 Table 7: Constraints to Control of Climate Change Constraints* Yes % No % Financial handicap 350(83) 70(17) Poor climatic information 309(74) 111(26) Lack of education 216(51) 204(49) Insufficient extension visits 344(82) 76(18) Personal constraints 128(30) 292(70) Insufficient environmental scientists 288(69) 132(31) Source: Field Survey, 2012 * = Multiple responses