2. Defining Science
1.Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all systematic
explanations and observations about the natural and physical world.
2.Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a
systematic and practical study of the natural and physical world. This process
involves systematic observation and experimentation.
3.Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject, discipline, or
field of study that deals with the process of learning about the natural and physical
world.
4.Science as a personal and social activity. It is a means to
survive in and improve life. It is interwoven with people’s lives.
3. Scientific Revolution
was the period of enlightenment when the
developments in the fields of science and
mathematics transforms the views of society
about nature. It explained the emergence of
modern science. This took place in Europe,
which was started by the publication of
Nicolaus Copernicus’ book On the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres and ended
with Isaac Newton.
4. Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts
A scientific paradigm is a framework containing all the commonly
accepted views about a subject, conventions about what direction the
research should take and how it should be performed. The
philosopher Thomas Kuhn suggested that a paradigm includes “the
practices that define a scientific discipline at a certain point in time.”
Paradigms contain all the distinct, established patterns, theories,
common methods and standards that allow us to recognize an
experimental result as belonging to a field or not.
◦ Kuhn was interested in how the overarching theories we have of
reality itself influence the models and theories we make about reality
within that paradigm
5.
6. A paradigm dictates:
• what is observed and measured
• the questions we ask about those observations
• how the questions are formulated
• how the results are interpreted
• how research is carried out
• what equipment is appropriate
7. It is very common for scientists to discard certain models or pick up
emerging theories. But once in a while, enough anomalies accumulate
within a field that the entire paradigm itself is required to change to
accommodate them. Normal science is the step-by-step scientific
process, which builds patiently upon previous research. Revolutionary
science, often 'fringe science' questions the paradigm itself. Kuhn
believed that a paradigm would make a sudden leap from one to the
next, called a paradigm shift, where the new paradigm didn’t
build on the foundations of the old, but completely change the rules
for that “building.”
9. • We began with the invention of the idea of a scientific theory by
the pre-Socratic philosophers
• They attempted to find underlying and unchanging principles
responsible for the constantly-changing phenomena of the everyday
natural world
• The Greeks developed a cosmological theory with the Earth at
the center and the planets, sun and moon embedded in spheres rotating
around the earth
• The motions in the heavens were understood in terms of
Aristotle’s theory of motion
10.
11. COPERNICAN REVOLUTION
• 16th century-Nicholaus
Copernicus- a Polish mathematician
and astronomer, challenged the
Ptolemaic model.
• He introduced the heliocentric model in a 40
page outline entitled COMMENTARIOLUS.
13. • He formalized his model in the publication of his
treatise, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium
(The Revolution of Celestial Spheres) in 1543
• HELIOCENTRISM which suggested that the center
of the Solar System was not the Earth but actually the sun. He
contradicted the GEOCENTRIC MODEL introduced by
Ptolemy, where the earth is the center of the solar system
• accepted by the people in a period called the BIRTH
OF MODERN ASTRONOMY
14. DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
• one of the most controversial intellectual
revolutions
• in 1859, Charles Darwin, an English
naturalist, biologist and geologist published his book,
ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
• in this book, he introduced the theory of
evolution that populations pass through a process
of natural selection in which only the fittest
would survive.
15. • Darwin also stated that organisms have
the ability to adapt to their environment
and would gradually change into something
that would be more competitive to survive,
process known as evolution.
19. • but this very much controversial as this is contradictory
to the church teachings that the source of life is a powerful
creator.
• made people divided based into their belief. But later on was
not in fact against teachings of the church and both can coexist
21. • In the past, the field of psychology as always under
philosophy.
• Psychology was considered more of an art rather
than a science
19th century Sigmund
Freud was bale to change
people’s perception of psychology
with his revolutionary theory of
PSYCHOANALYSIS
22. PSYCHOANALYSIS
- study of human behavior
It is a scientific method of understanding inner and
unconscious conflicts embedded within one’s personality, ringing
from free associations, dreams, and fantasies of the individual.
23. • Freud explained that there are many conscious and unconscious
factors that can influence behavior and emotion
• He also argued that personality is a product of three conflicting
elements: id, ego, superego
• many believed that Freud’s theory had no scientific basis as no
empirical or experimental data could support it
• But still Freud continued his work, soon enough people were
able to understand the concepts of psychoanalysis which eventually
resulted in classifying psychology as a science.
27. • It has contributed a lot of ideas or discoveries for
Archeology.
• The temples and pyramids left a lot of Architecture that leads
us to study more of it.
• The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations
that lasted for approximately 2,000 years.
• These people are known for their works in
astronomy.
• They developed the technology for growing
different crops and building elaborate cities
using ordinary machineries and tools.
28.
29. • They built hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways
to supply water to different communities.
• The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised rainbow
of glittery paints from mineral called mica.
• They are also believe to be the first people to produce rubber
products 3,000 years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.
30. ◦The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically
advanced societies in Mesoamerica.
◦The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica.
◦The Incas made advanced scientific ideas considering their
limitations as an old civilization.
31. The following were scientific ideas and tools that
they developed to help them in everyday life:
◦ Roads paved with stones
◦ Stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters
◦ Irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all
types of land
◦ Calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for
planting season
◦ The first suspension bridge
◦ Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can
interpret
◦ Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements
33. made substantial contributions to science and technology
and to the society. Some of their contributions are the
following:
◦ Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their
children are mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an
early form of universal or inclusive education
◦ Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In Mayan
culture, they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as part
of their tribute to their Gods.
34. Antispadomic medication. They used a type of antispadomic
medication that could prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help
during surgery.
Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in
which the land was divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and
planting season.
Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water
systems.
35. ASIAN
• The revolution itself taught Asian countries
about freedom and independent nationhood alongthe
improvement brought by it internally.
• India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast
bodies of water and fortified by huge mountains in its
northern boarders.
36. ◦The Indians are known for manufacturing iron and in metallurgical
works.
◦Their iron steel is considered to be the best and held with high regard
in the Roman Empire.
◦They are also famous in medicine.
◦Ayuverda is a system of traditional medicine that originated in
ancient India before 2500 BC and is still practiced as a form of
alternative medicine.
◦They discovered some medicinal properties of plants that led them to
develop medicines to cure various illnesses.
37. ◦Some ancient texts, like Susruta Samhita, describes different
surgical and other medical procedures famous in ancient India.
◦Ancient Indian is also notable in the field of astronomy.
◦They developed theories on the configuration of the universe, the
spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days with 12
equal parts of 30 days each.
◦They are also known for their mathematics.
◦Aryabhata, an Indian astronomer and mathematician in his
Aryabhatiya, introduced a number of trigonometric functions,
tables, and techniques as well as algorithms of algebra.
38. CHINA
◦ One of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of
life like medicine, astronomy, science. Mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music.
◦ The Chinese are known for their traditional medicines.
◦ They discovered various medical properties and uses of different plants and
animals to cure human illness. Acupuncture is an example.
39. MIDDLE EAST
◦ The revolutions in the Middle East were a product of development and growth
of individual nationalism, imperialism for the efforts of westernize and
modernize Middle Eastern societies, and to push the declining power of the of
the Ottoman Empire in the Arab Region.
◦ A Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the Father of
Optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.
◦ In Mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Kwarizmi
gave his name to the concept of the algorithm while the term algebra is
derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications.
40. AFRICAN
• The fight against colonialism and imperialism in Africa.
Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is
known as the medieval fore runner of chemistry.
Astronomy was also famous in African region. For instance,
documents show that Africans used three types of calendar:
lunar, solar and stellar or a combination of the three.
42. This has been the era in which technology has been prevalent.
It is also known as the COMPUTER AGE that has brought so
much change on how we are living today.
