An Approach to Methodology of Teaching English

An Approach to Methodology of Teaching English
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An Approach to
Methodology of
Teaching English
Prepared by Ayman Alomari 2003
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PREFACE
In a plenary speech entitled “How School Must Change” given on the
Ontario Reading Association in October 1989 Frank Smith noted that the
only changes that make profound differences in school are changes made in
the social structure. In other words, changes that affect the way teachers and
students perceive one another and themselves ultimately affect the social
climate for learning.
If that be the case, then the basis for effective change in school rests
on the interpersonal relationship found within the schools.
Experts support the view that the teacher has a key role in reforming the
classroom; they state that when teachers allow the classroom to be a place
for inquiry, where questions are explored in meaningful contexts and
teachers and students collaborate to seek answers then teachers have a
redefined role as teacher-researcher. By becoming researchers teachers take
over control of their classrooms and become experts themselves. They trust
their intuitions, take risk, and believe in themselves as part of decision-
making process.
The result that they claim autonomy and liberate themselves from any
outside forces; the teacher is the most important factor to generate change
and make difference. Once an expert said: “I touch the future I teach”.
Whether we like or not teachers demonstrate what learners learn. How the
learners experience our presence is what is remembered. If this memory to
be significant then we as teachers must live the great values that we invite
our learners to hold. ONLY THEN WILL BE TEACHERS WORTH
REMEMBERING.
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Look at the following table and check your opinion about the following jobs:
Job Prestige Usage Accepted
Yes No Yes No Yes No
Football player
Law professor
Banker
Singer
Nurse
Detective
Cafe owner
Mayor
Veterinarian
Reporter
Cook
Parliament
member
Chemist
Officer
Plumber
The purpose of this table is to show the look between different cultures
toward different people and here we face the question of having learner of
different background and criteria, so we find the following questions:
• Why do you train?
• Who do you train?
• How do you train?
The answers for these questions define the teaching process concerning
the purpose of teaching, the category of the learners and the methods,
techniques and tools used.
Teachers have to make sure that the logistics are complete and maintain
the target of the course
Why do you train?
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Teachers should define the purpose of the course and to label a title for
the course and they should set a plan states precisely his targets to
achieve the main goal of the course.
Who do you train?
The category of the learners is so significant to decide the background of
the learners which in turn would create an easygoing atmosphere.
That is to say that teacher must understand that students differ from one
another in maturity, knowledge, motivation, responsibility, and learning
skills.
Teacher’s requirement:
Teacher must have the following prerequisites for his career:
• Professional competence
• Personal competence
• Pedagogical skills
Professional competence:
1. Expert in the field of training
2. Analytical skill and ability to summarize
3. Capacity of reporting and giving feedback
4. Know what results should be obtained
5. Ability to develop instructional materials
6. Ability to detect problems and propose solutions
7. Skills in time management
Personal competence:
1. Charismatic character
2. Open to criticism
3. Methodological
4. Structured
5. Patient
6. Tolerant (accept difference)
7. Sense of responsibility
8. Self-confident
9. Credible
Pedagogical skills:
1. Very good communication skills (informing and influence
skills)
2. Ability to listen and capture the attention of others
3. Coaching skills
4. Ability to lead a group to a certain target with a quality of
persuasion, recognition of the skills of the others.
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5. Team spirit
6. Knowledge sharing
7. Encouraging students to be over dependent on teacher.
Teacher must contribute to achieving organizational goals. To
do this, he or she must regularly assess organizational needs and
measure the outcomes of your teaching programs in relation to
these needs and measure the outcomes of your teaching programs
in relation to these needs. The planning, managing, and evaluating
activities are just important as the teaching activities.
( Teacher’s mind map)
Managing the classroom
Personality
Charisma
Eye contact
Phase II Phase IIIPhase I
1. Define program
objectives
1. Select
evaluation
criteria
1. Assess
needs
2. Develop lesson plan2. Prioritize
needs 3. Select program
methods
2. Evaluation
design
4. Prepare materials 3. Implement
evaluation
design
5. Schedule and
implement program
4. Interpret
results
Learners’ impression of teacher’s personality is vital for success of learning process.
Likable and authoritative presence in
l
Common trap! Avoid establishing eye contact with few students. Let your eyes continually scan the class
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Body language
Voice
Movement
Relaxed, not static, clear gestures, comfortable distance, assertive
Loud, but low pitch, clear, annunciating, slow rhythm
Continuous, static teachers often invite a sense of boredom among learners.
Maslow’s theory of motivation:
This theory states that a person needs to satisfy his basic needs before
he looks forward higher stages; some experts think that these motivations
are not adequate to forward people but if we ignore the basic needs will
get what is known as the negative motivations which implies serious
consequences and this is labeled as dissatisfiers . However when a
person gets his basic needs, he will move to maximize his energy within
three categories:
• Belonging
• Appreciation
• Self-realization
Consequently, people feel satisfied with their jobs because of the proper
appreciation they get so it is not a question of money promotion but also
self-realization and this is labeled as satisfiers.
In this sense we can label both groups (teachers and learners) in the
following types:*
• Parent
• Adult
• Child
These three types are known as the transactional analysis.
Parent: the first impression students get about the teacher that he/she
are parents and here the parents category is classified either ideal or
protector.
*
These roles were applied by two psychologists: Eric Berne and Thomas Horris.
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Adult: this term actually implies both teacher and student.
Child: it includes both sides (teacher and student).
The following chart illustrates the types mentioned above:
Category Behavior Movement Verbal
Phrases
Attitudes Advantage disadvant
age
Ideal parent serious angry Must,
mustn’t
steady leading fear
Protect
parents
tenderness Move
towards
the front
Let’s encouraging Love,
protect
Suppress
Adult Mentally-
balanced
Straight In my
opinion
Concentrate
and facts
Develop
character
Limit
character
Obedient
child
Shy Bow head Ok, no
problem,
would
you
mind
obedience Important
for
community
Dependent
Rebel child Opposer Frowned,
loud voice
No Disobey Independent no control
Spontaneous
child
Natural,
sympathetic,
creative
Laugh, cry I like, I
dislike
Easygoing Energy,
creativeness
wild
Teacher’s role:
Teacher has to play many roles such as authority figure, director,
manager, counselor, guide, and even roles such as friend, confidante, and
parent.
Depending on the country you are in, on the institution in which you are
teaching, on the type of course, and on the makeup of your students, some of
these roles will be more prominent than others, especially in the eyes of your
students.
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Teacher’s style:
Your teaching style is another affective consideration in the development of
your professional expertise. Teaching style will almost always be consistent
with your personality style, which can vary greatly from individual to non-
individual. As you consider the teaching styles below, remember that each
represents a continuum of possibilities:
Shy Gregarious:‫اﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬
Formal Informal
Reserved Open, transparent
Understated Dramatic
Rational Emotional
Steady Variety of mood
Serious Humorous
Restrictive Permissive:‫ﻣﺘﺴﺎهﻞ‬
Where do you place yourself in these continua?
Do you feel it is necessary to lean toward one end in order to be effective
teacher?
Make sure your style of teaching is also consistent with the rest of you and
with the way you feel you can be most genuine in the class room.
Cultural expectations:
Western cultures emphasize nondirective, nonauthoritarian, roles and
teaching style in the right hand-column in the list above; the culture in which
a teacher is teaching is a major factor in developing styles.
Listed below are a number of cultural expectations of roles and styles as they
relate to teachers and students:
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Teachers are expected to
have all answers
Teachers are allowed to say
“I don’t know”.
Teachers are expected to
suppress emotions (and so
are students).
Teachers are allowed to
express emotions (and so
are students).
Teachers interpret
intellectual disagreement as
personal loyalty
Teachers interpret
intellectual disagreement as
a simulating exercise.
Teachers reward students
for accuracy in problem
solving
Teachers reward students
for innovative approaches
to problem solving
Students admire brilliance
in teachers
Students admire friendliness
in teachers
Students should speak in
class only when called on
by the teacher
Students are encouraged to
volunteer their thoughts
Teachers should never lose
face; to do so loses the
respect of students
Teachers can admit when
they are wrong and still
maintain student’s respect
Students expect the teacher
to show them” the way”.
Teachers expect students to
find their own way.
If you feel that one column is more than another then you should be
cautious in developing a relationship with students and colleagues who may
come from a different tradition. Always be sensitive to the perception of
others but then do what you feel appropriate. Be ready to compromise to
some extent especially when you start teaching a new course. Remember
that after all you might learn something from them!
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Creating a positive classroom climate:
` Establish a rapport: rapport is defined as the relationship between the
teacher and his students which in turn creates trust and respect that leads to
students feeling capable, competent, and creative.
Now how can you set this relationship?
You can set the rapport by:
• Showing interest in each student as a person.
• Giving feedback on each person’s progress.
• Openly soliciting students’ ideas and feelings
• Valuing and respecting what students say and think.
• Laughing with them not at them
• Work with them as a team and not against them
• Developing a genuine sense of vicarious joy when they learn
something or otherwise succeed
Praise and criticism:
The balance between praise and criticism plays a crucial role in
establishing the rapport and here are some guidelines for effective and
non effective praise:
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Effective praise Ineffective praise
• Shows genuine pleasure
and concern
• Is impersonal, mechanical
and robotic
• shows verbal and non-
verbal variety
• Shows bland uniformity
• Specifies the particulars
of an accomplishment
• Is restricted to global
comments so students are not
sure what was performed
well.
• Is offered in recognition
of noteworthy effort on
difficult tasks
• Is offered equally for both
easy and difficult tasks
• Attributes success to
effort implying that
• Attributes success to ability,
luck, or other external factors.
• similar success can be
expected in the future
• Fosters intrinsic
motivation to continue to
pursue goals
• Fosters extrinsic motivation
to perform only to receive
more praise
• Is delivered without
disrupting the
communicative flow of
ongoing interaction
• Disrupts the communicative
flow of ongoing interaction
Energy:
What is classroom energy?
Energy is what you react when you walk out of the class period and say to
yourself, “Wow! That was a great class.
Energy is an aura of creativity sparkled by the interaction of students; energy
draws students toward more attainment. Both teachers and students take
energy with them when they leave the classroom and bring it back the next
day.
Learning approaches:
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Approach
Role
Oral/situational Learner listens to teacher and
repeats; no control over content or
methods
Audioliguial Learner has little control; reacts to
teacher direction; passive, reactive
role
Communicative Learner has an active, negotiative
role, should contribute as well as
receive
Total Physical Response TPR†
Learner is a listener and performer;
little influence over content and none
over methodology
The Silent Way Learners learn though a systematic
analysis; must become independent
and autonomous
Community Language Learning Learners are member of a social
group or community; move from
dependence to autonomy as learning
progresses
The Natural Approach Learners play an active role and have
a relatively high degree of control
over content language production
†
To be discussed later.
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Some universal teaching principles:
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Transfer
of
learning
Multiple
sense
learning
Meaningf
ul
material
Primacy
and End
Reinforce
ment
Over
learning
Feedback
Active
learning
Whole or
part
learning Spaced
learning
Universal
learning
principles

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Some universal learning principles:
These principles are so significant because they affect both teachers and
students. And it is important to use the proper principle to have the
maximum effect.
1) Whole or part learning: work from known to unknown. This
principle actually deals with separate parts and segments rather than
unified block of material.
2) Spaced learning: spaced learning at reasonable intervals is usually
superior to massed learning if you want long-term retention of the
material.
3) Active learning: students here are involved in the learning process so
they learn effectively.
4) Feedback: it is important to use two-way communication in every
session.
5) Over learning: over learning is learning until one has perfect recall
and then learning it some more. The repetition is so important to
recall but it is important to involve students in this process.
6) Reinforcement: learning that is rewarded is much more likely to be
retained.
7) Primary and End: students keep the start (primacy) and the finish
(end) but they forget the middle so teachers should emphasize it.
8) Meaningful material: it means the motivation that is existed for
students to learn information that would be useful in the future.
9) Multiple-sense learning: psychology states that trainees learn 80 %
out of sight, 11% by hearing and 9 % by other senses combined. So
sight provides most information for students and we consequently
emphasize visual aids.
10) Transfer of learning: it depends on the similarity between
what was learned and what occurs out of classroom.
Session models:
We divide session models into two types:
1. Theory-session model
2. Skill-session model
Theory-session model:
This session is used to present information (facts, knowledge or
principles)
This session is divided into three segments:
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1- Introduction: it is intended to raise interest, check
knowledge, orient and motivate.
2- The body: it includes explanation and activity.
3- The conclusion: it includes review, test, link, clarify
and finish.
Time allocation:
If you have 40 minutes for a theory session you give 8 minutes for
introduction and conclusion and 32 minutes for the body.
In this sense we emphasize you plan your time schedule in advance.
Skill –session model:
The situation is easier when working with the skill-session model because
you can actually see the training performing the task and applying the
content of the session directly.
In the skill-session model, the physical activity is what the skill-session is
all about.
This model has three types:
The introduction:
it displays the objective(s) for the entire session; it announces the topic
and shows the students how this particular task fits in the whole system.
The body:
it includes the following steps:
1. Show: here you show the students of the objectives clearly and
perfectly.
2. Show and Tell: show and tell each skill step as set out in the task.
3. Check of understanding: this is the initial feedback (for both you and
your students) and it is a useful technique to measure the
performance but remember two points:
Don’t let one student answer everything –give others a
chance-.
Make sure that all your students stress your most important
goals.
4. Practice: students must practice at least 50% of the total time
allocated for the body of the session, so if the body of your session
20 minutes you should give the students 10 minutes at least of the
time allocated.
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Provide sufficient materials for the task to be carried out at least three
or four times. Be sure to supervise the students throughout the practice
period. Be on the lookout for unusual practice, untidy housekeeping, and
incorrect methods. Correct errors in a constructive manner. Watch for a
student who is lost or confused, and spend more time with a slow student.
The conclusion:
Briefly review the steps and key points (using questions). You can write
these questions on the board for emphasis.
Teaching needs analysis
Actually we want answers for two questions:
What is being done now?
What should be done (either now or in the future)?
If we find gap between the two, we can decide whether training is likely to
close it. If training can close the gap, then our collected data become the
basis for deciding:
The content and method of training
Which people need the training (target population)
Teaching Needs Analysis is a three-stage procedure:
1. Surveillance
2. Investigation
3. Analysis
1- Surveillance:
In this stage we review the data and documents to have an up-to-date
and broad picture of the total performance.
2- Investigation:
You undertake an investigation when you suspect a performance gap;
the purpose of the investigation is to gather more specific and detailed
data in the pertinent area. Investigation can be conducted in the
following ways:
Observation
Interview
Questionnaires
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Psychological tests
3- Analysis:
It involves the examination of incoming data in order to eliminate
invalid information; we analyze the following headings:
Organization analysis: it includes the statements and objectives
of a given organization and the human resources available and
the performance quality.
Job analysis: it defines the skills, knowledge, and standards for a
given job.
Individual analysis: it is intended to diagnose individual
performance.
Creating the session plan
When we create a plan we have to take the following points into
consideration:
It is essential to have a session plan otherwise the structure is going to
be disjointed.
The plan should be clearly defined.
Allow enough time to prepare an adequate plan.
Advantages of session plan
It is your road map to remind you where you want to go and how to decide.
Here are some points related:
1. SP‡
reminds you of the content of the session to keep on course.
2. SP reminds you of the techniques and summaries.
3. SP helps you to time the session and finish on time.
4. SP indicates what visual aids you need to present a particular point
when you need them.
How to write a session plan?
You can’t set the session plan unless you identify the training objectives
and when you set this plan take the following points into consideration:
1. Decide what content is relevant to the state objective.
2. Grade the session content into must know, should know and could
know.
‡
SP: Session Plan
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3. Arrange the content in logical order.
4. Select basic resources.
5. Select the training techniques.
6. Estimate segment time.
How to organize an SP
When you want to organize an SP follow the following layout:
Session Plan Sheet
Program title:--------------------------------------------------
Session title:---------------------------------------------------
Total time:-----------------------------------------------------
Objective(s):---------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------Visual aids---------------------------------
Special actions before session:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------.
Time Modus Operandi Main Points Details
X minutes
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Assessment & Measurement Methods
We define assessment and measurement in terms of four areas of
outcomes:
1. Reaction
2. Learning
3. Results
Categories of Students
Experts in the field of teaching have developed many names for
students’ categories but the four most recognized are Visual, Tactile,
Auditory, and Kinesthetic.
Learning methods How learners learn What learners do
Visual Through their eyes Notice details around
them.
Tactile Through touching They learn more when
they touch objects
(they are good at
machines and physical
procedures)
Auditory Through their ears They learn more by
hearing rather than
seeing. They can
memorize more than
the other methods.
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Kinesthetic Through movement They need to carry out
physically to
understand
In this sense you have to define your students’ category which in
turn would enhance the process for more flexibility. So you have to answer
the question which category best describes your students.
You can check your students’ category through this simple
questionnaire:
Always Sometimes Never
a. I see on the page in my mind o o o
b. I write down several times o o o
c. I associate it with things I already
know
o o o
d. I repeat it aloud or in my mind o o o
e. I use movement to help me
remember
o o o
f. I underline or highlight in my book o o o
g. I imagine situations I can use it o o o
Assessment Report:
This report presents data a bout a given course at one hand and
constitutes a historical record on the other hand. This report includes:
Quality aspects Quantity aspects
The environment of the course Numbers of attendants
Teachers’ proposals Satisfactory amount
Training tools The length of course
Targets achieved Tests and pass rate
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Teaching methods:
Teaching methods are categorized as follows:
Questioning
Lecture
Presentation
Discovery
These methods are of some advantages and disadvantages and the
following chart shows them:
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Questioning You can intercept the
students and his
background
Some students feel
embarrassed to be
questioned and here we
refer to the students’
categories.
Lecture It is a direct way to
present the materials
where the students are
mere recipient without
affecting the materials.
The problem here is the
teacher is the master
and the students play
minor role or no role at
all.
Presentation This method simplifies
the action for more
flexible understanding
and here the teacher
should have the tools to
present the materials.
Sometimes the lack of
materials is an obstacle
which creates a
problem in assimilating
the ideas conveyed.
Discovery It shows the thoughts Students here are
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and points simply as to
show someone a place
on a map.
guided directly by the
teacher who plays a
principal role here so
students are so
dependent in terms of
this method.
Actually the method of questioning is crucial in the process because
it enjoys the dynamic feature of exchange; in other words the teacher asks
and the student listens then the student responds and the teacher listens.
It is recommended for teachers to preplan their questions and that
doesn’t mean that you can’t use spontaneous questions which arise during
the session. Questions are divided within two categories:
Open questions (general)
Closed questions (specific)
The rate of unemployment is so high. What are the basic causes for
that? (Open question): students can draw out of broad possibilities.
Unemployment of cotton workers was high last year. What is the reason
behind that? (Closed question). Here there is a limited area of drawing
answers.
Funnel-shaped series of questions
1. Initial
open
2. Less open
3. Relatively
closed
4. closed
The first question is primary question and the other questions either
planned or spontaneous are secondary questions.
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Questioning techniques: experts divided them into five
types:
Overhead questions: here the question is hanged over students’
heads and no one knows who will answer that makes the entire group
think.
Direct question: name the person to answer; it is used for shy
person.
Combined questions: it mixes the two last techniques where you as
a question then you pick up a student to answer.
Relay questions: a student asks a question and the teacher relays the
question back to the group.
DOS DONT’S
Distribute your questions equally Avoid regular order
Use direct question for inattentive
student
Don’t use long question
Use easy questions at the beginning
of the session to warm-up your
students
Avoid the leading questions because
they provide the answer so they
can’t be a useful device. You always
try to speak English, don’t you?
Rephrase your questions if your
students don’t understand the first
form
Don’t overuse yes/no questions.
Avoid using ambiguous questions.
The rhetorical questions: it needs no answer for example to ask:
“What is wrong with the world?”
Remember: questions are so critical because
they involve the inactive students.
Here are some dos and don’ts about the questioning method:
Listening:
Listening is so significant device for the following reasons:
1. To identify what students say.
2. To encourage students that he or she has your attention.
3. Promote the listening behavior in the group.
Responding:
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There are two ways for teacher to consider students’ responding:
o Paraphrasing: it is repeating the major points in
explicit language that will allow students to judge
that the teacher understands the answer correctly.
o Probing: it is a mixture of open question, paraphrase
and funnel sequence.
Total Physical Response TPR
It was developed by James Asher. This method relieves
the pressure on students to speak before they are ready
to do so allowing students to answer without fear or
hesitation. It is helpful at early stages of learning when
students are not able to produce a verbal response.
In fact research shows that many students go through a
silent period before they begin to speak. During this
period they require intense listening to acquire the
language.
At the beginning use movement to present the action
then command the action without movement. You can
use pictures such as a plane and ask your students to
point to the pilot for instance. TPR is also helpful to
present and clarify tenses.
Working in Pairs and Groups:
Working in pairs and groups is so helpful because
students can collaborate on answers and rehearse them
before speaking in front of the whole class.
Face-to-face interaction simulates real-life social
contact encouraging the use of eye contact, proper
intonation, emotional tone, exclamation, etc which are
difficult when reciting in front of the class.
Forming the groups:
You will want to give each student in the class the
opportunity to work with as many different partners or
groups as possible during the course. You might assign
partners and/or groups at the beginning of each week or
even at the beginning of each class. You can simply
have students sitting next to or in front of and behind
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each other. Sometimes you may want to have students
choose their own partners or groups.
No matter how you assign the groups, you will want
one member of each group to as a leader. it is the
leader’s task to keep the group work smoothly and
talking in English. The leader should take any
necessary notes and report any conclusion to the class.
!Remember that every student be given the
opportunity to act as a group leader. Establish a time
limit. This will help keep students on task (e.g. 5
minutes). Walk around the class and monitor groups’
task. Encourage students to speak in English only.
Answer any question or provide any language needed.
Students make mistakes but don’t interrupt to check but
keep them go ahead. Pair or group work can result in a
noisy in the classroom, but remember- it’s the sound of
students communicating in English!
Using Realia:
The use of realia in the classroom will motivate
students to make them realize the relevance of their
language study. Realia includes anything from the real
world: native speakers, radio and TV programs, films,
records, and tapes, printed materials such as brochures,
tickets, schedules, ads, maps, menus, and objects such
as food, clothing, toy vehicles and furniture, photos and
other pictures.
The case study:
It is description of an event that involves some problem
or problem situation. The description often has some
narrative elements together with sufficient background
material to make the problem seem real and allow the
development of real solutions. The case is usually
presented in written form, although, students can use
visual and/or audio inputs. The amount of detail may
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vary greatly; for example, many case studies involve
about one half of a printed page but some can be as
long as 50 pages. Case study is virtually appreciated
for:
The case study encourages transfer of training
closer to the real world.
It involves students in practical situations.
It broadens the process of perception and
analysis.
On the other hand we find some disadvantages for this
technique:
It gives a tunnel view.
Students are somehow detached because
they have no commitment to solving the
problem.
Sometimes longer case study leads to slow
the pace of learning.
Students concentrate on quick solutions
rather than on developing skills of analysis
and application of theory.
Case study requirement:
1. The case seems real.
2. The data given allow the
development of realistic solutions
3. The content of the case
demonstrates the principles you
wish to establish.
4. The level of detail in the case study
can be effectively dealt with the
time available.
The Role Play:
The difference between the case study
and the role play is that the former is a
description of a situation and the latter
is acting for this situation so they are so
interrelated to each other.
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Training tools:
1st
-Boards and board work:
There are three types of boards:
The chalkboard: it is familiar since the days of school.
The whiteboard: it has a glossy white surface on which you write with a
special pen “marker”.
Paperboard: a number of sheets of blank paper are clipped to a board for
teacher. You can take it from room to another.
Board check: check the following for your board:
Have a duster or an eraser handy.
Be sure that you have a sufficient quantity of chalk or pens and the colors you need.
Clean the board.
2nd
-Overhead Projection technology:
It has three types available for the teacher:
1. The overhead projector
2. Computer-assisted visual packages.
3. The overhead visualizer.
AO 093-726240

An Approach to Methodology of Teaching English

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