The document discusses several ethical perspectives and frameworks: 1) Utilitarianism focuses on doing the greatest good for the greatest number of people by weighing consequences of decisions. It can be act-based or rule-based. 2) Kant's categorical imperative argues people should do what is morally right regardless of consequences by treating others as ends and not means. 3) Justice as fairness principles propose basic liberties be equal and social inequalities satisfy fair equality of opportunity and greatest benefit to the least advantaged. 4) Pragmatism views ethics as scientific inquiry through imagination and experimentation to solve problems rather than rigid rules.

1. CHAPTER 5.
ETHICAL
PERSPECTIVES

2. Chapter 5. Ethical Perspectives
• Utilitarianism: Do the Greatest Good for
the Greatest Number of People
– Utilitarianism is based on the premise that ethical
choices should be based on their consequences.
– Utilitarianism is attempting to do the greatest good for
the greatest number of people.
– Utility can be based on what is best in a specific case
(act utilitarianism) or on what is generally best in most
contexts (rule utilitarianism).
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
2

3. Utilitarianism
• Four steps to conducting a utilitarian analysis of
an ethical problem:
– 1. Clearly identify the action or issue under
consideration.
– 2. Specify all those who might be affected by the
action (e.g., the organization, the local community, a
professional group, society), not just those
immediately involved in the situation.
– 3. Determine the good and bad consequences for
those affected.
– 4. Sum the good and the bad consequences.
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
3

4. Utilitarianism
• Applications of Utilitarianism
– Build on your prior experience
– Carefully examine the outcomes of your decisions
– Set personal interests aside
– Recognize when weighing consequences is critical
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
4

5. Utilitarianism
• Cautions of Utilitarianism
– Consequences are difficult to identify,
measure, and evaluate
– There may be unanticipated outcomes
– Decision makers reach different conclusions
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
5

6. Kant’s Categorical Imperative
• In sharp contrast to the Utilitarians, European
philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued
that people should do what is morally right no matter
the consequences.
• Kant’s reasoning was the best-known example of
deontological ethics:
– Deontological ethicists argue that we ought to make
choices based on our duty.
• According to Kant, what is right for one is right for
all.
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
6

7. Kant’s Categorical Imperative
• Applications of Kant’s Categorical Imperative
– Be duty bound
– Always ask yourself if you would want everyone
to make the same choice
– Demonstrate respect for others
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
7

8. Kant’s Categorical Imperative
• Cautions of Kant’s Categorical Imperative
– Exceptions exist to nearly every “universal” law
– Moral obligations may conflict with one another
– Ethical guidelines are often demonstrated
through unrealistic examples
– This framework is hard to apply, particularly
under stress
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
8

9. Justice as Fairness
• According to Harvard philosopher John
Rawls, we should follow these principles of
justice and build them into our social
institutions:
– Principle 1: Each person has an equal right to the same basic
liberties that are compatible with similar liberties for all.
– Principle 2: Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy
two conditions: (A) They are to be attached to offices and positions
open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. (B) They
are to provide the greatest benefit to the least-advantaged members
of society.
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
9

10. Justice as Fairness
• Veil of Ignorance
– If a group stands behind a veil of ignorance, they will
choose:
• (a) equal liberty, because they would want the
maximum amount of freedom to pursue their interests;
• (b) equal opportunity, because if they turned out to be
the most talented members of society, they would
probably land the best jobs and elected offices;
• (c) the difference principle, because they would want to
be sure they were cared for if they ended up
disadvantaged.
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
10

11. Justice as Fairness
• Applications of this model
– Follow fairness guidelines
– Weigh both individual freedom and the good
of the community when making decisions
– Step behind the veil of ignorance when
making choices
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
11

12. Justice as Fairness
• Cautions of this model:
– Rawls’s principles can only be applied to
democratic societies
– Groups disagree about the meaning of justice and
fairness
– Lack of consensus about the most important rights
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
12

13. Pragmatism: Ethics as Inquiry
• Pragmatism was the dominant philosophical
movement in the United States from the Civil
War through World War II.
• John Dewey (1859-1952) emerged as its
most prominent spokesperson.
• Dewey and other pragmatists believed that
scientific methods could be applied to solving
human dilemmas.
• Dewey argued that ethical dilemmas should
be approached scientifically as well.
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
13

14. Pragmatism: Ethics as Inquiry
• The term dramatic rehearsal describes
mental imagination in action.
– Decision makers conduct a series of
imaginary thought experiments to visualize
how their decisions could turn out.
• While Dewey focused on the process of
ethical decision making, he also believed
that every ethical decision must be made
with an end or value in mind.
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
14

15. Pragmatism: Ethics as Inquiry
• Applications of Pragmatism
– Approach ethical problems as you would other
dilemmas.
– Immerse yourself in the details of the situation.
– Engage your imagination.
– Acknowledge your limitations.
– Look for creative solutions.
– Embrace your emotions.
– Recognize that your ethical choices shape your
character.
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
15

16. Pragmatism: Ethics as Inquiry
• Cautions of Pragmatism
– Pragmatism lacks a moral center.
– The approach can lead to undesirable
decisions.
– Measuring growth is difficult.
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
16

17. Altruism
• Advocates of altruism argue that love of neighbor is the
ultimate ethical standard.
• Our actions should be designed to help others whatever
the personal cost.
• The command to love God and to love others as we love
ourselves is our most important obligation in Judeo-
Christian ethics.
• Concern for others promotes healthy social relationships.
• Researchers from social psychology, economics, political
science, and other fields have discovered that altruistic
behavior is more often than not the norm, not the
exception.
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
17

18. Box 5.1: The Ethic of Care
• Philosopher Virginia Held’s five key components
of the care ethic:
– 1. Focuses on the importance of noting and meeting
the needs of those we are responsible for.
– 2. Values emotions.
– 3. Specific needs and relationships take priority above
universal principles.
– 4. Breaks down the barriers between the public and
private spheres.
– 5. Views persons as both relational and
interdependent.
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
18

19. Leadership Ethics at the Movies: The
Chorus
• Discussion Questions:
– Does Mathieu strike the right balance
between compassion and justice?
– What virtues does he demonstrate?
– How does Mathieu respond to failure?
– How do you define success? According to
your definition, was Mathieu successful?
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
19

20. Altruism
• Terms:
– Individual-focused altruistic behaviors include providing
training, technical assistance, and mentoring.
– Group-focused altruistic behaviors include team building,
participative group decision making, and minority
advancement programs.
– Organizational-focused altruistic attitudes and actions include
demonstrating commitment and loyalty, protecting
organizational resources, and whistle-blowing.
– Societal-focused altruistic behaviors include making
contributions to promote social welfare, reducing pollution,
ensuring product safety, and maintaining customer
satisfaction.
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
20

21. Altruism
Applications
Put the needs of the followers before your
own needs.
Act as a role model.
Use compassion as an important decision-
making guideline.
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
21

22. Altruism
Cautions
It is impossible to meet every need.
The extent of our obligations is unclear.
Many who profess to love their neighbors fail
to act as if they do.
Altruism takes many different, sometimes
conflicting, forms.
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
22

23. Case Study 5.2: Fukushima 50
• Discussion Questions:
– If similar explosions had occurred at a nuclear power plant in
another country, do you think the workers there would have stayed
on the job? Why or why not?
– Can you think of other examples of where people risked their lives
out of a sense of duty? What explains their actions?
– In addition to duty, what other ethical principles appeared to
motivate the Fukushima 50, those who joined their efforts, and other
Japanese citizens?
– How should Japan and the world honor those who stayed to save
the plant?
– What leadership and followership ethics lessons do you take from
this case?
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
23

24. Case Study 5.1: Radical Do-Gooders
• Discussion Questions:
– Is it possible to be too concerned for others?
– Do radical do-gooders make you feel uneasy? Why or why
not?
– What can we learn from the example of radical do-
gooders?
– How should we weigh the needs of strangers against the
needs of our family and friends? Would you rescue your
mother or two strangers from drowning?
– How much should we be expected to sacrifice for
strangers?
– How do we determine the limits of our responsibilities to
strangers?
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
24

25. Case Study 5.3: A Moral Hack?
• Discussion Question:
– Was this a moral hack? Why or why not?
Johnson, Meeting the Ethical Challenges of
Leadership, 6e. SAGE Publishing, 2018.
25