The document discusses processes and process management in operating systems. It begins by defining a process as a program in execution along with its associated data and process control block (PCB). It then describes the different states a process can be in, including running, ready, blocked, and suspended. It also discusses process creation, termination, and scheduling. The document outlines the five-state process model and differences between single-threaded and multi-threaded processes. It concludes by comparing user-level threads and kernel-level threads.

1. Student’s Name Matric
Number
Aniyah binti Amirhussin B031310042
Azwana binti Ahmad B031310071
Daliah binti Daud B031310491
Goh Yu Fern B031310113
Nik Siti Noor Fadhillah binti Md Saad B031310496
Rahilda Nadhirah Norizzaty binti Rahiddin B031310111

3.  Also known as task.
 Execution of an individual program.
 Contains program code and its current activity
 Can be traced to list the sequence of instructions that
execute.
Depending on the operating system (OS), a process may
be made up of multiple threads of execution that
execute instructions concurrently.

4.  While program is executing, processes are stored in
data structure known as PCB.
 PCB is created for each process.
 The creation and management of PCB is done by OS
 PCB has sufficient information. Thus, it’s possible to
interrupt a running process and later resume
execution as if there is no interruption.
Process = Program code + Associated data +
PCB

5. Change to other value,
For example: blocked or ready
Current values are saved in appropriate
fields of corresponding PCB
OS is now free to put other
process in Running state

6.  OS program that moves the processor from one
process to another.
 Prevents a single process from monopolizing processor
time.
 Decides who goes next according to a scheduling
algorithm.
 CPU will execute instructions from the dispatcher
while switching from process A to process B.

7. Process Creation
* Process (parent) creates another process (child) called as
process spawning.
* Submission of batch job and user is logs on.
* It is created to provide service such as printing.
Process Termination
* Batch job issues Halt instruction (OS service call for
termination) and user is logs off.
* Occurs when quitting an application or error and faults
condition appear.
Reasons for Process Termination
* Normal completion
* Time limit exceeded
* Memory unavailable
* Protection error (eg: write to read-only file)
* I/O failure

8. o Process may be in one of two states: running, not running.
o Dispatcher cannot select the process that is in the queue
the longest because it may be blocked
o Solution: split Not Running into two states:
i) Ready – prepare to execute when given opportunity
ii) Blocked/Waiting – process cannot execute until some
event occurs

9. 3. A Five-State Process Model

10. 4. Suspended Process
 Processor faster than I/O (processes wait for I/O)
 Swap these processes to disk to free up memory
 Block state -> suspend state, when swap to disk
 Two new state
- Blocked, suspend: blocked processes which have
been swapped out to disk
- Ready, suspend: ready processes which have been
swapped out to disk

11. One Suspend State

12. Two Suspend State

13. OS have tables for managing processes and resources.
1. Memory tables
- Allocation of main and secondary memory to
processes
- Protection attributes for access to shared
memory regions
- Information needed to manage virtual memory
2. I/O tables
- I/O device is available or assigned
- Status of I/O operation
- Location in main memory being used as the
source or destination of the I/O transfer

14. 3. File tables
- Existence of files
- Location on secondary memory
- Current Status
- Attributes
- Sometimes this information is maintained by a file-
management system
4. Process tables
- Where process is located
- Attributes necessary for its management
- Process ID
- Process state
- Location in memory

15. 1. Modes of Execution
i. User Mode
* Less-privileged mode
* User programs typically execute in this
mode
ii. System mode, Control mode or Kernel Mode
* More-privileged mode
* Kernel of the OS

16. 2. Process Creation
 Assign a unique process identifier
 Allocate space for the process
 Initialize process control block
 Set up appropriate linkages
Eg: add new process to linked list used for
scheduling queue
 Create or expand other data structures
Eg: maintain an accounting file

17.  A thread is the smallest unit of processing that can be
performed in an OS.
 An execution state (running, ready, etc.)
 Has an execution stack.
 In most modern operating systems, a thread exists
within a process - that is, a single process may contain
multiple threads.

18.  On a single processor, multi threading generally occurs
by as in multitasking, the processor switches between
different threads.
 This context switching generally happens frequently
enough that the user perceives the threads or tasks to
be running at the same time.
 On the multiprocessor or mutli-core system, the
threads or task actually do run at the same time, with
each processor or core running a particular thread or
task.

19. Single and Multithreading Processes

20. • Multithreading: when OS supports multiple threads of
execution within a single process.
• Single threading: when the OS does not recognize the
concept of thread.
• MS-DOS supports a single thread.
• UNIX supports multiple user processes but only supports one
thread per process
• Windows 2000, Solaris, Linux, Mach, and OS/2 support
multiple threads

21. Thread Control Block contains a register image, thread priority and thread state information

22.  Thread minimize context switching time.
 Use of threads provides concurrency within a process.
 Efficient communication.
 Economy- It is more economical to create and context
switch threads.
 Utilization of multiprocessor architectures to a greater
scale and efficiency.

23.  Three key states: running, ready, blocked
 No suspend state since all threads share the same
address space.
 Suspending a process involves suspending all threads
of the process.
 Termination of a process, terminates all threads
within the process.
 States associated with a change in thread state:
i. Spawn -spawn another thread
ii. Block
iii. Unblock
iv. Finish

24.  Contains code for:

25. 1. User Level Threads – (user managed thread)
Diagram Of User-level Thread
o All thread management is done by the application.
o The kernel is not aware of the existence of threads.
o OS only schedules the process, not the threads within
process.
o Programmer using a thread library to manage threads
(create,delete,schedule)

26. User-level threads can be implemented on operating system that does not
support threads.
Implementing user-level threads does not require modification of operating
system where everything is managed by the thread library.
Simple representation which the thread is represented by a the thread ID,
program counter, register, stack , all stored in user process address space.
Simple management where creating new threads, switching threads and
synchronization between threads can be done without intervention of the
kernel.
Fast and efficient where switching thread is much more inexpensive
compared to a system call.
There is a lack of coordination between threads and operating system
kernel. A process gets one time slice no matter it has 1 thread or 10000
threads within it. It is up to the thread itself to give up the control to other
threads.
If one thread made a blocking system call, the entire process can be
blocked in the kernel, even if other threads in the same process are in the
ready state.

27. 2. Kernel-Level Threads
(OS managed threads acting on kernel, an OS core)
 All thread management is done by the kernel.
 Kernel maintains context information for the process
and the threads.
 No thread library but an API to the kernel thread
facility.
 Switching between threads requires the kernel.
 Scheduling is done on a thread basis.

28. Kernel can simultaneously schedule multiple threads from the
same process on multiple processes.
If one threads in a process is blocked, the Kernel can schedule
another threads of the same process.
Kernel routines themselves can multithreaded.
Kernel threads are generally slower to create and manage than
the user threads.
Transfer of control from one thread to another within same
process requires a mode switch to the Kernel.

29. User Level VS Kernel Level Thread
User Level Threads Kernel Level Thread
Faster to create and manage. Slower to create and manage.
Implementation is by a thread
library at the user level.
OS supports creation of
kernel thread.
Generic and can run on any OS. Specific to the OS.
Multi-threaded application can
not take advantage of
multiprocessing.
Kernel routines themselves
can be multithreaded.

30. 1. Many to One Relationship
 Many user-level threads mapped to single kernel
threads.

31. 2. Many to Many Relationship
 Allows many user level threads to be mapped to many
kernel threads.
 Allows the operating system to create a sufficient
number of kernel threads.

32. 2. One to One Relationship
 Each user-level thread maps to kernel threads.
 Allow another threads to run if block.
 Run parallel

33.  Each CPU has equal access to resources.
 Each CPU determines what to run using a standard
algorithm.
 Kernel can execute on any processor.
- Allowing portions of the kernel to execute in
parallel.
 Typically each processor does self-scheduling from
the pool of available process or threads.
Proc 1 Proc 2 Proc 3 Proc 4
Mem 1 Mem 2 Mem 3 Mem 4

34. Symmetric Multiprocessor Organization

35. 1. Simultaneous concurrent processes or threads
2. Scheduling
3. Synchronization
4. Memory management
5. Reliability and fault tolerance

36.  From multiple boards on a shared bus to multiple
processors inside a single chip.
 Caches both
1. Private data are used by a single processor
2. Shared data are used by multiple processors
 Caching shared data
reduces latency to shared data, memory
bandwidth for shared data, and interconnect
bandwidth
cache coherence problem

37. ADVANTAGES
High reliability
Fault tolerant support is straight forward
Balanced workload
DISADVANTAGES
Resources conflicts.
Example: memory and I/O
Complex implementation

38.  Involves synchronization of access to global ready
queue
Eg: only one processor must execute a job at
one time
 Processors: CPU1, CPU2, CPU3, …
 When a processor accesses the ready queue:
1. If they attempt access to the ready queue, all
other processors (CPU2, CPU3, …) must wait;
denied access.
2. Accessing processor (eg. CPU1) removes a process
from ready queue, and dispatch’s process on itself.
3. Just before dispatch, that processor makes ready
queue again available for use by the other CPU’s.
Synchronization Issues

39.  This structures the operating system by removing all
nonessential portions of the kernel and implementing
them as system and user and user level programs.
 Provide minimal process and memory management &
communication facility
 Communication between components if the OS is
provided by massage passing

40. ADVANTAGES
Extending the OS becomes much easier.
Any changes to the kernel tend to be fewer, since
the kernel is smaller.
Provides more security and reability
MAIN DISADVANTAGES
It is poor performance due to increase system
overhead from message passing.

42. Operating systems developed in the mid to late 1950s were designed with
little concern about structure.
 The problems caused by mutual dependence and interaction were
grossly underestimated.
 In these monolithic operating systems, virtually any procedure can
call any other procedure – the approach
Modular programming techniques were needed to handle this scale of
software development.
 Layered operating systems were developed in which functions are
organized hierarchically and interaction only takes place between
adjacent layers.
 Most or all of the layers execute in kernel mode.
PROBLEM:
Major changes in one layer can have numerous effects on code in
adjacent layers - many difficult to trace.
And security is difficult to build in because of the many interactions
between adjacent layers.

43. In a Microkernel - only absolutely essential core OS functions should be in
the kernel.
 Less essential services and applications are built on the
microkernel and execute in user mode.
 Common characteristic is that many services that traditionally
have been part of the OS are now external subsystems that
interact with the kernel and with each other;
 These include device drivers, file systems, virtual memory
manager, windowing system, and security services.
The microkernel functions as a message exchange:
 It validates messages,
 Passes them between components,
 Grants access to hardware.
The microkernel also performs a protection function;
it prevents message passing unless exchange is allowed.