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AN EXPLORATION OF THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS AND PERSISTENCE OF
FIRST-GENERATION, ETHNIC MINORITY FEMALE COLLEGE STUDENTS
by
Erica D. Wyatt
LEAH MANCUSO, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair
JEAN DUFFY, PhD, Committee Member
AMIE A. MANIS, PhD, Committee Member
Anna Hultquist, PhD, LMFT, CFLE, Dean
Harold Abel School of Social and Behavioral Sciences
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
January 2014
© Erica Wyatt, 2014
Abstract
Almost 50% of undergraduate students on college campuses across the United States are
first-generation college students or students whose parents have not completed a post-
secondary degree program. There are a great number of first-generation college students
who do not persist until degree completion because of the many obstacles and challenges
that they face along the way. However, there are those first-generation college students
who experience academic success and persist year after year to obtain a post-secondary
degree. This qualitative study explored the experiences of academic success and
persistence among a sample of first-generation ethnic minority female college students.
The data collection method for this study consisted of nine, in-depth, semi-structured,
face to face interviews with first-generation ethnic minority female college students who
had completed at least one semester of higher education and were at different phases in
their degree program. A phenomenological data analysis approach was used to extract
meaning from participants’ experiences. Structural and textural themes were extracted
from the interviews of each research participant during the data analysis phase of the
study. These themes were analyzed to develop a composite textural-structural description
of what it means to experience academic success and persistence as a first-generation
ethnic minority female college student. The findings revealed that the experience of a
first-generation, ethnic minority, female college student is filled with challenges and
obstacles. However, with a strong support system, self-confidence and remembering the
“why” for the journey, this student population is able to experience academic success and
persistence.
iii
Dedication
I dedicate this work, first and foremost, to my children who are indeed my legacy.
It is my prayer that this journey, which we have walked together, will inspire you to
chase after all that life has to offer you.
I also dedicate this work to the success of every future first-generation college
graduate. Don’t let anyone or anything stop you from accomplishing your goal.
iv
Acknowledgments
I want to thank and acknowledge everyone who helped me to successfully
complete this educational journey:
First and foremost, I want to acknowledge and thank the wisest man that I know:
my pastor, my mentor and my friend: Apostle Mark W. Webb. Without you, I would
never have started out on this journey, and I definitely would not have been able to see it
through to completion. Your sacrifice was not in vain.
Secondly, I want to thank my mentor, Dr. Leah Mancuso for always saying the
right things at the right time. We never know when someone is on the edge of giving up
and sometimes all it takes is an encouraging word. You gave me many of those on this
long journey, and for that I am truly grateful.
To the rest of my committee, Dr. Amie Manis and Dr. Jean Duffy, I thank you for
being a part of this process and keeping the stress minimal.
Last but definitely not least, I want to say thank you to my church family
and friends: Outreach Ministries, International. Thank you for all of your prayers and
support. I love you guys more than you know!
To all of the first-generation college students who shared their personal
experiences of success and hard work, I acknowledge you, and I am eternally grateful for
your contributions to this study.
v
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments iv
List of Tables viii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
Background of the Problem 2
Statement of the Problem 4
Purpose of the Study 4
Significance of the Study 5
Research Design 6
Research Questions 8
Assumptions and Limitations 8
Definition of Terms 9
Expected Findings 10
Organization of the Remainder of the Study 10
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 12
Introduction to the Literature Review 12
Theoretical Orientation for the Study 12
Review of Research Literature and Methodological Literature Specific to the
Topic or Research Question 14
Synthesis of the Research Findings 31
Critique of the Previous Research 33
Summary 33
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 35
vi
Purpose of the Study 35
Research Design 35
Target Population and Participant Selection 37
Procedures 38
Instruments 39
Research Questions 40
Data Analysis 41
Ethical Considerations 42
Expected Findings 43
CHAPTER 4. RESULTS 45
Introduction: The Study and the Researcher 45
Description of the Sample (Participants) 46
Research Methodology Applied to the Data Analysis 47
Presentation of the Data and Results of the Analysis 48
Summary 120
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS 122
Introduction 122
Summary of the Results 122
Discussion of the Results 124
Discussion of the Conclusions 125
Limitations 133
Recommendations for Future Research or Interventions 137
Conclusion 137
vii
REFERENCES 139
APPENDIX A. Statement of Original Work 144
viii
List of Tables
Table 1. Description of Participants
1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
First-generation students have been defined as students whose parents have not
obtained education beyond the high school level (Choy, 2001). According to Engle and
Tinto (2008), this population of students currently account for approximately 24% of
undergraduate college enrollments. Despite the steady increase in access to higher
education among traditionally underrepresented populations, educational inequities
continue to abound. First-generation students from low socioeconomic backgrounds are
four times as likely to leave college after their first year as are those with neither of these
factors (Engle & Tinto, 2008). Within four year institutions, first-generation students are
more than twice as likely as continuing generation students to leave before their second
year (Choy, 2001).
First-generation students are a population that is considered to be at-risk because
of various demographic factors. Research on this student population reveals that a
disproportionate amount of first-generation college students are from ethnic and minority
backgrounds. Additionally, these students tend to be female, older, receive less social
and financial support from parents and have multiple obligations outside of their
education, which may consist of family and work. Lack of academic preparation has also
been cited as one of the risk factors related to first-generation students’ ability to persist
in higher education (Bui, 2002; Choy, 2001; Engle & Tinto, 2008; Mehta, Newbold &
O’Rourke, 2011). Additionally, even though women comprise a larger portion of the
first-generation student population, they are less likely than their male counterparts to
persist in their academics (Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005).
2
Higher education plays a vital role in shaping an individual’s social and economic
future (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). With the steady increase of the first-generation
college student population, it is vital that colleges begin to develop strategies to increase
retention among these students (Choy, 2001; Giancola, Munz & Trares, 2008; Ishitani,
2003). Despite this need, attrition rates for first-generation college students continue to
exceed those of continuing generation students ( Choy 2001; Engle & Tinto, 2008).
Background of the Problem
There are many factors that may potentially impact persistence among first-
generation students. A study conducted by Ramos-Sanchez and Nichols (2007) revealed
a positive relationship between academic self-efficacy, a students’ confidence in their
academic ability, and college adjustment. The findings of this study also indicated that
non-first-generation students demonstrated higher levels of self-efficacy than their first-
generation counterparts. A later study conducted by Wang and Castaneda-Sound (2008)
corroborated these empirical findings. Positive self-concept, degree of academic and
social integration, and a strong support system are additional factors that have been
associated with academic success (Prospero & Vohra-Gupta, 2007; Ting, 2003; Tinto,
1987). Research has also found that higher levels of self-esteem and positive self-
concept contributed to successful college adjustment and overall well-being of first-
generation students (Hertel, 2002; Wang & Castaneda-Sound, 2008).
Self-efficacy has been related to students’ academic expectations and their
academic performance. Chemers, Hu, and Garcia (2001) conducted a study to examine
the effects of self-efficacy on a population of freshmen students. The findings of this
study revealed that those students who enter into the college environment with a greater
3
confidence in their academic abilities tend to experience greater academic success than
those with less confidence. Those students within the Chemers et al (2001) study who
were identified as confident and optimistic were more likely to view their academic
experience as a challenge rather than a threat. Additionally, Awad (2007) found that
academic self-concept is one of the best predictors of a students’ grade point average
(GPA). For this reason, it can be concluded from these findings that students with a
positive attitude toward their education and their academic abilities are more likely to
perform better.
The parents of first-generation college students have never attended college and
thus lack the knowledge gained by those who have, which renders them inexperienced in
their attempts to assist their children in overcoming the challenges of the college
experience (Phinney & Haas, 2003). For this reason, first-generation students are less
likely to possess the cultural capital or knowledge about the college going process that
has been associated with an increased likelihood of academic success (Pascarella,
Pierson, Wolniak, & Terenzini, 2004). Additionally, first-generation students have been
found to experience greater difficulty in becoming engaged and integrated within
institutions of higher education. These students are often fearful of interacting with
faculty and characterize their environment as one that is not supportive of their academic
endeavors (Longwell-Grice, R. & Longwell-Grice, H., 2008; Pike & Kuh, 2005).
The ability to successfully transition, integrate and adjust to the college culture
has been identified as a very significant indicator of academic persistence (Tinto, 1987).
Social support from parents and peers is an important factor in helping students adjust to
the challenges of the college environment (Dennis, Phinney & Lizette, 2005). Despite
4
this need, a study conducted by Barry, Hudley, Cho and Kelly (2008) revealed that first
generation students were less likely than their non-first-generation counterparts to discuss
their college experiences with their parents. Phinney and Haas (2003) examined the
factors of self-efficacy and social support and their impact on the coping strategies of
first-generation college students. The results of this study indicated that the ability to
seek support during stressful times was the most successful coping strategy for first-
generation students. Additionally those students who perceived to have less social
support experienced greater difficulty in focusing on their academics.
Statement of the Problem
The literature on first-generation college students presents a clear picture of the
challenges that place these students at greater risk for failure (Bui, 2002; Choy, 2001;
Engle & Tinto, 2008; Mehta, Newbold & O’Rourke, 2011). However, what is currently
missing from the literature is how some students within this at-risk population overcome
their challenges and persist in higher education. More specifically, it is unknown how
first-generation, female, ethnic minority college students persist despite the demographic
characteristics that threaten their academic success.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of first-generation,
female ethnic minority college students through a phenomenological study in order to
gain a better understanding of how they persist in spite of the risk factors associated with
being first-generation. The study explored factors such as self-efficacy, social support,
and self-esteem and their impact on first-generation, female, ethnic minority college
students’ ability to persist. By exploring the phenomena of academic success and
5
persistence through the lived experiences of the research participants, this study will add
to the knowledge that is currently available on the first-generation student population.
Significance of the Study
` First-generation college students are considered an at-risk population because
they enter into the college environment with needs that are not often met by traditional
programs and services (Folger, Carter, & Chase, 2004). These students are characterized
as being underprepared for the challenges of higher education in addition to being less
informed about the college culture. First-generation students face financial difficulties
and experience challenges in their attempts to integrate academically and socially into the
college environment (Choy, 2001; Mehta, et al., 2011). Research has revealed that the
academic and social experiences of first-generation students are quite different than those
of continuing generation students (Pascarella, et al., 2004; Pascarella, Wolniak, Pierson &
Terenzini, 2003). However, in spite of their challenges, first-generation students have
proven to be resilient in their academic endeavors (Pascarella et al, 2003). Despite this
finding, there is a very limited amount of literature available that examines the
experiences of those who have been able to persist in spite of the risk factors associated
with being the first in their family to pursue higher education (Olenchak & Hebert, 2002;
Stieha, 2010; Longwell-Grice, R. & Longwell-Grice.H., 2008).
When first-generation students persist and succeed in higher education, they are
more likely to retain their academic identity and increase their likelihood of obtaining
economic stability. In addition, institutions of higher education and the community at
large have a vested interest in the academic success of first-generation college students
(Folgers et al, 2004). As the demographics of the U.S. continue to change and college
6
campuses become more diversified, first-generation college students will become an
increasingly larger proportion of college enrollments (Choy, 2001; Engle & Tinto, 2008;
Pascarella et al, 2004). For these reasons, it is important to begin to acquire a greater
understanding of the academic experiences of those individuals who comprise such a
large portion of student populations within institutions of higher education.
This study will contribute to the knowledge base that is currently available on
first-generation college students. However, this particular study focused on ethnic
minority, female college students within the first-generation student population. By
doing so, the study will bring about a greater understanding in the research community as
well as among administrators of higher education, college counselors and student affairs
personnel of how this particular segment of the first-generation student population are
able to overcome their obstacles and persist in higher education.
Research Design
In a review of the literature available on first generation college students, it
became evident that the majority of the research had employed a quantitative research
design. In an effort to fill this gap in the literature, this research study used a qualitative
research design and employed a transcendental phenomenological framework.
Phenomenology was appropriate for this particular study because this qualitative
approach seeks to describe a common meaning for several individuals for a specific
phenomenon (Creswell, 2013). This approach coincides with the purpose of this research
study since it attempted to explain the experiences of academic success and persistence
among first generation, ethnic minority female college students. As stated by Steiha
(2010) in her qualitative research study of academic persistence, a phenomenological
7
research design allows the researcher to explore the students’ perceptions of the many
different factors that affect the decisions they make during the college going process.
Additionally, Longwell-Grice and Longwell-Grice (2008) noted that a qualitative
approach was essential in extending the research beyond that which simply compares
first-generation students to their continuing generation counterparts and fails to explore
other factors that impact their college experiences. This particular study centered on
exploring the lived experiences of first-generation, ethnic minority female college
students and their individual perceptions of academic success and persistence.
According to Moustakas (1994), the primary source of knowledge in
phenomenological research is perception, which is a source that cannot be questioned.
Likewise, transcendental phenomenology stresses the subjective nature of discovering the
essence of personal experiences. The advantages of this particular design include the fact
that it allows the researcher to study phenomena that are unapproachable through
quantitative research methods. Also, it identifies and acknowledges the data of
experience as significant in understanding human behavior. Lastly, a phenomenological
approach to the research allows the researcher to explore the essence of an experience
rather than seeking for measurements and explanations. Overall, the aim of
phenomenological research is to determine the meaning of an experience for those who
have had the particular experience or phenomena being studied and who have the ability
to provide a rich description of that experience (Moustakas).
Based on the studies examined that utilized a qualitative research design and the
advantages and goals of phenomenological research as discussed above, this study was
8
qualitative in nature and followed the strategy of transcendental phenomenology in the
data collection and data analysis process.
Research Questions
This study was guided and informed by two research questions. The central
research question was, “How do first-generation, ethnic minority female college students
describe their experiences of academic persistence and success?” This study also
explored the sub-questions:
1. What motivates first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students to
persist in college?
2. How does the self-concept of first-generation, ethnic minority, female college
students affect their academic success?
3. What barriers do first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students
have to overcome to achieve academic success?
Assumptions and Limitations
Assumptions
This research study made the following assumptions: (a) Research participants
would accurately portray their individual experiences of overcoming obstacles and
persisting in their academics (b) Research participants would be those who are concerned
with the academic success of first-generation students and are sharing their stories in
hopes of helping others (c) The findings of this study would inform and benefit
institutions of higher education by providing them with information that would assist in
the development of supportive services geared specifically towards first-generation
students.
9
Limitations
This study was limited to first-generation, ethnic minority, female college
students who had persisted through at least one semester of academic study. For this
reason, the findings of this study cannot be generalized to populations that do not meet
these specific criteria. Additionally, this study was limited to the academic experiences
of a small number of first-generation, ethnic minority female college students in an adult
education setting in a Suburban area. The study did not assume that the experiences of
all students within this particular population would be the same as those who participate
in this study.
Definition of Terms
This study used the following terms and definitions:
Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s personal judgment or belief
concerning his ability to successfully perform a specific task or behavior (Bandura,
1997).
First-generation student. First-generation students are those whose parents’
education does not exceed high school (Choy, 2001).
Social Support. Social support refers to the level of support or assistance that an
individual receives from his family, peers or significant others. This support may be in
the form of financial assistance, encouragement, mentorship or in any other form that the
individual characterizes as being supportive of his academic pursuits.
Persistence. Persistence refers to an individual’s ability to overcome challenges
and progress from one semester to the next and eventually complete a program of study
10
(e.g. certificate, 2-year degree, 4-year degree, etc.). This study will focus specifically on
those individuals who have successfully completed at least 1 semester of academic study.
Expected Findings
It was expected that the research participants in this study would be truthful in
sharing their personal experiences of academic success and persistence. Additionally, the
researcher expected that the findings of this particular study would add to the literature
currently available on first generation college students and inform researchers and
practitioners in the field. The researcher was conscious of how her personal experiences
of being a first generation, ethnic minority female college student could affect the
findings of the research study. For this reason, keeping a personal journal, seeking the
assistance of her mentor and setting aside any preconceptions and biases were essential to
the integrity of the research findings.
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
Chapter two presents an examination and analysis of the literature available on
first-generation college students as well as self-efficacy and its relationship to academic
outcomes such as success and persistence. This chapter closes with a synthesis and
critique of the literature, which offers the reader a greater insight into how the present
study seeks to fill a gap in the literature available on first-generation college student.
Following a review of the literature, chapter three provides a discussion of the
methodological approach to the present study. This chapter addresses the benefits of
using a qualitative versus a quantitative methodology in answering the research questions
and filling a gap in the present literature. Afterwards, chapter four presents the data
collected during the course of the present study as well as an analysis of that data. Lastly,
11
chapter five presents a discussion of the findings, an analysis of those findings and
implications that can be derived from the study’s findings.
12
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction to the Literature Review
This chapter examined and analyzed the literature that has been conducted on
first-generation college students as well as self-efficacy and its relationship to academic
outcomes. A review of the literature provided a greater insight into the academic
experiences of first-generation college students. Additionally, this review revealed the
benefits of exploring self-efficacy and its relationship to students’ ability to persist in the
face of adversity. The literature review revealed the need for a study that would provide
insight into how some first-generation college students are able to succeed and persist in
spite of the challenges presented by their demographics. For this reason, the present
study sought to fill a gap in the literature by exploring the experiences of first-generation,
ethnic minority female college students who had the ability to overcome these challenges
and persist in their academics.
The literature review consisted of a search of databases such as Academic Search
Premier, Education Research Complete, ProQuest Education Journals, Sage Journals
Online and SocINDEX with Full Text. The following keywords were used within these
databases to obtain articles for this literature review: “academic success”, “academic
persistence”, “first-generation college students”, “self-efficacy”, and “college students.”
Theoretical Orientation for the Study
Tinto (1975) laid the foundation for a theoretical model that would seek to explain
the factors that impact persistence among college students. In his article, Tinto sought to
formulate a theory that would explain the processes of interaction between both the
student and the institution of higher education and how this interaction led to either
13
persistence or drop-out. The basis of his theory was founded on the premises that
students dropped out of higher education because of a lack of academic and social
integration within the college environment. Furthermore, Tinto viewed the process of
dropout as a longitudinal process of interactions between the student and the academic
and social systems of the college. During the student’s college experience, his goals and
commitments would undergo a continuous modification that would lead to either
persistence towards degree completion or dropout. Therefore, based on Tinto’s
theoretical model of persistence, a student’s level of academic and social integration into
the college environment directly impacted his commitment to the institution and the goal
of degree completion (Tinto).
In his seminal work, Albert Bandura (1977) developed a theoretical framework
from which researchers could examine the phenomenon of self-efficacy in a variety of
contexts. In this article, self-efficacy is defined as an individual’s belief that he can
successfully carry out the tasks that are necessary to achieve a desired outcome. It is this
belief or conviction in one’s abilities that affect his decision to both engage in and persist
in a certain task or activity. Self-efficacy is also directly related to an individual’s ability
to persist in a given behavior. Perceived self-efficacy affects an individual’s choices,
coping behaviors and persistence in any situation (Bandura)
Tinto’s (1975; 1987) Theory of College Persistence and Bandura’s (1977) Theory
of Self-Efficacy were used as the theoretical framework from which to explore the
experiences of academic success and academic persistence among first-generation, ethnic
minority female college students. They were used in an effort to examine the validity of
their implications and their application to this particular student population.
14
Review of Research Literature and Methodological Literature
Specific to the Topic or Research Question
First Generation
First-generation students are becoming an increasingly larger proportion of
student enrollments in institutions of higher education because of the current mandate for
diversity in this arena (Engle & Tinto, 2008). In 1995-1996, almost half (47%) of all
enrolling undergraduates were first-generation students or those whose parents have not
received more than a high school education (Choy, 2001). Ishitani (2003) reported that
first-generation students represented 364,000 of the 1.3 million first-time freshmen taking
the SAT in the year 2002. First-generation students have been characterized as an at-risk
student population, which makes their retention of vital importance to college advisors,
administrators and faculty (Choy, 2001; Ishitani, 2003; Ishitani, 2006). In an effort to
understand the phenomena of academic success among first generation college students,
one must first examine the precollege factors associated with being a first-generation
student as well as the quality of their college experiences (Engle & Tinto, 2008; Ishitani,
2006).
First-generation students are more likely than non-first generation students to be
black or Hispanic, female, older, and married with dependents (Choy, 2001; Nunez &
Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). These students are also more likely to come from families of
lower socioeconomic status where neither parent has received a post-secondary degree,
which increases the likelihood that they will be recipients of financial aid in the form of
grants and loans. Additionally, first generation students have been found to work more
hours than continuing generation students and to be more likely to enroll as a part-time
15
student and complete fewer credit hours than continuing generation students. This may
be due to the fact that this student population is also more likely to have multiple
obligations outside of college (e.g. family, work).
In addition to these factors, first-generation students are usually less
academically prepared for college level work than are their continuing generation
counterparts. Also, they tend to score lower than their counterparts on their SAT’s (Bui
2002; Choy, 2001). For this reason, first-generation students are more likely to begin
their college careers at 2-year public institutions versus 4-year institutions (Bui 2002;
Choy 2001; Nunez & Cuccaro Alamin, 1998; Pascarella et al, 2004).
The likelihood of enrolling in higher education has been strongly linked to the
level of parents’ education (Choy, 2001). Not only does the level of parents’ education
affect the likelihood of enrollment, but it is also associated with the students’ ability to
navigate the college environment once enrolled. The literature currently available on first
generation students reflects a student population that is at a disadvantage because of their
lack of knowledge about higher education (Pascarella et al, 2004; Prospero & Vohra-
Gupta, 2007; Mehta et al, 2011). The knowledge that students gain from those who have
experienced post-secondary education increases their level of comfort and familiarity
with the norms and culture associated with the college environment. First-generation
students lack this knowledge or cultural capital that continuing generation students
possess (Lundberg et al, 2007; Mehta et al, 2011).
Hand and Payne (2008) conducted a study that sought to examine the factors that
impacted the academic success of a group of first-generation Appalachian students. The
participants in this study reported that one of the negative impacts on their success was
16
their lack of knowledge of available resources prior to and during their college
experiences. One of the students in the study revealed that he had failed to receive a
scholarship to attend college due to his lack of knowledge concerning the scholarship
process. Overall, the literature reveals that the success of first-generation students is
compromised because of their parents’ inability to assist them in the college-going
process.
The college experiences of first-generation students are another important factor
to consider when examining the success of this student population. The literature reveals
that the first year of academic enrollment is the most critical for the first-generation
student (Ishitani, 2003). Ishitani (2003) conducted a longitudinal study of first-
generation and continuing generation students that spanned the course of five academic
years. The study revealed that the risk of attrition in the first year was 71% higher for
first-generation students when compared to students with two college-educated parents.
The risk of departure for first-generation students is less pronounced after the first year of
enrollment (Ishitani, 2003; Ishitani, 2006).
In addition to first-generation status, the literature reveals that ethnicity impacts
the likelihood of academic success. The findings of Ishitani (2006) indicated that
Hispanic and Black students were 59% and 58% less likely to graduate in their fourth
year of enrollment respectively when compared to their continuing generation
counterparts. These findings indicate that first-generation, ethnic minority students are at
a great disadvantage when compared to their counterparts. Furthermore, the literature
examines additional factors that impact the college experiences of first-generation
students.
17
Academic and social integration are two factors that have been associated with
persistence and academic success (Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005; Prospero & Vohra-Gupta,
2007; Tinto, 1987). First-generation students who are successful in becoming
academically integrated into the college environment are more likely to obtain higher
G.P.A.’s (Prospero & Vohra-Gupta, 2007). Prospero and Vohra-Gupta (2007) found a
significant correlation between intrinsic motivation and academic integration, which
suggests that those students who enjoy their college experience may find it less difficult
to integrate into the environment. Subsequently, these combined factors may increase
retention and persistence among those students. In spite of the benefits associated with
academic and social integration, first generation students are less likely to become
engaged academically and socially (Hertel, 2002; Mehta et al, 2011).
The lack of academic and social integration achieved by first-generation students
may be due to the fact that they spend a large portion of their time off campus because
they live and work off campus due to a shortage of financial resources (Engle & Tinto,
2008; Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). First-generation students have also been cited to
have greater time demands than their continuing generation counterparts, which may
have a negative impact on their ability to become socially involved on campus. This lack
of social integration has been found to result in lower academic performance and an
overall dissatisfaction with the college experience for first-generation students (Mehta et
al, 2011).
First-generation students may know less about the importance of academic and
social engagement and the process of becoming engaged in the college environment due
to their lack of cultural capital (Longwell-Grice & Longwell-Grice, 2008; Pike & Kuh,
18
2005). The perceptions of some first-generation students are that the college
environment is not supportive of their academic endeavors (Longwell-Grice & Longwell-
Grice, 2008; Lundberg et al, 2007; Pike & Kuh, 2005). Additionally, a study conducted
by Steiha (2010) revealed that family relationships, culture and values of first-generation
students’ families may cause conflict in their attempts to successfully integrate into the
college environment.
The educational aspirations and motivations of first-generation college students is
another area that has been examined in an attempt to better understand the academic
experiences of this student population. Bui (2002) conducted a study designed to
examine first-generation students’ motivations for attending college. First-generation
students in the study reported that some of their reasons for pursuing higher education
were to gain respect/status, bring honor to their family and to be in a position to help their
family. The literature on first-generation students has revealed a significant relationship
between parental involvement and a student’s educational aspirations (Hand & Payne,
2008; McCarron & Inkelas, 2006). Hand and Payne (2008) conducted a study of first-
generation students to examine the factors that contributed to their persistence. The
participants reported that their parents instilled into them the importance of higher
education and expected them to attend college. Additionally, these students perceived
that they were emotionally supported by their parents during the course of their college
experience.
Furthermore, the literature reveals that first generation students are less interested
in having a good time in college and place more value on academic and intellectual
activities than they do social activities (Forbus, Newbold & Mehta, 2011; Hertel, 2002;
19
Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005). For this reason, student-faculty interactions have been
emphasized as a significant factor in keeping first-generation students motivated and
connected to the college environment (Hertel, 2002; Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005).
Additionally, the study conducted by Forbus et al (2011) revealed the significant impact
that support services provided by colleges may have on the academic outcomes of first-
generation students.
Self-Efficacy
In his seminal work, Albert Bandura (1977) developed a theoretical framework
from which researchers could examine the phenomenon of self-efficacy in a variety of
contexts. In this article, self-efficacy is defined as an individual’s belief that he can
successfully carry out the tasks that are necessary to achieve a desired outcome. It is this
belief or conviction in one’s abilities that affect his decision to both engage in and persist
in a certain task or activity. Self-efficacy is also directly related to an individual’s ability
to persist in a given behavior. Perceived self-efficacy affects an individual’s choices,
coping behaviors and persistence in any situation (Bandura).
Self-efficacy is shaped and affected by four areas, which are performance
accomplishments, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion and physiological states
(Bandura, 1977). Bandura defined performance accomplishments as the experiences of
personal mastery or success in a task that affect his belief in his ability to successfully
complete that task in the future. Vicarious experiences refer to experiences of watching
another individual’s success that communicate to the individual if someone else can
successfully complete a task, so can he. Verbal persuasion can be understand as those
messages that one receives from other individual’s that he can be successful in a given
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task. Lastly, physiological states refer to an individual’s assessment of his emotional
arousal (e.g. anxiety) to a stressful situation, which affects how he will respond in the
future.
Self-Efficacy and Academic Outcomes
In the 1980’s, researchers began to explore the concept of self-efficacy and its
effects on phenomena such as vocational choice and academic achievement. Hackett and
Betz (1981) wrote the first theoretical paper that explored self-efficacy in the context of
vocation and education. In this study, the researchers explored how self-efficacy affected
male and female college students’ beliefs about their ability to successfully complete the
educational requirements that are necessary for both traditionally female and male
vocations. The results of this study revealed that out of twenty occupations, ten of those
demonstrated statistically significant sex differences in the number of students believing
they could be successful in their completion of the educational requirements for that
given occupation. Overall, male students reported an equivalent self-efficacy for both
traditional and non-traditional occupations. However, females reported a substantially
lower self-efficacy expectation in relationship to non-traditional than traditional
vocational opportunities.
In the 1990’s, researchers began to evaluate the empirical findings of self-efficacy
and its relationship to academic outcomes (Multon & Brown, 1991). In their meta-
analytic investigation, Multon and Brown explored the body of research that had surfaced
over the previous decade that sought to relate self-efficacy beliefs to career and academic
outcomes. Their analysis of the literature included studies that related self-efficacy
beliefs to outcomes in academic performance and persistence. The results of their
21
investigation provided support for the relationship between self-efficacy, academic
performance and persistence. In their meta-analysis, self-efficacy beliefs accounted for
14% of the variance found in student’s academic performance and 12% of that found in
their academic persistence.
After the passing of another decade, Zimmerman (2000) surveyed the research
that had been conducted on self-efficacy in an attempt to establish the validity of self-
efficacy as a predictor of student’s motivation and learning. The results of his study
proved that self-efficacy held discriminant validity by its ability to predict the academic
outcomes of students. Also, self-efficacy held convergent validity in its ability to predict
different forms of motivation, which included activity choices, effort, persistence and
emotional reactions. When self-efficacy was studied as a mediating variable, it proved to
be responsive to improvements in the area of students’ methods of learning, and it was
also predictive of achievement outcomes. From the results of his study, Zimmerman
(2000) concluded that students’ self-beliefs about their academic abilities play an
essential role in their motivation to achieve.
Over the course of the last decade, researchers have continued to explore the
relationship between self-efficacy and academic outcomes in many different contexts
(Chemers, Hu & Garcia, 2001; DeWitz & Walsh, 2002; Zajacova, Lynch & Espenshade,
2005; Davenport & Lane, 2006; Gore, 2006; Hsieh, Sullivan & Guerra, 2007; Ramos-
Sanchez & Nichols, 2007; Wang & Castaneda-Sound, 2008; DeWitz, Woolsey & Walsh,
2009; Majer, 2009; Vuong, Brown-Welty & Tracz, 2010; Brady-Amoon & Fuertes,
2011). From this research, it has been found that self-efficacy is directly and indirectly
related to the academic performance and personal adjustment of college students
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(Chemers, et al, 2001; Ramos-Sanchez & Nichols, 2007; Brady-Amoon & Fuertes,
2011). It is also positively correlated with students’ level of college satisfaction in that
students with higher self-efficacy report a greater sense of being compensated for their
academic performance (DeWitz & Walsh, 2002) Additionally, self-efficacy has been
proven to be a consistent predictor of grades and persistence in college (Zajacova, et al,
2005; Gore, 2006; Majer, 2009; Vuong, et al, 2010). Research has also revealed a
relationship between self-efficacy and a student’s use of effective coping strategies,
which increases his beliefs in his ability to achieve desired outcomes (Davenport & Lane,
2006). Another area that has been explored in the research of self-efficacy is its
relationship to purpose in life (DeWitz, et al, 2009). DeWitz et al. found that self-
efficacy was significantly and positively correlated with purpose in life. In other words,
those students with higher levels of self-efficacy also demonstrated greater purpose in
life.
The studies that have been conducted to explore self-efficacy and its relationship
to various academic outcomes have been conducted utilizing different research designs in
different contexts and with different populations. The use of a particular design, research
contexts and research participants reveal different findings concerning self-efficacy and
its effects on academic performance. Chemers et al (2001) conducted a quantitative study
of first-year college students in a traditional university setting to explore the relationship
between self-efficacy, academic performance and adjustment to college. This study
revealed to students who reported higher academic self-efficacy also employed greater
usage of effective cognitive strategies in the college environment. These strategies
increased their abilities to manage their time and their learning environments more
23
effectively. Students with higher academic self-efficacy were also better at monitoring
and regulating their own effort. Overall, the study revealed that students who enter into
the college environment with confidence in their academic abilities perform significantly
better than those who have less confidence. Also, those students with higher expectations
for academic success demonstrate higher academic performance.
DeWitz and Walsh (2002) explored the relationship between self-efficacy and
college satisfaction among a group of 312 undergraduate students in a large Midwestern
University. In their study, female students reported a higher sense of college self-
efficacy than males, which the researchers concede may be the result of the smaller
number of males compared to females in the sample. The results of the study revealed a
positive correlation between self-efficacy and college satisfaction. In other words, higher
levels of self-efficacy were found to be associated with higher levels of college
satisfaction. The students who reported higher levels of self-efficacy believed that their
academic effort was more fairly related to their academic outcomes (e.g. grades). These
individuals also communicated greater levels of acceptance from the faculty and other
students. The findings of this study support the relationship between college satisfaction,
retention and academic performance.
Research has also been conducted to explore the relationship between self-
efficacy, academic success and persistence. Hsieh et al (2007) conducted a study with
undergraduate students from a large, metropolitan Hispanic-serving institution in the
Southwest to explore the interaction between students’ goal orientation and self-efficacy.
The study was designed to investigate how students with different levels of self-efficacy
and academic standings compared in the academic goals they adopted and their academic
24
achievement. The results of the study revealed that those students who were in good
academic standing held higher self-efficacy judgments than those who were on academic
probation. Students’ G.P.A. was positively related to higher self-efficacy and an
adoption of mastery goal orientation. Overall, students in good academic standing held a
mastery goal orientation or embraced goals to master the skills taught in college and had
a stronger belief that they could successfully complete academic tasks than those students
who were not in good academic standing.
Researchers have also conducted studies that have explored the relationship
between self-efficacy and a student’s ability to cope with, adjust to and persist in the
college environment (Brady-Amoon & Fuertes, 2011; Davenport & Lane, 2006; Gore,
2006; Ramos-Sanchez & Nichols, 2007). Brady-Amoon and Fuertes (2011) study of 275
full time undergraduate students supported research findings that self-efficacy contributes
to a student’s ability to adjust to the college environment. Likewise, Ramos-Sanchez and
Nichols (2007) study of a group of first-generation and non-first generation freshmen at a
private liberal arts West Coast university revealed that a student’s level of self-efficacy at
the beginning of the year significantly predicted his college adjustment at the end of the
academic year regardless of generational status. Their findings did not support a
mediating relationship between self-efficacy, generational status and G.P.A. However,
the results of the study revealed that a student’s confidence in his academic ability was
related to better adjustment in college.
Gore (2006) reported different results in regards to the relationship between self-
efficacy and academic outcomes (e.g. performance and persistence) as it relates to the
time of the measurement. In his study, Gore reported a stronger relationship between
25
self-efficacy and G.P.A. at the end of the student’s first semester and subsequent
semesters than at the beginning of the first semester. Gore’s reasoning for these findings
is that self-efficacy beliefs of experienced students are more strongly related to
performance and persistence than are those of “college naïve” students. A study
conducted by Davenport & Lane (2006) investigated the relationship between self-
efficacy, coping and retention. The results of the study supported a link between a
student’s use of active coping strategies and self-efficacy. In other words, students who
use active coping strategies experience an increasing in coping efficacy, which
contributes to an increase in outcome efficacy. The self-efficacy scores reported in the
study were correct in classifying 81.3% of the students who were originally identified as
at-risk of dropout.
Majer (2009) and Vuong et al (2010) conducted studies to explore the effects of
self-efficacy on the academic success of first-generation college students. Majer (2009)
conducted a study of 96 first generation ethnic-minority students from a community
college in Chicago, IL. This study was conducted as a longitudinal study that examined
academic outcomes at 4 month and 12 month intervals. The results of the study
suggested that a greater self-efficacy for education is essential in promoting educational
gains among first generation students attending a community college. From these
findings, the author concluded that students would benefit from interventions that address
academic self-efficacy. The study conducted by Vuong et al (2010) consisted of first-
generation sophomore students and examined the effect of self-efficacy on academic
success and persistence rates. The findings revealed that academic success and
persistence were functions of self-efficacy. In other words, the way that college
26
sophomore students perceive their capabilities influences their academic performance and
their persistence in maintaining a G.P.A. that will allow them to continue in their degree
program until graduation.
Academic Persistence
Tinto (1975) laid the foundation for a theoretical model that would seek to explain
the factors that impact persistence among college students. In his article, Tinto sought to
formulate a theory that would explain the processes of interaction between both the
student and the institution of higher education and how this interaction led to either
persistence or drop-out. The basis of his theory was founded on the premises that
students dropped out of higher education because of a lack of academic and social
integration within the college environment. Furthermore, Tinto viewed the process of
dropout as a longitudinal process of interactions between the student and the academic
and social systems of the college. During the student’s college experience, his goals and
commitments would undergo a continuous modification that would lead to either
persistence towards degree completion or dropout. Therefore, based on Tinto’s
theoretical model of persistence, a student’s level of academic and social integration into
the college environment directly impacted his commitment to the institution and the goal
of degree completion (Tinto).
In the 1980’s, Astin (1984) developed a theory of student involvement that sought
to further explain the link between student involvement and ability to persist. Astin’s
theory explored areas such as student’s place of residence (on or off-campus), college
choice, institutional fit, student-faculty interaction, academic involvement, athletic
involvement, etc. This theory provided yet another look into the factors that impact a
27
college student’s ability and desire to persist towards completing his goal of degree
attainment. Over the last decade, researchers have sought to build on and reconstruct the
theories developed by Tinto (1975) and Astin (1984) and provide further insight into the
prevailing issue of academic persistence among college students and how it can best be
addressed.
Since the development of Tinto’s (1975, 1987) Interactionalist Theory of Student
Departure, researchers have conducted research to support and refute the tenets of this
theory. In the work edited by Braxton (2000), he stated that the model set forth by Tinto
(1975, 1987) needed to be revised. One of the main questions brought up by Braxton
(2000) was the validity of the relationship between academic integration and institutional
commitment. A review of the research conducted on this factor of academic persistence
reveals that this variable fluctuates according to the focus of the study (e.g. multi-
institutional vs. single institution) and institution type. Another area warranting review as
stated by Braxton (2000) is that of financial aid and its impact on persistence. Braxton
discusses the necessity of integrating the factor of financial aid with other persistence
factors (e.g. academic and social integration) instead of viewing it as a stand-alone factor.
Overall, Braxton (2000) stresses the importance of reconstructing theoretical models of
academic persistence so that they include other factors such as the classroom, faculty and
pedagogy.
Researchers seeking to gain a better understanding of the factors that
impact academic persistence among different student populations have explored areas
such as academic and social integration, financial aid, social support systems, mentoring,
student-faculty interaction, and academic advising (Alon 2011; Astin 1984; Barbatis,
28
2010; Braxton 2000; Gloria & Ho, 2003; Hu & Ma, 2010; Morrow & Ackerman, 2012;
Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Tinto, 1975, 1987). Review of this research provides a
firm understanding of these factors as well as the need for further research in certain
areas and among different student populations.
Factors Impacting Academic Persistence
Researchers have explored various factors and how they impact academic
persistence among college students. Alon (2011) examined the effect of financial aid on
a student’s ability to persist in college. According to his research, a persistence gap
currently exists due to economic inequality. Financial aid eliminates some of the
economic barriers experienced by lower income students, which increases their chances
of persisting towards degree completion. However, affluent students also receive some
needs-based grants, which decrease the amount of financial aid that can be distributed
among students who are economically disadvantaged. For this reason, Alon (2011)
suggested that the aid granted to affluent students is a waste of resources as it relates to
academic persistence. It is his suggestion that in order to close the persistence gap that
exists among students of different income levels, needs-based grants on the state and
institutional level need to be reallocated to benefit low-income students.
Another area that has been explored in the persistence literature is that of social
support systems and their impact on a student’s ability to persist in college. Gloria and
Ho (2003) conducted a study that sought to explore the social, psychological and
environmental experiences of Asian American undergraduate students as it related to
their ability to persist. The study examined the relationship between comfort in the
university environment, social support and self-beliefs and the degree to which they
29
predicted academic persistence. The findings of the study suggested that each variable
was a significant predictor of persistence with social support being the strongest predictor
of a student’s ability to persist. Additionally, Gloria and Ho (2003) conducted their
research using six different Asian American ethnic groups. The findings of this study
demonstrated differences between ethnic groups, which suggest that ethnicity is an
important factor to consider when examining factors that impact persistence.
Morrow and Ackerman (2012) explored the impact of sense of belonging and
motivation on students’ intent to persist and actual retention rates. The study was
conducted with a group of undergraduate freshmen during the summer of their first year
of college. Morrow and Ackerman (2012) hypothesized that high levels of sense of
belonging (i.e. peer support, faculty support and classroom comfort) and motivation
attitudes (i.e. intrinsic values, instrumental value and personal development) would be
related to intention to persist and second-year retention. The findings of the study
suggested that faculty support had a small but significant positive relationship with
intention to persist. Additionally, peer support was a significant predictor of second year
retention. However, when both faculty support and peer support were included in the
final analysis with all predictors (i.e. sense of belonging and motivational attitudes), the
sense of belonging variables were no longer significantly related to intention to persist or
second year retention. These findings present the question of whether or not motivation
is more important than sense of belonging in students’ intention to persist and actual
retention rates.
Mentoring and student-faculty interaction can positively impact persistence rates
of underprepared and ethnically diverse college students through the facilitation of social
30
and academic integration, which enhances students’ college experience and strengthens
their commitment towards degree completion (Barbatis, 2010; Hu & Ma, 2010). Hu and
Ma (2010) conducted a study that was designed to explore the impact of mentor
assignment on college persistence. The study explored this relationship and how it varied
based on race/ethnicity, gender, institution type and academic preparation. The findings
of the study revealed that four-year public institutions were more likely to assign students
a college mentor. Also, the research suggested that Hispanic and “other” students were
more likely than White students to actively seek out support and encouragement from
their assigned mentors. Additionally, Hispanic students were more likely than white
students to perceive the mentor relationship as important. Student persistence was
positively affected by the extent to which students sought out the support of their
assigned mentor. Therefore, the findings of this study imply not only the importance of
assigning mentors to college students but the importance of students actually turning to
those mentors for support and guidance throughout their college experience.
The study conducted by Barbatis (2010) stresses the importance of factors such as
precollege characteristics, social involvement and academic integration for underprepared
and ethnically diverse college students. Students in the Barbatis (2010) study represented
students who were first-generation college students, first generation in the United States,
non-native English speakers, women and under-represented minority populations. The
findings of this study revealed that unlike the Tinto (1975) model of student persistence,
which stresses the importance of assimilation into the college culture, some students rely
on their cultural background for support during their college experience. Also, students
in the Barbatis (2010) study mentioned factors such as determination, faith, goal
31
orientation and resourcefulness as contributors to their ability to persist in their
academics. These are factors that are not mentioned in the Interactionalist Theory of
Student Departure proposed by Tinto (1975; 1987).
Synthesis of the Research Findings
The literature available on first-generation college students provided insight into
the demographics of this student population and the challenges that those demographics
present. Researchers agree that first-generation college students face many difficulties
and challenges that threaten their ability to persist towards degree completion (Bui, 2002;
Choy, 2001; Engle & Tinto, 2008; Mehta, Newbold & O’Rourke, 2011. According to the
literature available on first-generation college students, they are less likely than their
continuing generation counterparts to successfully complete their degree program (Bui
2002; Choy, 2001). The literature revealed that factors such as family responsibilities,
lack of cultural capital, work responsibilities, etc. may affect first-generation college
students’ ability to become academically and socially integrated within the college
environment ((Pascarella et al, 2004; Prospero & Vohra-Gupta, 2007; Mehta et al, 2011).
Researchers agree that this inability to successfully integrate within the college
environment may negatively impact these students’ academic success and ability to
persist (Longwell-Grice & Longwell-Grice, 2008; Pike & Kuh, 2005). Additionally, the
literature stressed the importance of the parent’s role in the overall success of the first-
generation college student. The parent’s lack of knowledge concerning the college
process and the intricacies of the college experience may serve as an additional
contributing factor in the ability of the first-generation college student to succeed (Hand
& Payne, 2008; McCarron & Inkelas, 2006).
32
A review of the available literature in the area of self-efficacy revealed that self-
efficacy is positively related with several academic outcomes such as academic
performance and college satisfaction (Chemers, et al, 2001; Ramos-Sanchez & Nichols,
2007; Brady-Amoon & Fuertes, 2011). Researchers have also determined that self-
efficacy is predictive of good grades and persistence in academics (Zajacova, et al, 2005;
Gore, 2006; Majer, 2009; Vuong, et al, 2010). Additionally, the literature on self-
efficacy revealed a positive relationship between self-efficacy and effective coping
strategies, which help to predict a student’s ability to adjust to and persist in the college
environment (Brady-Amoon & Fuertes, 2011; Davenport & Lane, 2006; Gore, 2006;
Ramos-Sanchez & Nichols, 2007). Overall, the findings on self-efficacy revealed a
positive relationship between self-efficacy and many determinants of academic success
and persistence.
The literature available on academic persistence gives insight into the different
factors that impact a college student’s intent and ability to persist towards degree
completion. Some of those factors include the amount and type of financial aid students
receive, social support from family and friends, faculty mentoring and internal factors
such as sense of belonging, motivation, determination, faith and resourcefulness (Alon
2011; Barbatis, 2010; Gloria & Ho, 2003; Hu & Ma, 2010; Morrow & Ackerman, 2012).
The findings of these studies can begin to assist academic administrators, faculty,
academic advisors and other interested stakeholders in developing interventions to
increase persistence and retention rates among minority and first-generation college
students.
33
Critique of the Previous Research
The research available on first-generation college students presented a bleak
picture of their ability to succeed and persist in higher education. The research that has
been conducted on this student population only examined their demographics in light of
the difficulties and challenges that they present. The literature does not offer any insight
into how first-generation ethnic minority female college students can succeed in spite of
the factors that threaten their success. Additionally, the majority of research studies
conducted on first-generation college students were quantitative in nature. These studies
framed the academic success and persistence of first-generation college students as a
comparison to continuing generation college students. However, these studies failed to
give insight into how some first-generation college students are able to succeed and
persist in spite of the challenges presented by uncontrollable demographics. Therefore,
the present study will explore the academic success and persistence of first-generation,
ethnic minority female college students in the context of a qualitative study that seeks to
bring about a greater understanding of their personal academic experiences.
Summary
First-generation college students are an at-risk student population who face many
challenges in their attempts to succeed and persist toward degree completion. A review
of the literature available on this student population revealed that they are less likely to
succeed when compared to their continuing generation counterparts (Bui 2002; Choy,
2001). Up until now, the majority of the research available on first-generation college
students has been quantitative in nature, which presents limitations towards developing a
thorough understanding of their academic experiences. The lack of qualitative research
34
available on first-generation college students revealed the need to explore the academic
experiences of first-generation college students from a qualitative approach. By
exploring academic success and persistence as perceived by first-generation college
students, this study seeks to fill a gap in the literature and obtain a greater understanding
of the factors that assist these students in succeeding and persisting towards degree
completion.
35
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore the personal
experiences of academic success and persistence among first-generation, ethnic minority
college students. Participants in this study included first-generation, ethnic minority
female college students who had completed at least one semester of higher education and
were in various stages of completing a Bachelor’s Degree program. The main research
question guiding the study was: How do first-generation, ethnic minority female college
students describe their experiences of academic persistence and success. The study also
explored the following sub questions:
1. What motivates first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students to
persist in college?
2. How does the self-concept of first-generation, ethnic minority, female
college students affect their academic success?
3. What barriers do first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students
have to overcome to achieve academic success?
Research Design
In a review of the literature available on first generation college students, it
becomes evident that the majority of the research has employed a quantitative research
design. In an effort to fill this gap in the literature, this research study used a qualitative
research design and employed a transcendental phenomenological framework.
Phenomenology was appropriate for this particular study because this qualitative
36
approach seeks to describe a common meaning for several individuals for a specific
phenomenon (Creswell, 2013). This approach coincides with the purpose of this research
study since it attempted to explain the experiences of academic success and persistence
among first generation, ethnic minority female college students. As stated by Steiha
(2010) in her qualitative research study of academic persistence, a phenomenological
research design allows the researcher to explore the students’ perceptions of the many
different factors that affect the decisions they make during the college going process.
Additionally, Longwell-Grice and Longwell-Grice (2008) noted that a qualitative
approach was essential in extending the research beyond that which simply compares
first-generation students to their continuing generation counterparts and fails to explore
other factors that impact their college experiences. This particular study centered on
exploring the lived experiences of first-generation, ethnic minority female college
students and their individual perceptions of academic success and persistence.
According to Moustakas (1994), the primary source of knowledge in
phenomenological research is perception, which is a source that cannot be questioned.
Likewise, transcendental phenomenology stresses the subjective nature of discovering the
essence of personal experiences. The advantages of this particular design include the fact
that it allows the researcher to study phenomena that are unapproachable through
quantitative research methods. Also, it identifies and acknowledges the data of
experience as significant in understanding human behavior. Lastly, a phenomenological
approach to the research allows the researcher to explore the essence of an experience
rather than seeking for measurements and explanations. Overall, the aim of
phenomenological research is to determine the meaning of an experience for those who
37
have had the particular experience or phenomena being studied and who have the ability
to provide a rich description of that experience (Moustakas).
Based on the studies examined that utilized a qualitative research design and the
advantages and goals of phenomenological research as discussed above, this study was
qualitative in nature and followed the strategy of transcendental phenomenology in the
data collection and data analysis process.
Target Population and Participant Selection
According to Chen & Carroll (2005), 22% of students in the nation who entered
postsecondary education between the years of 1992 and 2000 were first generation
college students or those whose parents had not completed a college degree. As of 2008,
this population of students accounted for approximately 24% of all undergraduate college
enrollments (Engle & Tinto). Additionally, first-generation college students were more
likely to be Black or Hispanic and to come from low income families (Chen & Carroll,
2005). These students are also more likely to be 24 years of age or older (Choy, 2001).
Lastly, women and ethnic minorities make up a significant proportion of the first-
generation student population (Bui 2002; Choy, 2001; Engle & Tinto, 2008; Nunez &
Cuccaro-Alamin, 2008).
According to Creswell (2009, 2013), researchers employing a qualitative research
design purposefully select participants and/or research sites that will be most beneficial in
providing him with a greater understanding of the research problem. For this reason, the
researcher targeted first generation college students at a non-traditional, private university
who were willing to share their personal experiences of academic success and
persistence. The sample consisted only of first-generation, ethnic minority female
38
college students who had completed at least one semester of higher education. The
research participants consisted of students in different phases of their degree program,
including those who had recently graduated from the University. Research participants
were sent an introductory email describing the purpose of the study and soliciting their
voluntary participation in the research study. Students were provided with the
researcher’s email address and telephone number and assured that all contact would
remain confidential.
After the initial contact, the researcher screened interested participants to ensure
that they met all of the criteria for the study. Those students who met all of the criteria
for the study and who were still interested in volunteering for the research study were
scheduled to meet with the researcher individually for a one-on-one face to face
interview. Creswell (2013) states the importance of receiving individuals’ consent to
participate in the study. For this reason, the researcher provided the participant with the
informed consent and received both written and oral consent from the participant prior to
the face to face interview.
The chosen sample for the research study included ten ethnic minority women
from different ethnic backgrounds at different phases in their degree programs.
According to Creswell (2013), a phenomenology study typically includes a group of
individuals who have all experienced the same phenomenon. This group may range
anywhere in size from three to four to ten to fifteen research participants.
Procedures
Data collection procedures for this research study consisted of one face to face
interview with each participant that lasted approximately 45 minutes to 1 hour in length.
39
Moustakas (1994) suggested the development of an interview guide that consists of open-
ended questions that are intended to evoke the most comprehensive account of the
participant’s experience of the phenomenon in question. For this reason, the researcher
took great care in formulating an interview guide that would achieve this suggested end.
Additionally, during the interviews, the researcher was mindful of utilizing the proper
language and the correct timing of asking questions to encourage full disclosure of the
participant’s experience (Moustakas).
Each interview session began with the researcher collecting basic information
from the participant, which included demographic information, the amount of time the
participant had been enrolled in her current degree program and her expected graduation
date. These basic questions were designed to give the participant time to get comfortable
with the researcher and the interview process. Afterwards, the researcher utilized the
interview guide to collect information about the participant’s initial and continued
motivations for college, barriers to academic success and perception of her ability to
persist despite these obstacles and challenges.
The interviews were audiotaped in an effort to eliminate any disruption that would
be caused by constant note-taking by the researcher. The audiotapes were also collected
to assist the researcher in the transcription and analysis of the data collected. All of the
interviews were held in a private room located on the college campus that ensured the
participant was comfortable and in familiar surroundings.
Instruments
A phenomenological study consists primarily of in-depth interviews in an effort to
provide the researcher with a rich understanding of the phenomenon in question
40
(Creswell, 2013). For this reason, the researcher is the instrument used to collect data in
the research study. The qualitative interview allows the research participant to share rich
descriptions of specific phenomenon that the researcher is then able to interpret and
analyze (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006). Creswell (2013) stressed the importance of
selecting the type of interview that is most practical and will yield information that will
be useful in answering the research questions. For this reason, the researcher utilized a
semi-structured qualitative interview as this is often the sole source of data collection for
most qualitative studies (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006).
The interview was conducted as a one-on-one face to face interview since this
method has been identified as one that allows the researcher to delve deeply into the
social and personal aspects of the phenomenon being studied ((DiCicco-Bloom &
Crabtree). The semi-structured interview guide contained questions about the
participant’s motivations for attending college, barriers to academic success and overall
experiences of being a first-generation college student. The interview questions were
field tested by three experts in the field of higher education prior to finalizing the
interview guide. One of the responsibilities of the researcher as the sole instrument of
data collection is to ensure that the interview is conducted in an environment that will
elicit honest and comprehensive responses from the participant (Moustakas, 1994). For
this reason, the researcher conducted all interviews in a private room that encouraged
participants to provide information freely and uninhibited.
Research Questions
This study was guided and informed by two research questions. The central
research question was, “How do first-generation, ethnic minority female college students
41
describe their experiences of academic persistence and success?” This study also
explored the sub-questions:
1. What motivates first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students to
persist in college?
2. How does the self-concept of first-generation, ethnic minority, female college
students affect their academic success?
3. What barriers do first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students
have to overcome to achieve academic success?
Data Analysis
For the purposes of this particular study, the data analysis strategy described by
Moustakas (1994) was followed. During the data analysis process, the researcher listened
to the audiotaped recording of each interview several times in an attempt to gather a firm
understanding of each participant’s personal experience of academic success and
persistence. Afterwards, the researcher transcribed participants’ responses to develop a
narrative of participants’ experiences as first-generation, ethnic minority female college
students.
During the second phase of the data analysis process, the researcher began
transcribing each interview. This consisted of listing each expression relevant to the
phenomenon in question and then eliminating those expressions that did not contribute to
an understanding of the participant’s experience (Moustakas, 1994). By doing so, the
researcher was then able to cluster the information into themes that described the
phenomenon of the research participants.
42
Once these themes were identified, the researcher was then able to use them to
construct an individual textural description of the experience for each participant.
Additionally, the researcher constructed a structural description of the experience for
each participant in the study. Afterwards, a textural-structural description of the
meanings and essence of the experience, which included the identified themes, was
constructed. Lastly, the researcher was able to construct a composite description of the
phenomenon that represented the experience of the entire group as a whole (Moustakas).
Ethical Considerations
Prior to selecting and contacting research participants to be included in this study,
the researcher underwent two separate Institutional Review Board (IRB) processes. Prior
to completing the IRB process for Capella University, the researcher was required to
complete the IRB process for the chosen research site. The IRB application outlined the
purpose of the proposed study as well as the methods that would be employed to ensure
the safety and well-being of the research participants. The research site approved the
IRB application and informed the researcher that the research study could be conducted
after receiving approval from Capella University.
Next, the researcher completed the IRB process for Capella University, which is
required prior to contacting any research participants for the study. The researcher
employed the ethical guidelines set forth by both institutions to ensure the safety, well-
being and confidentiality of the research participants at all times.
All students who were interested in participating in the study were screened and
then met with the researcher individually and privately. The researcher provided each
participant with detailed information concerning the research study to ensure voluntary
43
participation. The researcher read the informed consent to each participant and received
both verbal and written confirmation of informed consent from each participant.
Participants were informed of minimal risk associated with the study and were given the
freedom to discontinue the study at any time throughout the course of the interview
process. The participants were provided information concerning available counseling
resources provided by the research site.
In accordance with the American Counseling Association Code of Ethics (2005),
all data should always remain in a locked file when not in use. The researcher was the
only individual with access to the locked file containing participant’s information.
Additionally, the researcher also stored data on a password protected computer, to which
only she had the password. The research site and each participant were given code names
to ensure that no personal identifiers exist. The researcher will maintain written
documents and audio-taped recordings in a locked file and a password protected
computer for up to seven years after the completion of the research study. After this
time, the researcher will destroy all written documents by shredding and any information
contained on the computer by deleting. Also, all audio-taped recordings will be deleted
from the researcher’s personal audio recorder.
Expected Findings
It was expected that the research participants in this study would be truthful in
sharing their personal experiences of academic success and persistence. Additionally, the
researcher expected that the findings of this particular study would add to the literature
currently available on first generation college students and inform researchers and
practitioners in the field. The researcher was conscious of how her personal experiences
44
of being a first generation, ethnic minority female college student could affect the
findings of the research study. For this reason, keeping a personal journal, seeking the
assistance of her mentor and setting aside any preconceptions and biases were essential to
the integrity of the research findings.
45
CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Introduction: The Study and the Researcher
The researcher is a first-generation, ethnic minority female college student who
represented the first in her family to successfully complete a college degree. Her
professional background includes working as an educator in the field of higher education
as well as counseling. This study represents the first time that the researcher has
conducted a phenomenological qualitative study. The personal and academic experiences
of the researcher mirrored those of the research participants in this particular study. The
researcher experienced many obstacles and hardships associated with being a first-
generation college student and lacking that much desired support of family members and
friends.
In a qualitative study, the researcher is the primary instrument of data collection
(Creswell, 2013). For this reason, it is necessary for the research to engage in a process
of self-reflection to ensure that his personal experiences and biases do not interfere with
the collection and interpretation of the data. The researcher acknowledged the possibility
of bias in relation to her personal experiences and thus comprehended the importance of
suspending any judgment of the participants’ experiences in order to gain a greater
understanding of those experiences.
In this particular study, the researcher organized all of the recruitment efforts
and performed all of the data collection and analysis with the support and assistance of
her mentor. The researcher was driven by a strong desire to gain a better understanding
of the experiences of academic success and persistence among first-generation, ethnic
minority female college students.
46
Description of the Sample (Participants)
The participants consisted of nine first-generation, ethnic minority female college
students enrolled at a private, faith-based Liberal arts college in Southeastern Wisconsin.
They ranged in age from 28 years old to 48 years old. One participant self-identified as
an Asian American, one as an African American, two as Native American, one as Puerto-
Rican, and four as Hispanic/Mexican. All participants completed their interviews and all
data were analyzed. No participants dropped out of the study.
Table 1
Description of Participants
Participants Identified Ethnicity Age Degree Program____________
P1 Native American 43 Communications
P2 Puerto Rican 32 Business Administration
P3 Hispanic 48 Business Administration
P4 Asian American 46 Accounting
P5 African American 29 Accounting
P6 Hispanic 37 Human Services
P7 Native American 39 Liberal Arts
P8 Hispanic 28 Management Information
P9 Hispanic 34 Human Services
47
Research Methodology Applied to the Data Analysis
Moustakas’ (1994) transcendental phenomenological method was used to analyze the
experiences of academic success and persistence among the first-generation, ethnic
minority female college students in this study. The data was collected in the form of one
on one, informal interviews utilizing an interview guide of open-ended questions. The
main research question guiding this study was “How do first generation, ethnic minority
female college students explain their experiences of academic success and persistence?”
It also explored the following sub questions:
1. What motivates first-generation, ethnic minority female college students to
persist in college?
2. How does the self-concept of first-generation, ethnic minority female college
students affect their academic success?
3. What barriers do first-generation, ethnic minority female college students have to
overcome to achieve academic success?
The researcher conducted nine face-to-face interviews with the research
participants using open-ended questions as a guide to exploring their experiences.
After conducting the interviews, the researcher developed transcripts for each
interview, which were then reviewed by the researcher. Afterwards, the researcher
engaged in the process of phenomenological reduction, which consisted of
eliminating those expressions that did not contribute to an understanding of the
participant’s experience (Moustakas, 1994). Once this process was completed, the
researcher clustered the information into themes that described the phenomena in
question.
48
After themes were extracted from the data, the researcher developed individual
textural and structural descriptions for each participant. Next, the researcher was able
to develop a composite textural and structural description by integrating the textural
and structural descriptions of each participant. The final composite represented the
essence of the experience for all research participants included in the study.
Presentation of the Data and Results of the Analysis
This section presents the meaning units for each research participant regarding
their experiences of academic success and persistence as first-generation, ethnic
minority female college students. The list of meaning units is followed by individual
textural, structural and textural-structural descriptions for each participant.
Afterwards, the composite textural, structural and textural-structural description is
explored. Finally, the essence of the experience of academic success and persistence
as a first-generation, ethnic minority female college student is revealed.
The analysis of the data was focused on the lived experiences of first-generation,
ethnic minority female college students in their own words as expressed during the
interviews. The researcher encountered no difficulties in the data analysis process.
The meaning units for each participant are listed below:
Textural Themes, Participant 1
Family as motivation
1. “I know I need to do this for us because I need to get us out of where we are.”
Family/Peers as support
1. “It’s really not their job to be supportive, but it’s nice to know that I have
friends that are.”
2. “If I say I have to read, you’re going to have to go in the bedroom and watch
T.V.”
49
Lack of support from family
1. “It’s really difficult for them to be supportive when they didn’t have the
initiative to do so and they are happy where they are.”
Self-Motivation/Determination
1. “ You gotta do what you gotta do to get where you want.”
2. “Sheer determination to get us out of where we are.”
3. “Once you get your mind set on something, go ahead and stand in my way if
you want to.”
4. “Don’t let anybody or anything stand in your way. Don’t pay attention to
what they say. Do what you feel in your heart to do.”
Education as key to advancement
1. “The company I work for is an awesome company, but there is absolutely no
room for advancement.”
2. “As much as I hate to leave the company at some point I’m going to have to
because I’m not going to be 50 and still doing collections.”
Finances as barrier
1. “The expense, and it’s even more expensive for online.”
The role of the college
1. “You (the college) just have to be more flexible because sometimes kids get
sick and you can’t hold that against somebody.”
Textural Description, Participant 1
Participant 1 was never encouraged to go to college by her family because as she
stated, “It’s really difficult for them to be supportive when they didn’t have the initiative
to do so and they are happy where they are.” She realized after years of working in
collections that she would not be able to advance in the field without a higher education.
For this reason, she decided to pursue her Bachelor’s Degree in Communications.
Participant 1 spoke of her husband as an additional motivation for her to return to
college because of his disability, which renders him incapable of working. She stated, “I
know I need to do this for us because I need to get us out of where we are.” She views
her education as the key to advancing and experiencing a life better than that of her
mother and father. Participant 1 spoke of the difficult life that her mother and father
50
experienced because of their lack of education. Concerning her mother, she stated, “If
she would have had an education, she would have been able to work her way up more
quickly.” Participant 1 expressed her desire to advance in her career by obtaining a
higher education degree. As she stated, “I’m not going to be 50 and still doing
collections.”
Participant 1 spoke of her husband as being both a motivation and an obstacle to
completing her degree because of his physical disability. When speaking of obstacles she
stated, “On the flip side, it’s him because he is sick, so sometimes it’s really difficult to
do what I need to do.” She spoke of the importance of having his support in order to be
successful as a college student. In giving an example of how her husband works to
support her, she stated, “If I say I have to read, you’re going to have to go in the bedroom
and watch T.V.” She also spoke of the need to have her husband push her at times when
she feels herself getting lazy in turning assignments in on time: “he’s going to have to
start pushing me a little bit there too because I get really lazy with it.”
Participant 1 was very positive about her ability to complete her degree in spite of
the obstacles that she faced. When asked what she would like to have known prior to
beginning college, she stated, “the expense, and it’s even more expensive for online.”
Finances presented a very significant barrier to Participant 1 and so much to the extent
that she was currently taking her classes online due to a lack of transportation. In spite of
these situations, Participant 1 constantly spoke of her determination. As she stated, “you
gotta do what you gotta do to get where you want.”
For Participant 1, academic success and persistence were rooted in the support she
received from her husband, her desire to advance in her career and achieve financial
51
freedom, and her determination to succeed. Being a first generation college student
presented its challenges, but it also presented Participant 1 with an opportunity that
neither her mother nor father had experienced. Participant 1 was confident in her ability
to complete her degree program and accomplish her goals. “Strong and going” were the
words she expressed when asked about her ability to complete her college degree. It was
because of this attitude that Participant 1 has been able to persist in spite of the
difficulties that she has faced being a first-generation college student.
Structural Description, Participant 1
The first structural theme to emerge for Participant 1 was her relationship to
others. Her parents are deceased but when asked what motivated her to continue towards
her degree, she emphatically stated, “my husband.” Participant 1 also spoke about the
encouragement that she received from some of her co-workers at her place of
employment. As she stated, “It’s really not their job to be supportive, but it’s nice to
know that I have friends that are.” Her husband’s disability, which renders him incapable
of employment is also a driving force for Participant 1. As she stated, her reasons for
believing that she can achieve her goals can be defined as “sheer determination to get us
out of where we are.” In addition to her determination, Participant 1 stated that the
support she receives from her family and peers means “a lot” in her quest to complete her
degree program.
Participant 1 has also received a lack of support from her family members due to
the fact that they don’t see the value of her obtaining a higher education degree. As she
stated, ““It’s really difficult for them to be supportive when they didn’t have the initiative
to do so and they are happy where they are.” However, in spite of this lack of support,
52
Participant 1 is determined to make a better life for herself and her family. As she stated,
“knowing what I need to do for my family right now”, is what gives her the strength to
press forward. Her determination is seen even more when she stated, “I don’t care about
what yall do, I need to take care of mine.” It is this attitude of sheer determination that
has helped Participant 1 to overcome the lack of support from family and persist towards
degree completion.
The second structural theme to emerge for Participant 1 was relationship to self.
She felt very confident in her ability to complete her degree and believed “you gotta do
what you gotta do to get where you want. Participant 1 believed that she received her
strong sense of “sheer determination” from her father. She believed in her ability to
complete her degree program and when asked what advice she would give to other first-
generation, ethnic minority female college students who were trying to persist in their
degree program, she stated “Don’t let anybody or anything stand in your way. Don’t pay
attention to what they say. Do what you feel in your heart to do.”
Textural-Structural Description, Participant 1
Participant 1 started going to college after she realized that there was no room for
advancement in her current job as a collections agent. Additionally, the fact that her
husband is disabled places her in the position as the sole provider for their family. When
asked about her original motivations for attending college, she stated “A lot of it is I
know I need to do this for us because I need to get us out of where we are.” For this
reason, she views education as the key to financial security for herself and her husband.
Her relationship to others has played a significant role in her ability to persist in
spite of the obstacles that she has faced. Participant 1 looks to her husband as her
53
primary supporter not only in her education but in other areas of her life as well.
Participant 1 gives an example of just how supportive her husband is: “I stopped smoking
in December and he’s been really supportive of that.” Not only is her relationship to her
husband important to her endeavor to be academically successful and persist towards
degree completion, but the support of her peers means a great deal to her as well.
Participant 1 does not have parents to support her in this endeavor because they are both
deceased. However, she has experienced a lack of support from other family members
who did not attend college. Participant 1 does not allow their lack of support to
discourage her. In her words, “It’s really difficult for them to be supportive when they
didn’t have the initiative to do so and they are happy where they are.”
Participant 1 has determined within herself that she is going to persist and achieve
academic success in spite of the challenges she has experienced with her husband’s
disability, financial challenges and lack of support from family members. She has made
up in her mind that others can do whatever they want to do, but she is determined to let
nothing stand in the way of her achieving her goals. As she stated in the interview,
“Once you get your mind set on something, go ahead and stand in my way if you want
to.”
Textural Themes, Participant 2
Lack of support from family
1. “My family told me I would never amount to anything.”
2. “I had a child when I was 16, and my parents told me I would never grow
up to be anything.”
3. “My parents are semi-supportive; not really.”
4. “My parents really did try to talk me out of doing a grad degree.”
54
Support from family/peers
1. “I have my supportive husband [and] his family is really good.”
2. “I can drop her [my daughter] off so that I can go to class and not have to
worry about what she’s doing and where she is.”
3. “My boss is fantastic…..If I have a paper I’m working on or if
something’s just eating at me…..I can always say I need to take a couple
of hours out of my day and work on this.”
4. “My husband of course. He’s been there since the beginning, which is
2005.”
5. “My in-law family is wonderful.”
Lack of support as motivation
1. “Part of it was just to stick it to them and then part of it was for my own.”
2. “Just to prove them wrong is really what drives me.”
3. “I think just the trudging ahead and just keep going and no matter what if
you’re having a rough day or the paper sucks or whatever you just gotta
keep going because if you stop you’re going to prove them right.”
Financial security as motivation
1. “I didn’t want to work a minimum wage job for my entire life. I wanted
to have more for myself than I had growing up cause my parents were not
well off at all.”
2. “I always said I wanted to be able to provide for myself and my family
and not have to rely on anyone else”
Finances as barrier to success
1. “Financial is always a big motivator because even though you have
student loans and you have whatever, when you’re done with school and
you have 50, 60, 70,000 dollars in debt that you come out with, that’s a
big deterrent for a lot of people.”
2. “It’s an expensive feat to take on.”
3. “One of the big things that barred me from going to college right after I
graduated from high school was not knowing that there were financial
options out there to help me.”
4. “I wish someone somewhere would have told me that those things
[financial aid] were available because I probably would have went right
away.”
5. “I also wish before I even went to community college way back when that
I would have known about grants”
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  • 1. AN EXPLORATION OF THE ACADEMIC SUCCESS AND PERSISTENCE OF FIRST-GENERATION, ETHNIC MINORITY FEMALE COLLEGE STUDENTS by Erica D. Wyatt LEAH MANCUSO, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair JEAN DUFFY, PhD, Committee Member AMIE A. MANIS, PhD, Committee Member Anna Hultquist, PhD, LMFT, CFLE, Dean Harold Abel School of Social and Behavioral Sciences A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Capella University January 2014
  • 3. Abstract Almost 50% of undergraduate students on college campuses across the United States are first-generation college students or students whose parents have not completed a post- secondary degree program. There are a great number of first-generation college students who do not persist until degree completion because of the many obstacles and challenges that they face along the way. However, there are those first-generation college students who experience academic success and persist year after year to obtain a post-secondary degree. This qualitative study explored the experiences of academic success and persistence among a sample of first-generation ethnic minority female college students. The data collection method for this study consisted of nine, in-depth, semi-structured, face to face interviews with first-generation ethnic minority female college students who had completed at least one semester of higher education and were at different phases in their degree program. A phenomenological data analysis approach was used to extract meaning from participants’ experiences. Structural and textural themes were extracted from the interviews of each research participant during the data analysis phase of the study. These themes were analyzed to develop a composite textural-structural description of what it means to experience academic success and persistence as a first-generation ethnic minority female college student. The findings revealed that the experience of a first-generation, ethnic minority, female college student is filled with challenges and obstacles. However, with a strong support system, self-confidence and remembering the “why” for the journey, this student population is able to experience academic success and persistence.
  • 4. iii Dedication I dedicate this work, first and foremost, to my children who are indeed my legacy. It is my prayer that this journey, which we have walked together, will inspire you to chase after all that life has to offer you. I also dedicate this work to the success of every future first-generation college graduate. Don’t let anyone or anything stop you from accomplishing your goal.
  • 5. iv Acknowledgments I want to thank and acknowledge everyone who helped me to successfully complete this educational journey: First and foremost, I want to acknowledge and thank the wisest man that I know: my pastor, my mentor and my friend: Apostle Mark W. Webb. Without you, I would never have started out on this journey, and I definitely would not have been able to see it through to completion. Your sacrifice was not in vain. Secondly, I want to thank my mentor, Dr. Leah Mancuso for always saying the right things at the right time. We never know when someone is on the edge of giving up and sometimes all it takes is an encouraging word. You gave me many of those on this long journey, and for that I am truly grateful. To the rest of my committee, Dr. Amie Manis and Dr. Jean Duffy, I thank you for being a part of this process and keeping the stress minimal. Last but definitely not least, I want to say thank you to my church family and friends: Outreach Ministries, International. Thank you for all of your prayers and support. I love you guys more than you know! To all of the first-generation college students who shared their personal experiences of success and hard work, I acknowledge you, and I am eternally grateful for your contributions to this study.
  • 6. v Table of Contents Acknowledgments iv List of Tables viii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 Background of the Problem 2 Statement of the Problem 4 Purpose of the Study 4 Significance of the Study 5 Research Design 6 Research Questions 8 Assumptions and Limitations 8 Definition of Terms 9 Expected Findings 10 Organization of the Remainder of the Study 10 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 12 Introduction to the Literature Review 12 Theoretical Orientation for the Study 12 Review of Research Literature and Methodological Literature Specific to the Topic or Research Question 14 Synthesis of the Research Findings 31 Critique of the Previous Research 33 Summary 33 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 35
  • 7. vi Purpose of the Study 35 Research Design 35 Target Population and Participant Selection 37 Procedures 38 Instruments 39 Research Questions 40 Data Analysis 41 Ethical Considerations 42 Expected Findings 43 CHAPTER 4. RESULTS 45 Introduction: The Study and the Researcher 45 Description of the Sample (Participants) 46 Research Methodology Applied to the Data Analysis 47 Presentation of the Data and Results of the Analysis 48 Summary 120 CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS 122 Introduction 122 Summary of the Results 122 Discussion of the Results 124 Discussion of the Conclusions 125 Limitations 133 Recommendations for Future Research or Interventions 137 Conclusion 137
  • 8. vii REFERENCES 139 APPENDIX A. Statement of Original Work 144
  • 9. viii List of Tables Table 1. Description of Participants
  • 10. 1 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION First-generation students have been defined as students whose parents have not obtained education beyond the high school level (Choy, 2001). According to Engle and Tinto (2008), this population of students currently account for approximately 24% of undergraduate college enrollments. Despite the steady increase in access to higher education among traditionally underrepresented populations, educational inequities continue to abound. First-generation students from low socioeconomic backgrounds are four times as likely to leave college after their first year as are those with neither of these factors (Engle & Tinto, 2008). Within four year institutions, first-generation students are more than twice as likely as continuing generation students to leave before their second year (Choy, 2001). First-generation students are a population that is considered to be at-risk because of various demographic factors. Research on this student population reveals that a disproportionate amount of first-generation college students are from ethnic and minority backgrounds. Additionally, these students tend to be female, older, receive less social and financial support from parents and have multiple obligations outside of their education, which may consist of family and work. Lack of academic preparation has also been cited as one of the risk factors related to first-generation students’ ability to persist in higher education (Bui, 2002; Choy, 2001; Engle & Tinto, 2008; Mehta, Newbold & O’Rourke, 2011). Additionally, even though women comprise a larger portion of the first-generation student population, they are less likely than their male counterparts to persist in their academics (Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005).
  • 11. 2 Higher education plays a vital role in shaping an individual’s social and economic future (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). With the steady increase of the first-generation college student population, it is vital that colleges begin to develop strategies to increase retention among these students (Choy, 2001; Giancola, Munz & Trares, 2008; Ishitani, 2003). Despite this need, attrition rates for first-generation college students continue to exceed those of continuing generation students ( Choy 2001; Engle & Tinto, 2008). Background of the Problem There are many factors that may potentially impact persistence among first- generation students. A study conducted by Ramos-Sanchez and Nichols (2007) revealed a positive relationship between academic self-efficacy, a students’ confidence in their academic ability, and college adjustment. The findings of this study also indicated that non-first-generation students demonstrated higher levels of self-efficacy than their first- generation counterparts. A later study conducted by Wang and Castaneda-Sound (2008) corroborated these empirical findings. Positive self-concept, degree of academic and social integration, and a strong support system are additional factors that have been associated with academic success (Prospero & Vohra-Gupta, 2007; Ting, 2003; Tinto, 1987). Research has also found that higher levels of self-esteem and positive self- concept contributed to successful college adjustment and overall well-being of first- generation students (Hertel, 2002; Wang & Castaneda-Sound, 2008). Self-efficacy has been related to students’ academic expectations and their academic performance. Chemers, Hu, and Garcia (2001) conducted a study to examine the effects of self-efficacy on a population of freshmen students. The findings of this study revealed that those students who enter into the college environment with a greater
  • 12. 3 confidence in their academic abilities tend to experience greater academic success than those with less confidence. Those students within the Chemers et al (2001) study who were identified as confident and optimistic were more likely to view their academic experience as a challenge rather than a threat. Additionally, Awad (2007) found that academic self-concept is one of the best predictors of a students’ grade point average (GPA). For this reason, it can be concluded from these findings that students with a positive attitude toward their education and their academic abilities are more likely to perform better. The parents of first-generation college students have never attended college and thus lack the knowledge gained by those who have, which renders them inexperienced in their attempts to assist their children in overcoming the challenges of the college experience (Phinney & Haas, 2003). For this reason, first-generation students are less likely to possess the cultural capital or knowledge about the college going process that has been associated with an increased likelihood of academic success (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, & Terenzini, 2004). Additionally, first-generation students have been found to experience greater difficulty in becoming engaged and integrated within institutions of higher education. These students are often fearful of interacting with faculty and characterize their environment as one that is not supportive of their academic endeavors (Longwell-Grice, R. & Longwell-Grice, H., 2008; Pike & Kuh, 2005). The ability to successfully transition, integrate and adjust to the college culture has been identified as a very significant indicator of academic persistence (Tinto, 1987). Social support from parents and peers is an important factor in helping students adjust to the challenges of the college environment (Dennis, Phinney & Lizette, 2005). Despite
  • 13. 4 this need, a study conducted by Barry, Hudley, Cho and Kelly (2008) revealed that first generation students were less likely than their non-first-generation counterparts to discuss their college experiences with their parents. Phinney and Haas (2003) examined the factors of self-efficacy and social support and their impact on the coping strategies of first-generation college students. The results of this study indicated that the ability to seek support during stressful times was the most successful coping strategy for first- generation students. Additionally those students who perceived to have less social support experienced greater difficulty in focusing on their academics. Statement of the Problem The literature on first-generation college students presents a clear picture of the challenges that place these students at greater risk for failure (Bui, 2002; Choy, 2001; Engle & Tinto, 2008; Mehta, Newbold & O’Rourke, 2011). However, what is currently missing from the literature is how some students within this at-risk population overcome their challenges and persist in higher education. More specifically, it is unknown how first-generation, female, ethnic minority college students persist despite the demographic characteristics that threaten their academic success. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of first-generation, female ethnic minority college students through a phenomenological study in order to gain a better understanding of how they persist in spite of the risk factors associated with being first-generation. The study explored factors such as self-efficacy, social support, and self-esteem and their impact on first-generation, female, ethnic minority college students’ ability to persist. By exploring the phenomena of academic success and
  • 14. 5 persistence through the lived experiences of the research participants, this study will add to the knowledge that is currently available on the first-generation student population. Significance of the Study ` First-generation college students are considered an at-risk population because they enter into the college environment with needs that are not often met by traditional programs and services (Folger, Carter, & Chase, 2004). These students are characterized as being underprepared for the challenges of higher education in addition to being less informed about the college culture. First-generation students face financial difficulties and experience challenges in their attempts to integrate academically and socially into the college environment (Choy, 2001; Mehta, et al., 2011). Research has revealed that the academic and social experiences of first-generation students are quite different than those of continuing generation students (Pascarella, et al., 2004; Pascarella, Wolniak, Pierson & Terenzini, 2003). However, in spite of their challenges, first-generation students have proven to be resilient in their academic endeavors (Pascarella et al, 2003). Despite this finding, there is a very limited amount of literature available that examines the experiences of those who have been able to persist in spite of the risk factors associated with being the first in their family to pursue higher education (Olenchak & Hebert, 2002; Stieha, 2010; Longwell-Grice, R. & Longwell-Grice.H., 2008). When first-generation students persist and succeed in higher education, they are more likely to retain their academic identity and increase their likelihood of obtaining economic stability. In addition, institutions of higher education and the community at large have a vested interest in the academic success of first-generation college students (Folgers et al, 2004). As the demographics of the U.S. continue to change and college
  • 15. 6 campuses become more diversified, first-generation college students will become an increasingly larger proportion of college enrollments (Choy, 2001; Engle & Tinto, 2008; Pascarella et al, 2004). For these reasons, it is important to begin to acquire a greater understanding of the academic experiences of those individuals who comprise such a large portion of student populations within institutions of higher education. This study will contribute to the knowledge base that is currently available on first-generation college students. However, this particular study focused on ethnic minority, female college students within the first-generation student population. By doing so, the study will bring about a greater understanding in the research community as well as among administrators of higher education, college counselors and student affairs personnel of how this particular segment of the first-generation student population are able to overcome their obstacles and persist in higher education. Research Design In a review of the literature available on first generation college students, it became evident that the majority of the research had employed a quantitative research design. In an effort to fill this gap in the literature, this research study used a qualitative research design and employed a transcendental phenomenological framework. Phenomenology was appropriate for this particular study because this qualitative approach seeks to describe a common meaning for several individuals for a specific phenomenon (Creswell, 2013). This approach coincides with the purpose of this research study since it attempted to explain the experiences of academic success and persistence among first generation, ethnic minority female college students. As stated by Steiha (2010) in her qualitative research study of academic persistence, a phenomenological
  • 16. 7 research design allows the researcher to explore the students’ perceptions of the many different factors that affect the decisions they make during the college going process. Additionally, Longwell-Grice and Longwell-Grice (2008) noted that a qualitative approach was essential in extending the research beyond that which simply compares first-generation students to their continuing generation counterparts and fails to explore other factors that impact their college experiences. This particular study centered on exploring the lived experiences of first-generation, ethnic minority female college students and their individual perceptions of academic success and persistence. According to Moustakas (1994), the primary source of knowledge in phenomenological research is perception, which is a source that cannot be questioned. Likewise, transcendental phenomenology stresses the subjective nature of discovering the essence of personal experiences. The advantages of this particular design include the fact that it allows the researcher to study phenomena that are unapproachable through quantitative research methods. Also, it identifies and acknowledges the data of experience as significant in understanding human behavior. Lastly, a phenomenological approach to the research allows the researcher to explore the essence of an experience rather than seeking for measurements and explanations. Overall, the aim of phenomenological research is to determine the meaning of an experience for those who have had the particular experience or phenomena being studied and who have the ability to provide a rich description of that experience (Moustakas). Based on the studies examined that utilized a qualitative research design and the advantages and goals of phenomenological research as discussed above, this study was
  • 17. 8 qualitative in nature and followed the strategy of transcendental phenomenology in the data collection and data analysis process. Research Questions This study was guided and informed by two research questions. The central research question was, “How do first-generation, ethnic minority female college students describe their experiences of academic persistence and success?” This study also explored the sub-questions: 1. What motivates first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students to persist in college? 2. How does the self-concept of first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students affect their academic success? 3. What barriers do first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students have to overcome to achieve academic success? Assumptions and Limitations Assumptions This research study made the following assumptions: (a) Research participants would accurately portray their individual experiences of overcoming obstacles and persisting in their academics (b) Research participants would be those who are concerned with the academic success of first-generation students and are sharing their stories in hopes of helping others (c) The findings of this study would inform and benefit institutions of higher education by providing them with information that would assist in the development of supportive services geared specifically towards first-generation students.
  • 18. 9 Limitations This study was limited to first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students who had persisted through at least one semester of academic study. For this reason, the findings of this study cannot be generalized to populations that do not meet these specific criteria. Additionally, this study was limited to the academic experiences of a small number of first-generation, ethnic minority female college students in an adult education setting in a Suburban area. The study did not assume that the experiences of all students within this particular population would be the same as those who participate in this study. Definition of Terms This study used the following terms and definitions: Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s personal judgment or belief concerning his ability to successfully perform a specific task or behavior (Bandura, 1997). First-generation student. First-generation students are those whose parents’ education does not exceed high school (Choy, 2001). Social Support. Social support refers to the level of support or assistance that an individual receives from his family, peers or significant others. This support may be in the form of financial assistance, encouragement, mentorship or in any other form that the individual characterizes as being supportive of his academic pursuits. Persistence. Persistence refers to an individual’s ability to overcome challenges and progress from one semester to the next and eventually complete a program of study
  • 19. 10 (e.g. certificate, 2-year degree, 4-year degree, etc.). This study will focus specifically on those individuals who have successfully completed at least 1 semester of academic study. Expected Findings It was expected that the research participants in this study would be truthful in sharing their personal experiences of academic success and persistence. Additionally, the researcher expected that the findings of this particular study would add to the literature currently available on first generation college students and inform researchers and practitioners in the field. The researcher was conscious of how her personal experiences of being a first generation, ethnic minority female college student could affect the findings of the research study. For this reason, keeping a personal journal, seeking the assistance of her mentor and setting aside any preconceptions and biases were essential to the integrity of the research findings. Organization of the Remainder of the Study Chapter two presents an examination and analysis of the literature available on first-generation college students as well as self-efficacy and its relationship to academic outcomes such as success and persistence. This chapter closes with a synthesis and critique of the literature, which offers the reader a greater insight into how the present study seeks to fill a gap in the literature available on first-generation college student. Following a review of the literature, chapter three provides a discussion of the methodological approach to the present study. This chapter addresses the benefits of using a qualitative versus a quantitative methodology in answering the research questions and filling a gap in the present literature. Afterwards, chapter four presents the data collected during the course of the present study as well as an analysis of that data. Lastly,
  • 20. 11 chapter five presents a discussion of the findings, an analysis of those findings and implications that can be derived from the study’s findings.
  • 21. 12 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction to the Literature Review This chapter examined and analyzed the literature that has been conducted on first-generation college students as well as self-efficacy and its relationship to academic outcomes. A review of the literature provided a greater insight into the academic experiences of first-generation college students. Additionally, this review revealed the benefits of exploring self-efficacy and its relationship to students’ ability to persist in the face of adversity. The literature review revealed the need for a study that would provide insight into how some first-generation college students are able to succeed and persist in spite of the challenges presented by their demographics. For this reason, the present study sought to fill a gap in the literature by exploring the experiences of first-generation, ethnic minority female college students who had the ability to overcome these challenges and persist in their academics. The literature review consisted of a search of databases such as Academic Search Premier, Education Research Complete, ProQuest Education Journals, Sage Journals Online and SocINDEX with Full Text. The following keywords were used within these databases to obtain articles for this literature review: “academic success”, “academic persistence”, “first-generation college students”, “self-efficacy”, and “college students.” Theoretical Orientation for the Study Tinto (1975) laid the foundation for a theoretical model that would seek to explain the factors that impact persistence among college students. In his article, Tinto sought to formulate a theory that would explain the processes of interaction between both the student and the institution of higher education and how this interaction led to either
  • 22. 13 persistence or drop-out. The basis of his theory was founded on the premises that students dropped out of higher education because of a lack of academic and social integration within the college environment. Furthermore, Tinto viewed the process of dropout as a longitudinal process of interactions between the student and the academic and social systems of the college. During the student’s college experience, his goals and commitments would undergo a continuous modification that would lead to either persistence towards degree completion or dropout. Therefore, based on Tinto’s theoretical model of persistence, a student’s level of academic and social integration into the college environment directly impacted his commitment to the institution and the goal of degree completion (Tinto). In his seminal work, Albert Bandura (1977) developed a theoretical framework from which researchers could examine the phenomenon of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts. In this article, self-efficacy is defined as an individual’s belief that he can successfully carry out the tasks that are necessary to achieve a desired outcome. It is this belief or conviction in one’s abilities that affect his decision to both engage in and persist in a certain task or activity. Self-efficacy is also directly related to an individual’s ability to persist in a given behavior. Perceived self-efficacy affects an individual’s choices, coping behaviors and persistence in any situation (Bandura) Tinto’s (1975; 1987) Theory of College Persistence and Bandura’s (1977) Theory of Self-Efficacy were used as the theoretical framework from which to explore the experiences of academic success and academic persistence among first-generation, ethnic minority female college students. They were used in an effort to examine the validity of their implications and their application to this particular student population.
  • 23. 14 Review of Research Literature and Methodological Literature Specific to the Topic or Research Question First Generation First-generation students are becoming an increasingly larger proportion of student enrollments in institutions of higher education because of the current mandate for diversity in this arena (Engle & Tinto, 2008). In 1995-1996, almost half (47%) of all enrolling undergraduates were first-generation students or those whose parents have not received more than a high school education (Choy, 2001). Ishitani (2003) reported that first-generation students represented 364,000 of the 1.3 million first-time freshmen taking the SAT in the year 2002. First-generation students have been characterized as an at-risk student population, which makes their retention of vital importance to college advisors, administrators and faculty (Choy, 2001; Ishitani, 2003; Ishitani, 2006). In an effort to understand the phenomena of academic success among first generation college students, one must first examine the precollege factors associated with being a first-generation student as well as the quality of their college experiences (Engle & Tinto, 2008; Ishitani, 2006). First-generation students are more likely than non-first generation students to be black or Hispanic, female, older, and married with dependents (Choy, 2001; Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). These students are also more likely to come from families of lower socioeconomic status where neither parent has received a post-secondary degree, which increases the likelihood that they will be recipients of financial aid in the form of grants and loans. Additionally, first generation students have been found to work more hours than continuing generation students and to be more likely to enroll as a part-time
  • 24. 15 student and complete fewer credit hours than continuing generation students. This may be due to the fact that this student population is also more likely to have multiple obligations outside of college (e.g. family, work). In addition to these factors, first-generation students are usually less academically prepared for college level work than are their continuing generation counterparts. Also, they tend to score lower than their counterparts on their SAT’s (Bui 2002; Choy, 2001). For this reason, first-generation students are more likely to begin their college careers at 2-year public institutions versus 4-year institutions (Bui 2002; Choy 2001; Nunez & Cuccaro Alamin, 1998; Pascarella et al, 2004). The likelihood of enrolling in higher education has been strongly linked to the level of parents’ education (Choy, 2001). Not only does the level of parents’ education affect the likelihood of enrollment, but it is also associated with the students’ ability to navigate the college environment once enrolled. The literature currently available on first generation students reflects a student population that is at a disadvantage because of their lack of knowledge about higher education (Pascarella et al, 2004; Prospero & Vohra- Gupta, 2007; Mehta et al, 2011). The knowledge that students gain from those who have experienced post-secondary education increases their level of comfort and familiarity with the norms and culture associated with the college environment. First-generation students lack this knowledge or cultural capital that continuing generation students possess (Lundberg et al, 2007; Mehta et al, 2011). Hand and Payne (2008) conducted a study that sought to examine the factors that impacted the academic success of a group of first-generation Appalachian students. The participants in this study reported that one of the negative impacts on their success was
  • 25. 16 their lack of knowledge of available resources prior to and during their college experiences. One of the students in the study revealed that he had failed to receive a scholarship to attend college due to his lack of knowledge concerning the scholarship process. Overall, the literature reveals that the success of first-generation students is compromised because of their parents’ inability to assist them in the college-going process. The college experiences of first-generation students are another important factor to consider when examining the success of this student population. The literature reveals that the first year of academic enrollment is the most critical for the first-generation student (Ishitani, 2003). Ishitani (2003) conducted a longitudinal study of first- generation and continuing generation students that spanned the course of five academic years. The study revealed that the risk of attrition in the first year was 71% higher for first-generation students when compared to students with two college-educated parents. The risk of departure for first-generation students is less pronounced after the first year of enrollment (Ishitani, 2003; Ishitani, 2006). In addition to first-generation status, the literature reveals that ethnicity impacts the likelihood of academic success. The findings of Ishitani (2006) indicated that Hispanic and Black students were 59% and 58% less likely to graduate in their fourth year of enrollment respectively when compared to their continuing generation counterparts. These findings indicate that first-generation, ethnic minority students are at a great disadvantage when compared to their counterparts. Furthermore, the literature examines additional factors that impact the college experiences of first-generation students.
  • 26. 17 Academic and social integration are two factors that have been associated with persistence and academic success (Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005; Prospero & Vohra-Gupta, 2007; Tinto, 1987). First-generation students who are successful in becoming academically integrated into the college environment are more likely to obtain higher G.P.A.’s (Prospero & Vohra-Gupta, 2007). Prospero and Vohra-Gupta (2007) found a significant correlation between intrinsic motivation and academic integration, which suggests that those students who enjoy their college experience may find it less difficult to integrate into the environment. Subsequently, these combined factors may increase retention and persistence among those students. In spite of the benefits associated with academic and social integration, first generation students are less likely to become engaged academically and socially (Hertel, 2002; Mehta et al, 2011). The lack of academic and social integration achieved by first-generation students may be due to the fact that they spend a large portion of their time off campus because they live and work off campus due to a shortage of financial resources (Engle & Tinto, 2008; Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). First-generation students have also been cited to have greater time demands than their continuing generation counterparts, which may have a negative impact on their ability to become socially involved on campus. This lack of social integration has been found to result in lower academic performance and an overall dissatisfaction with the college experience for first-generation students (Mehta et al, 2011). First-generation students may know less about the importance of academic and social engagement and the process of becoming engaged in the college environment due to their lack of cultural capital (Longwell-Grice & Longwell-Grice, 2008; Pike & Kuh,
  • 27. 18 2005). The perceptions of some first-generation students are that the college environment is not supportive of their academic endeavors (Longwell-Grice & Longwell- Grice, 2008; Lundberg et al, 2007; Pike & Kuh, 2005). Additionally, a study conducted by Steiha (2010) revealed that family relationships, culture and values of first-generation students’ families may cause conflict in their attempts to successfully integrate into the college environment. The educational aspirations and motivations of first-generation college students is another area that has been examined in an attempt to better understand the academic experiences of this student population. Bui (2002) conducted a study designed to examine first-generation students’ motivations for attending college. First-generation students in the study reported that some of their reasons for pursuing higher education were to gain respect/status, bring honor to their family and to be in a position to help their family. The literature on first-generation students has revealed a significant relationship between parental involvement and a student’s educational aspirations (Hand & Payne, 2008; McCarron & Inkelas, 2006). Hand and Payne (2008) conducted a study of first- generation students to examine the factors that contributed to their persistence. The participants reported that their parents instilled into them the importance of higher education and expected them to attend college. Additionally, these students perceived that they were emotionally supported by their parents during the course of their college experience. Furthermore, the literature reveals that first generation students are less interested in having a good time in college and place more value on academic and intellectual activities than they do social activities (Forbus, Newbold & Mehta, 2011; Hertel, 2002;
  • 28. 19 Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005). For this reason, student-faculty interactions have been emphasized as a significant factor in keeping first-generation students motivated and connected to the college environment (Hertel, 2002; Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005). Additionally, the study conducted by Forbus et al (2011) revealed the significant impact that support services provided by colleges may have on the academic outcomes of first- generation students. Self-Efficacy In his seminal work, Albert Bandura (1977) developed a theoretical framework from which researchers could examine the phenomenon of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts. In this article, self-efficacy is defined as an individual’s belief that he can successfully carry out the tasks that are necessary to achieve a desired outcome. It is this belief or conviction in one’s abilities that affect his decision to both engage in and persist in a certain task or activity. Self-efficacy is also directly related to an individual’s ability to persist in a given behavior. Perceived self-efficacy affects an individual’s choices, coping behaviors and persistence in any situation (Bandura). Self-efficacy is shaped and affected by four areas, which are performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion and physiological states (Bandura, 1977). Bandura defined performance accomplishments as the experiences of personal mastery or success in a task that affect his belief in his ability to successfully complete that task in the future. Vicarious experiences refer to experiences of watching another individual’s success that communicate to the individual if someone else can successfully complete a task, so can he. Verbal persuasion can be understand as those messages that one receives from other individual’s that he can be successful in a given
  • 29. 20 task. Lastly, physiological states refer to an individual’s assessment of his emotional arousal (e.g. anxiety) to a stressful situation, which affects how he will respond in the future. Self-Efficacy and Academic Outcomes In the 1980’s, researchers began to explore the concept of self-efficacy and its effects on phenomena such as vocational choice and academic achievement. Hackett and Betz (1981) wrote the first theoretical paper that explored self-efficacy in the context of vocation and education. In this study, the researchers explored how self-efficacy affected male and female college students’ beliefs about their ability to successfully complete the educational requirements that are necessary for both traditionally female and male vocations. The results of this study revealed that out of twenty occupations, ten of those demonstrated statistically significant sex differences in the number of students believing they could be successful in their completion of the educational requirements for that given occupation. Overall, male students reported an equivalent self-efficacy for both traditional and non-traditional occupations. However, females reported a substantially lower self-efficacy expectation in relationship to non-traditional than traditional vocational opportunities. In the 1990’s, researchers began to evaluate the empirical findings of self-efficacy and its relationship to academic outcomes (Multon & Brown, 1991). In their meta- analytic investigation, Multon and Brown explored the body of research that had surfaced over the previous decade that sought to relate self-efficacy beliefs to career and academic outcomes. Their analysis of the literature included studies that related self-efficacy beliefs to outcomes in academic performance and persistence. The results of their
  • 30. 21 investigation provided support for the relationship between self-efficacy, academic performance and persistence. In their meta-analysis, self-efficacy beliefs accounted for 14% of the variance found in student’s academic performance and 12% of that found in their academic persistence. After the passing of another decade, Zimmerman (2000) surveyed the research that had been conducted on self-efficacy in an attempt to establish the validity of self- efficacy as a predictor of student’s motivation and learning. The results of his study proved that self-efficacy held discriminant validity by its ability to predict the academic outcomes of students. Also, self-efficacy held convergent validity in its ability to predict different forms of motivation, which included activity choices, effort, persistence and emotional reactions. When self-efficacy was studied as a mediating variable, it proved to be responsive to improvements in the area of students’ methods of learning, and it was also predictive of achievement outcomes. From the results of his study, Zimmerman (2000) concluded that students’ self-beliefs about their academic abilities play an essential role in their motivation to achieve. Over the course of the last decade, researchers have continued to explore the relationship between self-efficacy and academic outcomes in many different contexts (Chemers, Hu & Garcia, 2001; DeWitz & Walsh, 2002; Zajacova, Lynch & Espenshade, 2005; Davenport & Lane, 2006; Gore, 2006; Hsieh, Sullivan & Guerra, 2007; Ramos- Sanchez & Nichols, 2007; Wang & Castaneda-Sound, 2008; DeWitz, Woolsey & Walsh, 2009; Majer, 2009; Vuong, Brown-Welty & Tracz, 2010; Brady-Amoon & Fuertes, 2011). From this research, it has been found that self-efficacy is directly and indirectly related to the academic performance and personal adjustment of college students
  • 31. 22 (Chemers, et al, 2001; Ramos-Sanchez & Nichols, 2007; Brady-Amoon & Fuertes, 2011). It is also positively correlated with students’ level of college satisfaction in that students with higher self-efficacy report a greater sense of being compensated for their academic performance (DeWitz & Walsh, 2002) Additionally, self-efficacy has been proven to be a consistent predictor of grades and persistence in college (Zajacova, et al, 2005; Gore, 2006; Majer, 2009; Vuong, et al, 2010). Research has also revealed a relationship between self-efficacy and a student’s use of effective coping strategies, which increases his beliefs in his ability to achieve desired outcomes (Davenport & Lane, 2006). Another area that has been explored in the research of self-efficacy is its relationship to purpose in life (DeWitz, et al, 2009). DeWitz et al. found that self- efficacy was significantly and positively correlated with purpose in life. In other words, those students with higher levels of self-efficacy also demonstrated greater purpose in life. The studies that have been conducted to explore self-efficacy and its relationship to various academic outcomes have been conducted utilizing different research designs in different contexts and with different populations. The use of a particular design, research contexts and research participants reveal different findings concerning self-efficacy and its effects on academic performance. Chemers et al (2001) conducted a quantitative study of first-year college students in a traditional university setting to explore the relationship between self-efficacy, academic performance and adjustment to college. This study revealed to students who reported higher academic self-efficacy also employed greater usage of effective cognitive strategies in the college environment. These strategies increased their abilities to manage their time and their learning environments more
  • 32. 23 effectively. Students with higher academic self-efficacy were also better at monitoring and regulating their own effort. Overall, the study revealed that students who enter into the college environment with confidence in their academic abilities perform significantly better than those who have less confidence. Also, those students with higher expectations for academic success demonstrate higher academic performance. DeWitz and Walsh (2002) explored the relationship between self-efficacy and college satisfaction among a group of 312 undergraduate students in a large Midwestern University. In their study, female students reported a higher sense of college self- efficacy than males, which the researchers concede may be the result of the smaller number of males compared to females in the sample. The results of the study revealed a positive correlation between self-efficacy and college satisfaction. In other words, higher levels of self-efficacy were found to be associated with higher levels of college satisfaction. The students who reported higher levels of self-efficacy believed that their academic effort was more fairly related to their academic outcomes (e.g. grades). These individuals also communicated greater levels of acceptance from the faculty and other students. The findings of this study support the relationship between college satisfaction, retention and academic performance. Research has also been conducted to explore the relationship between self- efficacy, academic success and persistence. Hsieh et al (2007) conducted a study with undergraduate students from a large, metropolitan Hispanic-serving institution in the Southwest to explore the interaction between students’ goal orientation and self-efficacy. The study was designed to investigate how students with different levels of self-efficacy and academic standings compared in the academic goals they adopted and their academic
  • 33. 24 achievement. The results of the study revealed that those students who were in good academic standing held higher self-efficacy judgments than those who were on academic probation. Students’ G.P.A. was positively related to higher self-efficacy and an adoption of mastery goal orientation. Overall, students in good academic standing held a mastery goal orientation or embraced goals to master the skills taught in college and had a stronger belief that they could successfully complete academic tasks than those students who were not in good academic standing. Researchers have also conducted studies that have explored the relationship between self-efficacy and a student’s ability to cope with, adjust to and persist in the college environment (Brady-Amoon & Fuertes, 2011; Davenport & Lane, 2006; Gore, 2006; Ramos-Sanchez & Nichols, 2007). Brady-Amoon and Fuertes (2011) study of 275 full time undergraduate students supported research findings that self-efficacy contributes to a student’s ability to adjust to the college environment. Likewise, Ramos-Sanchez and Nichols (2007) study of a group of first-generation and non-first generation freshmen at a private liberal arts West Coast university revealed that a student’s level of self-efficacy at the beginning of the year significantly predicted his college adjustment at the end of the academic year regardless of generational status. Their findings did not support a mediating relationship between self-efficacy, generational status and G.P.A. However, the results of the study revealed that a student’s confidence in his academic ability was related to better adjustment in college. Gore (2006) reported different results in regards to the relationship between self- efficacy and academic outcomes (e.g. performance and persistence) as it relates to the time of the measurement. In his study, Gore reported a stronger relationship between
  • 34. 25 self-efficacy and G.P.A. at the end of the student’s first semester and subsequent semesters than at the beginning of the first semester. Gore’s reasoning for these findings is that self-efficacy beliefs of experienced students are more strongly related to performance and persistence than are those of “college naïve” students. A study conducted by Davenport & Lane (2006) investigated the relationship between self- efficacy, coping and retention. The results of the study supported a link between a student’s use of active coping strategies and self-efficacy. In other words, students who use active coping strategies experience an increasing in coping efficacy, which contributes to an increase in outcome efficacy. The self-efficacy scores reported in the study were correct in classifying 81.3% of the students who were originally identified as at-risk of dropout. Majer (2009) and Vuong et al (2010) conducted studies to explore the effects of self-efficacy on the academic success of first-generation college students. Majer (2009) conducted a study of 96 first generation ethnic-minority students from a community college in Chicago, IL. This study was conducted as a longitudinal study that examined academic outcomes at 4 month and 12 month intervals. The results of the study suggested that a greater self-efficacy for education is essential in promoting educational gains among first generation students attending a community college. From these findings, the author concluded that students would benefit from interventions that address academic self-efficacy. The study conducted by Vuong et al (2010) consisted of first- generation sophomore students and examined the effect of self-efficacy on academic success and persistence rates. The findings revealed that academic success and persistence were functions of self-efficacy. In other words, the way that college
  • 35. 26 sophomore students perceive their capabilities influences their academic performance and their persistence in maintaining a G.P.A. that will allow them to continue in their degree program until graduation. Academic Persistence Tinto (1975) laid the foundation for a theoretical model that would seek to explain the factors that impact persistence among college students. In his article, Tinto sought to formulate a theory that would explain the processes of interaction between both the student and the institution of higher education and how this interaction led to either persistence or drop-out. The basis of his theory was founded on the premises that students dropped out of higher education because of a lack of academic and social integration within the college environment. Furthermore, Tinto viewed the process of dropout as a longitudinal process of interactions between the student and the academic and social systems of the college. During the student’s college experience, his goals and commitments would undergo a continuous modification that would lead to either persistence towards degree completion or dropout. Therefore, based on Tinto’s theoretical model of persistence, a student’s level of academic and social integration into the college environment directly impacted his commitment to the institution and the goal of degree completion (Tinto). In the 1980’s, Astin (1984) developed a theory of student involvement that sought to further explain the link between student involvement and ability to persist. Astin’s theory explored areas such as student’s place of residence (on or off-campus), college choice, institutional fit, student-faculty interaction, academic involvement, athletic involvement, etc. This theory provided yet another look into the factors that impact a
  • 36. 27 college student’s ability and desire to persist towards completing his goal of degree attainment. Over the last decade, researchers have sought to build on and reconstruct the theories developed by Tinto (1975) and Astin (1984) and provide further insight into the prevailing issue of academic persistence among college students and how it can best be addressed. Since the development of Tinto’s (1975, 1987) Interactionalist Theory of Student Departure, researchers have conducted research to support and refute the tenets of this theory. In the work edited by Braxton (2000), he stated that the model set forth by Tinto (1975, 1987) needed to be revised. One of the main questions brought up by Braxton (2000) was the validity of the relationship between academic integration and institutional commitment. A review of the research conducted on this factor of academic persistence reveals that this variable fluctuates according to the focus of the study (e.g. multi- institutional vs. single institution) and institution type. Another area warranting review as stated by Braxton (2000) is that of financial aid and its impact on persistence. Braxton discusses the necessity of integrating the factor of financial aid with other persistence factors (e.g. academic and social integration) instead of viewing it as a stand-alone factor. Overall, Braxton (2000) stresses the importance of reconstructing theoretical models of academic persistence so that they include other factors such as the classroom, faculty and pedagogy. Researchers seeking to gain a better understanding of the factors that impact academic persistence among different student populations have explored areas such as academic and social integration, financial aid, social support systems, mentoring, student-faculty interaction, and academic advising (Alon 2011; Astin 1984; Barbatis,
  • 37. 28 2010; Braxton 2000; Gloria & Ho, 2003; Hu & Ma, 2010; Morrow & Ackerman, 2012; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005; Tinto, 1975, 1987). Review of this research provides a firm understanding of these factors as well as the need for further research in certain areas and among different student populations. Factors Impacting Academic Persistence Researchers have explored various factors and how they impact academic persistence among college students. Alon (2011) examined the effect of financial aid on a student’s ability to persist in college. According to his research, a persistence gap currently exists due to economic inequality. Financial aid eliminates some of the economic barriers experienced by lower income students, which increases their chances of persisting towards degree completion. However, affluent students also receive some needs-based grants, which decrease the amount of financial aid that can be distributed among students who are economically disadvantaged. For this reason, Alon (2011) suggested that the aid granted to affluent students is a waste of resources as it relates to academic persistence. It is his suggestion that in order to close the persistence gap that exists among students of different income levels, needs-based grants on the state and institutional level need to be reallocated to benefit low-income students. Another area that has been explored in the persistence literature is that of social support systems and their impact on a student’s ability to persist in college. Gloria and Ho (2003) conducted a study that sought to explore the social, psychological and environmental experiences of Asian American undergraduate students as it related to their ability to persist. The study examined the relationship between comfort in the university environment, social support and self-beliefs and the degree to which they
  • 38. 29 predicted academic persistence. The findings of the study suggested that each variable was a significant predictor of persistence with social support being the strongest predictor of a student’s ability to persist. Additionally, Gloria and Ho (2003) conducted their research using six different Asian American ethnic groups. The findings of this study demonstrated differences between ethnic groups, which suggest that ethnicity is an important factor to consider when examining factors that impact persistence. Morrow and Ackerman (2012) explored the impact of sense of belonging and motivation on students’ intent to persist and actual retention rates. The study was conducted with a group of undergraduate freshmen during the summer of their first year of college. Morrow and Ackerman (2012) hypothesized that high levels of sense of belonging (i.e. peer support, faculty support and classroom comfort) and motivation attitudes (i.e. intrinsic values, instrumental value and personal development) would be related to intention to persist and second-year retention. The findings of the study suggested that faculty support had a small but significant positive relationship with intention to persist. Additionally, peer support was a significant predictor of second year retention. However, when both faculty support and peer support were included in the final analysis with all predictors (i.e. sense of belonging and motivational attitudes), the sense of belonging variables were no longer significantly related to intention to persist or second year retention. These findings present the question of whether or not motivation is more important than sense of belonging in students’ intention to persist and actual retention rates. Mentoring and student-faculty interaction can positively impact persistence rates of underprepared and ethnically diverse college students through the facilitation of social
  • 39. 30 and academic integration, which enhances students’ college experience and strengthens their commitment towards degree completion (Barbatis, 2010; Hu & Ma, 2010). Hu and Ma (2010) conducted a study that was designed to explore the impact of mentor assignment on college persistence. The study explored this relationship and how it varied based on race/ethnicity, gender, institution type and academic preparation. The findings of the study revealed that four-year public institutions were more likely to assign students a college mentor. Also, the research suggested that Hispanic and “other” students were more likely than White students to actively seek out support and encouragement from their assigned mentors. Additionally, Hispanic students were more likely than white students to perceive the mentor relationship as important. Student persistence was positively affected by the extent to which students sought out the support of their assigned mentor. Therefore, the findings of this study imply not only the importance of assigning mentors to college students but the importance of students actually turning to those mentors for support and guidance throughout their college experience. The study conducted by Barbatis (2010) stresses the importance of factors such as precollege characteristics, social involvement and academic integration for underprepared and ethnically diverse college students. Students in the Barbatis (2010) study represented students who were first-generation college students, first generation in the United States, non-native English speakers, women and under-represented minority populations. The findings of this study revealed that unlike the Tinto (1975) model of student persistence, which stresses the importance of assimilation into the college culture, some students rely on their cultural background for support during their college experience. Also, students in the Barbatis (2010) study mentioned factors such as determination, faith, goal
  • 40. 31 orientation and resourcefulness as contributors to their ability to persist in their academics. These are factors that are not mentioned in the Interactionalist Theory of Student Departure proposed by Tinto (1975; 1987). Synthesis of the Research Findings The literature available on first-generation college students provided insight into the demographics of this student population and the challenges that those demographics present. Researchers agree that first-generation college students face many difficulties and challenges that threaten their ability to persist towards degree completion (Bui, 2002; Choy, 2001; Engle & Tinto, 2008; Mehta, Newbold & O’Rourke, 2011. According to the literature available on first-generation college students, they are less likely than their continuing generation counterparts to successfully complete their degree program (Bui 2002; Choy, 2001). The literature revealed that factors such as family responsibilities, lack of cultural capital, work responsibilities, etc. may affect first-generation college students’ ability to become academically and socially integrated within the college environment ((Pascarella et al, 2004; Prospero & Vohra-Gupta, 2007; Mehta et al, 2011). Researchers agree that this inability to successfully integrate within the college environment may negatively impact these students’ academic success and ability to persist (Longwell-Grice & Longwell-Grice, 2008; Pike & Kuh, 2005). Additionally, the literature stressed the importance of the parent’s role in the overall success of the first- generation college student. The parent’s lack of knowledge concerning the college process and the intricacies of the college experience may serve as an additional contributing factor in the ability of the first-generation college student to succeed (Hand & Payne, 2008; McCarron & Inkelas, 2006).
  • 41. 32 A review of the available literature in the area of self-efficacy revealed that self- efficacy is positively related with several academic outcomes such as academic performance and college satisfaction (Chemers, et al, 2001; Ramos-Sanchez & Nichols, 2007; Brady-Amoon & Fuertes, 2011). Researchers have also determined that self- efficacy is predictive of good grades and persistence in academics (Zajacova, et al, 2005; Gore, 2006; Majer, 2009; Vuong, et al, 2010). Additionally, the literature on self- efficacy revealed a positive relationship between self-efficacy and effective coping strategies, which help to predict a student’s ability to adjust to and persist in the college environment (Brady-Amoon & Fuertes, 2011; Davenport & Lane, 2006; Gore, 2006; Ramos-Sanchez & Nichols, 2007). Overall, the findings on self-efficacy revealed a positive relationship between self-efficacy and many determinants of academic success and persistence. The literature available on academic persistence gives insight into the different factors that impact a college student’s intent and ability to persist towards degree completion. Some of those factors include the amount and type of financial aid students receive, social support from family and friends, faculty mentoring and internal factors such as sense of belonging, motivation, determination, faith and resourcefulness (Alon 2011; Barbatis, 2010; Gloria & Ho, 2003; Hu & Ma, 2010; Morrow & Ackerman, 2012). The findings of these studies can begin to assist academic administrators, faculty, academic advisors and other interested stakeholders in developing interventions to increase persistence and retention rates among minority and first-generation college students.
  • 42. 33 Critique of the Previous Research The research available on first-generation college students presented a bleak picture of their ability to succeed and persist in higher education. The research that has been conducted on this student population only examined their demographics in light of the difficulties and challenges that they present. The literature does not offer any insight into how first-generation ethnic minority female college students can succeed in spite of the factors that threaten their success. Additionally, the majority of research studies conducted on first-generation college students were quantitative in nature. These studies framed the academic success and persistence of first-generation college students as a comparison to continuing generation college students. However, these studies failed to give insight into how some first-generation college students are able to succeed and persist in spite of the challenges presented by uncontrollable demographics. Therefore, the present study will explore the academic success and persistence of first-generation, ethnic minority female college students in the context of a qualitative study that seeks to bring about a greater understanding of their personal academic experiences. Summary First-generation college students are an at-risk student population who face many challenges in their attempts to succeed and persist toward degree completion. A review of the literature available on this student population revealed that they are less likely to succeed when compared to their continuing generation counterparts (Bui 2002; Choy, 2001). Up until now, the majority of the research available on first-generation college students has been quantitative in nature, which presents limitations towards developing a thorough understanding of their academic experiences. The lack of qualitative research
  • 43. 34 available on first-generation college students revealed the need to explore the academic experiences of first-generation college students from a qualitative approach. By exploring academic success and persistence as perceived by first-generation college students, this study seeks to fill a gap in the literature and obtain a greater understanding of the factors that assist these students in succeeding and persisting towards degree completion.
  • 44. 35 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY Purpose of the Study The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore the personal experiences of academic success and persistence among first-generation, ethnic minority college students. Participants in this study included first-generation, ethnic minority female college students who had completed at least one semester of higher education and were in various stages of completing a Bachelor’s Degree program. The main research question guiding the study was: How do first-generation, ethnic minority female college students describe their experiences of academic persistence and success. The study also explored the following sub questions: 1. What motivates first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students to persist in college? 2. How does the self-concept of first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students affect their academic success? 3. What barriers do first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students have to overcome to achieve academic success? Research Design In a review of the literature available on first generation college students, it becomes evident that the majority of the research has employed a quantitative research design. In an effort to fill this gap in the literature, this research study used a qualitative research design and employed a transcendental phenomenological framework. Phenomenology was appropriate for this particular study because this qualitative
  • 45. 36 approach seeks to describe a common meaning for several individuals for a specific phenomenon (Creswell, 2013). This approach coincides with the purpose of this research study since it attempted to explain the experiences of academic success and persistence among first generation, ethnic minority female college students. As stated by Steiha (2010) in her qualitative research study of academic persistence, a phenomenological research design allows the researcher to explore the students’ perceptions of the many different factors that affect the decisions they make during the college going process. Additionally, Longwell-Grice and Longwell-Grice (2008) noted that a qualitative approach was essential in extending the research beyond that which simply compares first-generation students to their continuing generation counterparts and fails to explore other factors that impact their college experiences. This particular study centered on exploring the lived experiences of first-generation, ethnic minority female college students and their individual perceptions of academic success and persistence. According to Moustakas (1994), the primary source of knowledge in phenomenological research is perception, which is a source that cannot be questioned. Likewise, transcendental phenomenology stresses the subjective nature of discovering the essence of personal experiences. The advantages of this particular design include the fact that it allows the researcher to study phenomena that are unapproachable through quantitative research methods. Also, it identifies and acknowledges the data of experience as significant in understanding human behavior. Lastly, a phenomenological approach to the research allows the researcher to explore the essence of an experience rather than seeking for measurements and explanations. Overall, the aim of phenomenological research is to determine the meaning of an experience for those who
  • 46. 37 have had the particular experience or phenomena being studied and who have the ability to provide a rich description of that experience (Moustakas). Based on the studies examined that utilized a qualitative research design and the advantages and goals of phenomenological research as discussed above, this study was qualitative in nature and followed the strategy of transcendental phenomenology in the data collection and data analysis process. Target Population and Participant Selection According to Chen & Carroll (2005), 22% of students in the nation who entered postsecondary education between the years of 1992 and 2000 were first generation college students or those whose parents had not completed a college degree. As of 2008, this population of students accounted for approximately 24% of all undergraduate college enrollments (Engle & Tinto). Additionally, first-generation college students were more likely to be Black or Hispanic and to come from low income families (Chen & Carroll, 2005). These students are also more likely to be 24 years of age or older (Choy, 2001). Lastly, women and ethnic minorities make up a significant proportion of the first- generation student population (Bui 2002; Choy, 2001; Engle & Tinto, 2008; Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 2008). According to Creswell (2009, 2013), researchers employing a qualitative research design purposefully select participants and/or research sites that will be most beneficial in providing him with a greater understanding of the research problem. For this reason, the researcher targeted first generation college students at a non-traditional, private university who were willing to share their personal experiences of academic success and persistence. The sample consisted only of first-generation, ethnic minority female
  • 47. 38 college students who had completed at least one semester of higher education. The research participants consisted of students in different phases of their degree program, including those who had recently graduated from the University. Research participants were sent an introductory email describing the purpose of the study and soliciting their voluntary participation in the research study. Students were provided with the researcher’s email address and telephone number and assured that all contact would remain confidential. After the initial contact, the researcher screened interested participants to ensure that they met all of the criteria for the study. Those students who met all of the criteria for the study and who were still interested in volunteering for the research study were scheduled to meet with the researcher individually for a one-on-one face to face interview. Creswell (2013) states the importance of receiving individuals’ consent to participate in the study. For this reason, the researcher provided the participant with the informed consent and received both written and oral consent from the participant prior to the face to face interview. The chosen sample for the research study included ten ethnic minority women from different ethnic backgrounds at different phases in their degree programs. According to Creswell (2013), a phenomenology study typically includes a group of individuals who have all experienced the same phenomenon. This group may range anywhere in size from three to four to ten to fifteen research participants. Procedures Data collection procedures for this research study consisted of one face to face interview with each participant that lasted approximately 45 minutes to 1 hour in length.
  • 48. 39 Moustakas (1994) suggested the development of an interview guide that consists of open- ended questions that are intended to evoke the most comprehensive account of the participant’s experience of the phenomenon in question. For this reason, the researcher took great care in formulating an interview guide that would achieve this suggested end. Additionally, during the interviews, the researcher was mindful of utilizing the proper language and the correct timing of asking questions to encourage full disclosure of the participant’s experience (Moustakas). Each interview session began with the researcher collecting basic information from the participant, which included demographic information, the amount of time the participant had been enrolled in her current degree program and her expected graduation date. These basic questions were designed to give the participant time to get comfortable with the researcher and the interview process. Afterwards, the researcher utilized the interview guide to collect information about the participant’s initial and continued motivations for college, barriers to academic success and perception of her ability to persist despite these obstacles and challenges. The interviews were audiotaped in an effort to eliminate any disruption that would be caused by constant note-taking by the researcher. The audiotapes were also collected to assist the researcher in the transcription and analysis of the data collected. All of the interviews were held in a private room located on the college campus that ensured the participant was comfortable and in familiar surroundings. Instruments A phenomenological study consists primarily of in-depth interviews in an effort to provide the researcher with a rich understanding of the phenomenon in question
  • 49. 40 (Creswell, 2013). For this reason, the researcher is the instrument used to collect data in the research study. The qualitative interview allows the research participant to share rich descriptions of specific phenomenon that the researcher is then able to interpret and analyze (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006). Creswell (2013) stressed the importance of selecting the type of interview that is most practical and will yield information that will be useful in answering the research questions. For this reason, the researcher utilized a semi-structured qualitative interview as this is often the sole source of data collection for most qualitative studies (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006). The interview was conducted as a one-on-one face to face interview since this method has been identified as one that allows the researcher to delve deeply into the social and personal aspects of the phenomenon being studied ((DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree). The semi-structured interview guide contained questions about the participant’s motivations for attending college, barriers to academic success and overall experiences of being a first-generation college student. The interview questions were field tested by three experts in the field of higher education prior to finalizing the interview guide. One of the responsibilities of the researcher as the sole instrument of data collection is to ensure that the interview is conducted in an environment that will elicit honest and comprehensive responses from the participant (Moustakas, 1994). For this reason, the researcher conducted all interviews in a private room that encouraged participants to provide information freely and uninhibited. Research Questions This study was guided and informed by two research questions. The central research question was, “How do first-generation, ethnic minority female college students
  • 50. 41 describe their experiences of academic persistence and success?” This study also explored the sub-questions: 1. What motivates first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students to persist in college? 2. How does the self-concept of first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students affect their academic success? 3. What barriers do first-generation, ethnic minority, female college students have to overcome to achieve academic success? Data Analysis For the purposes of this particular study, the data analysis strategy described by Moustakas (1994) was followed. During the data analysis process, the researcher listened to the audiotaped recording of each interview several times in an attempt to gather a firm understanding of each participant’s personal experience of academic success and persistence. Afterwards, the researcher transcribed participants’ responses to develop a narrative of participants’ experiences as first-generation, ethnic minority female college students. During the second phase of the data analysis process, the researcher began transcribing each interview. This consisted of listing each expression relevant to the phenomenon in question and then eliminating those expressions that did not contribute to an understanding of the participant’s experience (Moustakas, 1994). By doing so, the researcher was then able to cluster the information into themes that described the phenomenon of the research participants.
  • 51. 42 Once these themes were identified, the researcher was then able to use them to construct an individual textural description of the experience for each participant. Additionally, the researcher constructed a structural description of the experience for each participant in the study. Afterwards, a textural-structural description of the meanings and essence of the experience, which included the identified themes, was constructed. Lastly, the researcher was able to construct a composite description of the phenomenon that represented the experience of the entire group as a whole (Moustakas). Ethical Considerations Prior to selecting and contacting research participants to be included in this study, the researcher underwent two separate Institutional Review Board (IRB) processes. Prior to completing the IRB process for Capella University, the researcher was required to complete the IRB process for the chosen research site. The IRB application outlined the purpose of the proposed study as well as the methods that would be employed to ensure the safety and well-being of the research participants. The research site approved the IRB application and informed the researcher that the research study could be conducted after receiving approval from Capella University. Next, the researcher completed the IRB process for Capella University, which is required prior to contacting any research participants for the study. The researcher employed the ethical guidelines set forth by both institutions to ensure the safety, well- being and confidentiality of the research participants at all times. All students who were interested in participating in the study were screened and then met with the researcher individually and privately. The researcher provided each participant with detailed information concerning the research study to ensure voluntary
  • 52. 43 participation. The researcher read the informed consent to each participant and received both verbal and written confirmation of informed consent from each participant. Participants were informed of minimal risk associated with the study and were given the freedom to discontinue the study at any time throughout the course of the interview process. The participants were provided information concerning available counseling resources provided by the research site. In accordance with the American Counseling Association Code of Ethics (2005), all data should always remain in a locked file when not in use. The researcher was the only individual with access to the locked file containing participant’s information. Additionally, the researcher also stored data on a password protected computer, to which only she had the password. The research site and each participant were given code names to ensure that no personal identifiers exist. The researcher will maintain written documents and audio-taped recordings in a locked file and a password protected computer for up to seven years after the completion of the research study. After this time, the researcher will destroy all written documents by shredding and any information contained on the computer by deleting. Also, all audio-taped recordings will be deleted from the researcher’s personal audio recorder. Expected Findings It was expected that the research participants in this study would be truthful in sharing their personal experiences of academic success and persistence. Additionally, the researcher expected that the findings of this particular study would add to the literature currently available on first generation college students and inform researchers and practitioners in the field. The researcher was conscious of how her personal experiences
  • 53. 44 of being a first generation, ethnic minority female college student could affect the findings of the research study. For this reason, keeping a personal journal, seeking the assistance of her mentor and setting aside any preconceptions and biases were essential to the integrity of the research findings.
  • 54. 45 CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Introduction: The Study and the Researcher The researcher is a first-generation, ethnic minority female college student who represented the first in her family to successfully complete a college degree. Her professional background includes working as an educator in the field of higher education as well as counseling. This study represents the first time that the researcher has conducted a phenomenological qualitative study. The personal and academic experiences of the researcher mirrored those of the research participants in this particular study. The researcher experienced many obstacles and hardships associated with being a first- generation college student and lacking that much desired support of family members and friends. In a qualitative study, the researcher is the primary instrument of data collection (Creswell, 2013). For this reason, it is necessary for the research to engage in a process of self-reflection to ensure that his personal experiences and biases do not interfere with the collection and interpretation of the data. The researcher acknowledged the possibility of bias in relation to her personal experiences and thus comprehended the importance of suspending any judgment of the participants’ experiences in order to gain a greater understanding of those experiences. In this particular study, the researcher organized all of the recruitment efforts and performed all of the data collection and analysis with the support and assistance of her mentor. The researcher was driven by a strong desire to gain a better understanding of the experiences of academic success and persistence among first-generation, ethnic minority female college students.
  • 55. 46 Description of the Sample (Participants) The participants consisted of nine first-generation, ethnic minority female college students enrolled at a private, faith-based Liberal arts college in Southeastern Wisconsin. They ranged in age from 28 years old to 48 years old. One participant self-identified as an Asian American, one as an African American, two as Native American, one as Puerto- Rican, and four as Hispanic/Mexican. All participants completed their interviews and all data were analyzed. No participants dropped out of the study. Table 1 Description of Participants Participants Identified Ethnicity Age Degree Program____________ P1 Native American 43 Communications P2 Puerto Rican 32 Business Administration P3 Hispanic 48 Business Administration P4 Asian American 46 Accounting P5 African American 29 Accounting P6 Hispanic 37 Human Services P7 Native American 39 Liberal Arts P8 Hispanic 28 Management Information P9 Hispanic 34 Human Services
  • 56. 47 Research Methodology Applied to the Data Analysis Moustakas’ (1994) transcendental phenomenological method was used to analyze the experiences of academic success and persistence among the first-generation, ethnic minority female college students in this study. The data was collected in the form of one on one, informal interviews utilizing an interview guide of open-ended questions. The main research question guiding this study was “How do first generation, ethnic minority female college students explain their experiences of academic success and persistence?” It also explored the following sub questions: 1. What motivates first-generation, ethnic minority female college students to persist in college? 2. How does the self-concept of first-generation, ethnic minority female college students affect their academic success? 3. What barriers do first-generation, ethnic minority female college students have to overcome to achieve academic success? The researcher conducted nine face-to-face interviews with the research participants using open-ended questions as a guide to exploring their experiences. After conducting the interviews, the researcher developed transcripts for each interview, which were then reviewed by the researcher. Afterwards, the researcher engaged in the process of phenomenological reduction, which consisted of eliminating those expressions that did not contribute to an understanding of the participant’s experience (Moustakas, 1994). Once this process was completed, the researcher clustered the information into themes that described the phenomena in question.
  • 57. 48 After themes were extracted from the data, the researcher developed individual textural and structural descriptions for each participant. Next, the researcher was able to develop a composite textural and structural description by integrating the textural and structural descriptions of each participant. The final composite represented the essence of the experience for all research participants included in the study. Presentation of the Data and Results of the Analysis This section presents the meaning units for each research participant regarding their experiences of academic success and persistence as first-generation, ethnic minority female college students. The list of meaning units is followed by individual textural, structural and textural-structural descriptions for each participant. Afterwards, the composite textural, structural and textural-structural description is explored. Finally, the essence of the experience of academic success and persistence as a first-generation, ethnic minority female college student is revealed. The analysis of the data was focused on the lived experiences of first-generation, ethnic minority female college students in their own words as expressed during the interviews. The researcher encountered no difficulties in the data analysis process. The meaning units for each participant are listed below: Textural Themes, Participant 1 Family as motivation 1. “I know I need to do this for us because I need to get us out of where we are.” Family/Peers as support 1. “It’s really not their job to be supportive, but it’s nice to know that I have friends that are.” 2. “If I say I have to read, you’re going to have to go in the bedroom and watch T.V.”
  • 58. 49 Lack of support from family 1. “It’s really difficult for them to be supportive when they didn’t have the initiative to do so and they are happy where they are.” Self-Motivation/Determination 1. “ You gotta do what you gotta do to get where you want.” 2. “Sheer determination to get us out of where we are.” 3. “Once you get your mind set on something, go ahead and stand in my way if you want to.” 4. “Don’t let anybody or anything stand in your way. Don’t pay attention to what they say. Do what you feel in your heart to do.” Education as key to advancement 1. “The company I work for is an awesome company, but there is absolutely no room for advancement.” 2. “As much as I hate to leave the company at some point I’m going to have to because I’m not going to be 50 and still doing collections.” Finances as barrier 1. “The expense, and it’s even more expensive for online.” The role of the college 1. “You (the college) just have to be more flexible because sometimes kids get sick and you can’t hold that against somebody.” Textural Description, Participant 1 Participant 1 was never encouraged to go to college by her family because as she stated, “It’s really difficult for them to be supportive when they didn’t have the initiative to do so and they are happy where they are.” She realized after years of working in collections that she would not be able to advance in the field without a higher education. For this reason, she decided to pursue her Bachelor’s Degree in Communications. Participant 1 spoke of her husband as an additional motivation for her to return to college because of his disability, which renders him incapable of working. She stated, “I know I need to do this for us because I need to get us out of where we are.” She views her education as the key to advancing and experiencing a life better than that of her mother and father. Participant 1 spoke of the difficult life that her mother and father
  • 59. 50 experienced because of their lack of education. Concerning her mother, she stated, “If she would have had an education, she would have been able to work her way up more quickly.” Participant 1 expressed her desire to advance in her career by obtaining a higher education degree. As she stated, “I’m not going to be 50 and still doing collections.” Participant 1 spoke of her husband as being both a motivation and an obstacle to completing her degree because of his physical disability. When speaking of obstacles she stated, “On the flip side, it’s him because he is sick, so sometimes it’s really difficult to do what I need to do.” She spoke of the importance of having his support in order to be successful as a college student. In giving an example of how her husband works to support her, she stated, “If I say I have to read, you’re going to have to go in the bedroom and watch T.V.” She also spoke of the need to have her husband push her at times when she feels herself getting lazy in turning assignments in on time: “he’s going to have to start pushing me a little bit there too because I get really lazy with it.” Participant 1 was very positive about her ability to complete her degree in spite of the obstacles that she faced. When asked what she would like to have known prior to beginning college, she stated, “the expense, and it’s even more expensive for online.” Finances presented a very significant barrier to Participant 1 and so much to the extent that she was currently taking her classes online due to a lack of transportation. In spite of these situations, Participant 1 constantly spoke of her determination. As she stated, “you gotta do what you gotta do to get where you want.” For Participant 1, academic success and persistence were rooted in the support she received from her husband, her desire to advance in her career and achieve financial
  • 60. 51 freedom, and her determination to succeed. Being a first generation college student presented its challenges, but it also presented Participant 1 with an opportunity that neither her mother nor father had experienced. Participant 1 was confident in her ability to complete her degree program and accomplish her goals. “Strong and going” were the words she expressed when asked about her ability to complete her college degree. It was because of this attitude that Participant 1 has been able to persist in spite of the difficulties that she has faced being a first-generation college student. Structural Description, Participant 1 The first structural theme to emerge for Participant 1 was her relationship to others. Her parents are deceased but when asked what motivated her to continue towards her degree, she emphatically stated, “my husband.” Participant 1 also spoke about the encouragement that she received from some of her co-workers at her place of employment. As she stated, “It’s really not their job to be supportive, but it’s nice to know that I have friends that are.” Her husband’s disability, which renders him incapable of employment is also a driving force for Participant 1. As she stated, her reasons for believing that she can achieve her goals can be defined as “sheer determination to get us out of where we are.” In addition to her determination, Participant 1 stated that the support she receives from her family and peers means “a lot” in her quest to complete her degree program. Participant 1 has also received a lack of support from her family members due to the fact that they don’t see the value of her obtaining a higher education degree. As she stated, ““It’s really difficult for them to be supportive when they didn’t have the initiative to do so and they are happy where they are.” However, in spite of this lack of support,
  • 61. 52 Participant 1 is determined to make a better life for herself and her family. As she stated, “knowing what I need to do for my family right now”, is what gives her the strength to press forward. Her determination is seen even more when she stated, “I don’t care about what yall do, I need to take care of mine.” It is this attitude of sheer determination that has helped Participant 1 to overcome the lack of support from family and persist towards degree completion. The second structural theme to emerge for Participant 1 was relationship to self. She felt very confident in her ability to complete her degree and believed “you gotta do what you gotta do to get where you want. Participant 1 believed that she received her strong sense of “sheer determination” from her father. She believed in her ability to complete her degree program and when asked what advice she would give to other first- generation, ethnic minority female college students who were trying to persist in their degree program, she stated “Don’t let anybody or anything stand in your way. Don’t pay attention to what they say. Do what you feel in your heart to do.” Textural-Structural Description, Participant 1 Participant 1 started going to college after she realized that there was no room for advancement in her current job as a collections agent. Additionally, the fact that her husband is disabled places her in the position as the sole provider for their family. When asked about her original motivations for attending college, she stated “A lot of it is I know I need to do this for us because I need to get us out of where we are.” For this reason, she views education as the key to financial security for herself and her husband. Her relationship to others has played a significant role in her ability to persist in spite of the obstacles that she has faced. Participant 1 looks to her husband as her
  • 62. 53 primary supporter not only in her education but in other areas of her life as well. Participant 1 gives an example of just how supportive her husband is: “I stopped smoking in December and he’s been really supportive of that.” Not only is her relationship to her husband important to her endeavor to be academically successful and persist towards degree completion, but the support of her peers means a great deal to her as well. Participant 1 does not have parents to support her in this endeavor because they are both deceased. However, she has experienced a lack of support from other family members who did not attend college. Participant 1 does not allow their lack of support to discourage her. In her words, “It’s really difficult for them to be supportive when they didn’t have the initiative to do so and they are happy where they are.” Participant 1 has determined within herself that she is going to persist and achieve academic success in spite of the challenges she has experienced with her husband’s disability, financial challenges and lack of support from family members. She has made up in her mind that others can do whatever they want to do, but she is determined to let nothing stand in the way of her achieving her goals. As she stated in the interview, “Once you get your mind set on something, go ahead and stand in my way if you want to.” Textural Themes, Participant 2 Lack of support from family 1. “My family told me I would never amount to anything.” 2. “I had a child when I was 16, and my parents told me I would never grow up to be anything.” 3. “My parents are semi-supportive; not really.” 4. “My parents really did try to talk me out of doing a grad degree.”
  • 63. 54 Support from family/peers 1. “I have my supportive husband [and] his family is really good.” 2. “I can drop her [my daughter] off so that I can go to class and not have to worry about what she’s doing and where she is.” 3. “My boss is fantastic…..If I have a paper I’m working on or if something’s just eating at me…..I can always say I need to take a couple of hours out of my day and work on this.” 4. “My husband of course. He’s been there since the beginning, which is 2005.” 5. “My in-law family is wonderful.” Lack of support as motivation 1. “Part of it was just to stick it to them and then part of it was for my own.” 2. “Just to prove them wrong is really what drives me.” 3. “I think just the trudging ahead and just keep going and no matter what if you’re having a rough day or the paper sucks or whatever you just gotta keep going because if you stop you’re going to prove them right.” Financial security as motivation 1. “I didn’t want to work a minimum wage job for my entire life. I wanted to have more for myself than I had growing up cause my parents were not well off at all.” 2. “I always said I wanted to be able to provide for myself and my family and not have to rely on anyone else” Finances as barrier to success 1. “Financial is always a big motivator because even though you have student loans and you have whatever, when you’re done with school and you have 50, 60, 70,000 dollars in debt that you come out with, that’s a big deterrent for a lot of people.” 2. “It’s an expensive feat to take on.” 3. “One of the big things that barred me from going to college right after I graduated from high school was not knowing that there were financial options out there to help me.” 4. “I wish someone somewhere would have told me that those things [financial aid] were available because I probably would have went right away.” 5. “I also wish before I even went to community college way back when that I would have known about grants”