1. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
(EVALUATION, DIDACTIC
RESOURSES AND PLANNING
EDUARDO HEREDIA ARBOLEDA

2. INTERPERSONAL SKILLS IN THE EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

4. • What is the difference between a boss
and a leader?
• Is there a leadership gene?
• Can you think of worldwide leaders and
describe them in terms of personality?

5. The leadership gene,
known as rs4950, is an
inherited DNA sequence
associated with people
taking charge. Scientists
accept
that leadership skills are
also learned. But
the gene may provide the
vital push needed to make
someone into a manager
rather than a minion.
Behavioral Theories believe that people can become leaders through
the process of teaching, learning and observation. Leadership is a set
of skills that can be learned by training, perception, practice and
experience over time.

6. Leadership, reasoning, and emotions

8. • Logic is the best route to a favorable decision
• To calculate the subjective utility of a series of options
• Cost benefit analysis, depressing losses and eliminating
alternatives
• The decision-making process must be free of emotions and
feelings.

10. “I am therefore I think” (Antonio Damasio)

11. Emotions and feelings are necessary for rationality

12. What happens if the emotional center of the brain is damaged?

13. MANAGEMENT STYLE MODELS
The best known of the management style models are based on
the premiss that every manager has two main concerns. These
concern (1) to achieve results (i.e. he or she is ‘task’ oriented);
and (2) for relationships (i.e. he or she is ‘people’ oriented).

15. Assertive
• wants things done his or her way;
• ‘tells’ rather than ‘listens’;
• doesn’t worry too much about other people’s feelings or
opinions;
• is aggressive if challenged;
• ‘drives’ things ahead; and
• checks up on staff.
Solicitous
• cares about people;
• wants to be liked;
• avoids open conflict – smooths and coaxes;
• ‘if the school is “happy”, that is all that matters’;
• praises achievement to the point of flattering;
• glosses over slackness or poor performance;
• tends towards ‘management by committee’; and
• is helpful.
Motivational/problem-solving
• agrees goals and expects achievement;
• monitors performance against goals;
• helps staff members to find solutions to poor performance;
• faces up to conflict calmly;
• agrees and monitors action plans;
• involves staff in decisions which affect them;
• delegates clearly; and
• takes decisions as and when needed.
Passive/political (NB People whose concern is neither for
results nor for people are often frustrated, disillusioned or feel
under threat. They may respond either ‘passively’ or by
indulging in considerable ‘political’ activity):
Passive behaviour:
• does no more than is required;
• resists change;
• becomes ‘slack’ if not checked; and
• blames other people, the ‘children of today’, innovation, the
government, etc., for creating intolerable conditions.
Political behaviour: • is very concerned about status; • is quick
to criticize; and • draws attention to the faults of others.
Administrative • goes ‘by the book’; • maintains the
existing system; • is conscientious rather than creative or
innovative; and • is steady

16. Is there some special personal magic which enables some teachers to quieten
excitement merely by arriving at the scene, quell misbehaviour with a glance,
make classrooms bustle with activity and hum with cheerful industry?

17. RULE ONE: GET THEM IN
This rule emphasises the point that a lesson which makes a brisk start will avoid the
difficulties which can arise if pupils are not promptly engaged in useful activity. The process
of ‘getting them in’ can be seen to involve three phases: greeting, seating and starting.
Greeting
Simply by being there before the class arrives the teacher establishes the role of host
receiving the class and he is quietly able to underline his authority by deciding when pupils
are invited to enter the room.
Seating
Although arrangements will vary according to the type of lesson, age of pupils and nature of
activity, it is important that initially teachers decide where students should sit.
Starting
Starting a lesson smoothly and promptly depends not only on managing the physical
entrance and disposition of the student body but also the mental tuning-in of the student
mind.

18. • What is your strategies and solutions for
dealing with a disruptive classroom?
• What Is The Difference Between A
Rule And A Procedure?

19. RULE TWO: GET THEM OUT
Though most disciplinary problems arise from a poor start to a lesson, the next most vulnerable time
providing many opportunities for trouble making is the end of a teaching session.
Concluding
the conclusion of the lesson becomes a reward for earlier effort, particularly for those who may find
the main subject content a bit of a struggle.
Dismissing
As Gray and Richer (1988) suggest, ‘Arms folded, sitting up straight!’ or similar ritualised instructions
may be appropriate for controlling young children, but they are more likely to provoke confrontation
with older pupils.
Example:
Teacher: It’s time for PE now, everybody get ready. Table 1, line up at the door. Don’t forget to pass your
papers in. OK Table 2, go ahead. Put your counting sticks away, everyone. Billy be quiet. Why aren’t you
cleaning up?
Students: Ms Jones we need our coats; it’s cold out.
Teacher: For goodness sake, everybody sit down. You are much too noisy.

20. RULE THREE: GET ON WITH IT
In this context ‘it’ refers to the main part of the lesson, the nature of its content and the manner of
its presentation. Pupils’ feelings of self-esteem and sense of competence in a particular subject area
will depend to a considerable extent on the teacher’s ability to ‘get on with it’.
Content
Difficulties in learning and consequent problems with behaviour often happen because the content
of a lesson is not matched to the ability of the pupils to whom it is delivered. Methods and
materials should also be closely examined to see that learning experiences are suitable and study
tasks are attainable for pupils with a range and diversity of aptitudes and abilities.
Manner
The atmosphere in a classroom is like any ‘weather system’ subject to change and the effective
teacher is skilled at spotting and dispersing a minor disturbance before it builds up into a major
depression.
‘Withitness’ where there are difficulties in reading or comprehension, help can be provided through
topic guidelines, summaries and key word charts giving explanations and spellings.
‘Smoothness’ refers to the ease with which pupils move from one activity to another.
Facial expression and tone of voice are as important to any communication as making sure that it is
being heard.

21. RULE FOUR: GET ON WITH THEM T
Teachers develop good personal relationships with their pupils by fostering mutual trust and respect.
Who’s who?
Awareness of individual differences begins with the mundane but essential task of learning names and
putting them accurately to faces.
What’s going on?
Mobility involves the avoidance of teachers becoming ‘deskbound’ by queues of children waiting for
attention or by over-reliance on a lecturing style of teaching.
FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS
Following the four rules outlined above will not in itself provide a panacea for trouble-free teaching, but it
does suggest a framework for analysing aspects of lesson planning and management which contribute to a
productive partnership in learning between teachers and pupils. By attending to the different phases of their
lesson and reflecting on personal relationships with pupils,

22. • What are the Qualities of an Effective
Classroom Manager?

23. Reducing sources of friction
Francis (1975) as noise, equipment, movement and chatter.
• Noise, for example, might involve shuffling feet or papers, shifting of desks or scraping of chairs, unnecessary
coughing or, in one of the worst manifestations.
• Equipment loss or induced malfunction is another potent source of disruption, particularly with the excellent
opportunities provided for the display of injured and exaggerated innocence. Protests that ‘I did have a ruler,
but someone’s taken it’, or ‘I can’t help it, if the pencil keeps breaking’ can be especially irritating, if the teacher
feels the class shares his suspicion that this is a contrived event.
• Movement is inevitably more of a problem now than in the days of static sessions of ‘chalk and talk’. With more
fluid group activities, there is a temptation to wander off for a gossip and a giggle.
• Chatter too, presents more possibilities for dispute in an educational setting which encourages youngters to
comment on their work, than in an era where talking except in answer to a teacher’s question was simply
prohibited.

24. Tension decontamination through humour
When there is a confrontation between teacher and pupil, it is as if the classroom atmosphere
becomes contaminated by the invisible poisoned gas given off by anger and tension. The air can
be cleared by a well-timed joke or comment which draws attention to the funny side of the
situation.
Hypodermic affection
Coping with anxiety and frustration can be helped by an ‘injection’ of praise or affection. The
teacher needs to make sure that the needle with which this injection is administered is not a
blunt one.
Direct appeal
Sometimes developing trouble can be averted by the teacher making a direct appeal to the
pupil’s sense of values.

25. MANIPULATING SURFACE BEHAVIOUR
Planned ignoring
Some provocative behaviour will rapidly exhaust itself unless attended to by the teacher. However, the
emphasis must be on planned ignoring, rather than just hoping the nuisance will go away.
Signal interference
If apparent ignorance is not working, the next stage requires an attempt to inhibit the unacceptable
behaviour by making it clear that its source has been spotted. Once eye contact has been made, the
teacher’s signals may take
the form of gestures such as using a frown, raised eyebrows, a shake of the head, or a wave of an
admonishing forefinger.
Proximity control
If a signal has failed, restlessness and excitement may be calmed by the physical proximity of the
teacher. To be successful, ‘proximity control’ needs to be tried at an early stage, before misbehaviour
has got very far.
Interest boosting
Sometimes an alternative activity can be suggested: ‘Leave that question for now.
Hurdle help
For some pupils, particular lessons will present immediate problems, or hurdles, which they cannot
surmount without assistance.

26. SELF-EVALUATION
• Students treated as basically good people who want to do the right thing, whose lapses are treated as
due to ignorance or forgetfulness are likely to become the prosocial people they are expected to
become. Students treated as if they are inherently evil or under the control of powerful antisocial
impulses, whose lapses are taken as evidence of immorality rather than just as isolated mistakes,
probably will turn out to be antisocial, just as expected (Good and Brophy, 1980)
• The teacher should relate them to questions about the content and manner of teaching.

27. Misbehaviour is most likely to
result from seeking attention,
escaping from boredom or
warding off inadequacy.

29. Counselling and discussions with disruptive pupils
(Reasoning over emotions)
• The key consideration is not which methods are better than others, but which
form of intervention is most appropriate for which kind of disruptive pupil and
which intervention most appeals to those who make use of it.
• Discussion strategy
PROGRESS IN THE DISCUSSIONS
Door opening questions. ‘Why do you think that Douglas suggested that you
did it?’ and ignore his peripheral comments, such as his proximity to the switch
and repeat her question – ‘Why you?’
‘The lesson was boring’. This would give the teacher an opportunity to make
the pupil aware of the reality of the classroom situation – that learning cannot
be a continuous round of interest and pleasure.

30. THE TEACHER’S AWARENESS OF HER/HIS ROLE
• Tecahers will not divulge any information to another person which might lead to some
enquiries being made without her knowledge of what these are and who is making them,
so that her promise of confidentiality is not broken.
• One positive outcome of the discussion is the pupil’s awareness that she could be an
approachable confidant should he wish to find help with his personal difficulties.
THE GAINS OF THE DISCUSSION
In the talks with students with disruptive behavior, they have found that teacher treats them
with respect as an intelligent and reasonable person.
How about if I promised not to muck about any more – if we had an agreement’. Behavioural
Contract

31. Gradually Assign Responsibility and Leadership
Tauber (1999) states that when you give challenging students responsibility and a leadership role, you
can help them turn their negative selfconcept into one that is positive and their obstructive actions into
helpful ones.
Display a Personal Interest Daily.
The challenging student is more difficult to bond with and often has few adult relationships. As a
teacher, it is important that you go out of your way to show your students that you like and value them.
Drop All Grudges
Don’t take a student’s negative actions personally (Tauber, 1999). Anything he does or says does not
have to do with you. It has to do with him and the particular disorder he has.
Limit Negative Faculty Room Talk
When teachers go to the faculty room and spend their time complaining about difficult students, they
are contributing to the negative cycle of interactions between staff members and students.
Open Parent Conferences with a Positive Statement
This strategy, mentioned earlier as a technique to use during all parent conferences, is especially critical
with conferences with parents of the most challenging students. These parents are so programmed to
hearing negative things about their child that they often come to meetings ready to fight.

32. Tell the Student You Understand Her Feelings
Validating a student’s feelings doesn’t mean that you agree with her actions, but it helps her to
know that her feelings are real, honest, and normal.
Value the Student, Despite the Inappropriate Action
Even when a student does something that is inappropriate and results in a consequence,
remember to tell him that you like him, value him, and know that he’ll make a better choice next
time (Tauber, 1999).

35. • Always protect the safety of all students, including the disruptive student.
• Use the technique requiring the least intervention that will still be
sufficient to address the problem rather than go overboard in your
response.
• Be sure that your response doesn’t cause more of a disturbance than
the student’s disruption does.
• Encourage students to examine their behavior and make an appropriate
choice.

36. Shrigley (1985) says that 40 percent of classroom disruptions can be handled appropriately through
the use of nonverbal responses by the teacher.
Planned ignoring may work in a few situations, but a more effective nonverbal response that can be
applied in most situations is monitoring. This includes a combination of proximity, silence, and a
“look.”
When nonverbal interventions don’t work, you need to move up the hierarchy to verbal
intervention.
• Speak about the situation and not the student: “John, it is disrespectful to be talking when I have
asked for your attention. Give me your attention now.”
• Give specific directions: “Celia, when I ask for your attention, I want you to put your pencil down
and look at me.”
• Intervene in a timely manner: “David, I just asked you to give me your attention. Please do so now.”

37. There are four types of verbal interventions you can use: making
inferential statements, calmly saying the student’s name, asking
questions, and using “I” statements.

38. Imagine that you have asked for the
attention of the class, and all students have complied except for Terry. You
have tried nonverbal interventions, verbal interventions, and demands,
with no response from Terry. At this point, you walk up to Terry and very
quietly and privately say, “Terry, I have asked you repeatedly to give me
your attention and you have failed to do so. Go to Room 104 for processing
now, please.” The happy ending to the story is that at this point Terry
knows you mean business and quickly complies. However, if he responds
with, “That’s not fair. You don’t make anyone else do that,” you should
very calmly repeat your directive: “Terry, that’s not the point. Go to Room
104 now.” If he says, “That’s not fair. I’m not going,” the problem has
escalated and he is now noncompliant. At this point, you increase the
consequence because of the new issue of noncompliance. You then say
something like, “Terry, I’ve told you twice to go to Room 104 and you have
not complied. Pick up your things and go to the office now.”

39. The philosophy of
discipline
“What is your philosophy of discipline?”
and “What is your philosophy of education?”

43. Discipline, class control, classroom management—by whatever name you call it—keeping order
in the classroom is a teacher’s greatest concern. You may not like that fact; you may wish it
weren’t true. But it is. That’s a given in the daily life of teachers. Discipline is so crucial, so basic
to everything else in the classroom, that most educators agree: it is the one thing that makes or
breaks teachers (Charles, 1981, p. 13)

44. The principle of identity is a classic principle of logic and philosophy, according to which every entity
is identical with itself. For example, Aristotle is identical to himself (to Aristotle), the Sun is identical
to itself, this apple is identical to itself, etc.

45. “To send a future teacher into a school without a
functioning understanding of classroom
management strategies is unconscionable . . . ”
(Morehead, 1996, p. 121).
“The loss of governance over a class was the highest
form of incompetence, taking precedence over poor
reading and inadequate moral development.”
(Bettencourt, 1982, p. 51),
Is it possible to legislate the sympathy?

49. • No classroom management technique will be effective for long if effective and engaging
teaching is absent.
• Effective teaching, perhaps the most difficult job of all in our society, is actually a
preventative discipline measure that keeps students so involved and interested that they are
not inclined to cause problems.
• Is effective teaching all that is needed? No. You must understand that apprentices have a
personal history and experience that sometimes goes beyond your influence.
• Does common sense have a place in education?
• Even the best teachers will experience discipline problems now and again— discipline is an
unavoidable and critical part of classroom management.

51. • Wolfgang and Glickman (1980) early on substituted the generic term school of thought as the basis for
their framework.
• Interventionists believe that children develop according to environmental conditions. As a classroom
teacher, you are one of those conditions. A teacher’s job is to control the environment by implementing a
logical system.
• At the other extreme, noninterventionists believe in providing a supportive, facilitating environment for
students. A faith exists that the student possesses an internal motivation that, if simply nurtured (not
controlled), will blossom.
• Between these two extremes are interactionalists. They believe that conflicts cannot be resolved without
shared responsibility, without full participation in decision making by all the participants in a conflict

53. • Almost fifty years ago, French and Raven (1960) identified five specific bases of social power that can
be used by educators to influence students. Social power is exercised in all human contacts. These five
bases are coercive, reward, legitimate, referent, and expert power.
Coercive Power
Because students perceive teachers to be in a position to mete out punishment, students allow teachers
to dictate their behavior.
Legitimate Power
Students perceive that a teacher has the right to prescribe behavior. Legitimate power operates on the
basis that people accept the social structure of institutions—homes, churches, the military, schools.
Reward Power
Students allow teachers to exert power over them because they perceive that the teacher is in a position
to pass out or withhold desired rewards.
Expert Power
Finally, we come to French and Raven’s expert power. With expert power, students perceive that the
teacher has special knowledge or expertise; they respect the teacher professionally
Referent Power
In cases of referent power, probably the most powerful of the five social bases, students identify with the
teacher. They respect and are attracted to the teacher personally.

59. Is technology totally going
to replace the role of
teachers?

60. • Patricia K. Kuhl and her research team demonstrated through several experiments that the role of
teacher, now and in a futuristic outlook, is going to be irreplaceable. (human contact generates
emotions anger, hate, etc)
• The learning process of the human brain takes place in three types of memories: semantic, episodic,
and online memory.
• Human beings store new data in the episodic memory; in addition this type of memory is segmented
into three stages: attention, consolidation, and evocation.
• Diet and sleep is important in consolidating memory.
• Attention is the most important stage of learning, and for it to occur, it is mandatory that the orator
manipulates adequately the role of motivation, example, inspiration. In the actuality, the neuroscience
argues that the only way the human brain learns is when it is motivated, inspired and when it sees an
example. (Manes & Niro, 2015).

62. In motivating people we should be concerned with the needs and potential of three
parties:
(1) The group which we are managing or in which we manage.
(2) The individuals who make up that group.
(3) The ‘clients’ (pupils, parents, etc.) of the school, college or other organization in
which we all work.
If people do not feel committed towards a given result or activity, the only
motivations at our disposal are those of the carrot and stick – reward and
punishment.

63. People work in order to satisfy some need. The need may be to achieve fame or
power, to serve other people or simply to earn the money to live. It may even be
the rather negative need to avoid punishment.
Most motivational theorists have therefore concentrated their attention on
(1) examining human needs; and
(2) considering how the needs are met and can be better met in work.
People work at their best when they are achieving the greatest satisfaction from
their work.

65. Axiology

66. What is didactics?
Where is it located?
What is it about?
What is it for?

67. To refer to didactics, it is necessary to mention the etymology of that term. According to Amos (2000)
the term didactics comes from the Greek didasticós, which means the one who teaches and concerns
instruction. This is probably why, in the first instance, the term didactics was interpreted as the art or
science of teaching and / or instructing. Amos (2000) mentions that the main objective of the teaching is
focused on two aspects. The first is related to the theoretical field, deepening the knowledge that the
subject develops in a teaching and learning context. The second area concerns the regulation of practice
with respect to the teaching and learning process.

68. Types of didactics
• General didactics can be defined as: "the set of norms and / or principles, in general, on which the
teaching and learning process is based, without considering a specific scope or content" (p. 35).
• The differential didactics or also known as differentiated, it is possible to mention that it acquires a
more specific character because, as Flórez (1994) indicates, it is carried out in a more limited context.
Considering this type of context, aspects of the student's socio-affective and cognitive level are
involved, such as: age, personality, competencies and / or cognitive abilities, among others.
• The specific or also called special didactics is the one that refers, as Flórez (1994) mentions, to the
study of methods and practices for the teaching process of each specialty, discipline or specific
content that is intended to be taught.

69. Knowledge or Content
Centered on educating
Student Teacher
Source: Przesmycki (2000)
Didactic triad

70. Didactic strategies
• Díaz (1998) defines them as: “procedures and resources that the teacher uses to promote significant
learning, intentionally facilitating a processing of new content in a more profound and conscious way” (p.
19).
• “Procedures that the teaching agent uses in a reflexive and flexible way to promote the achievement of
significant learning in students” (Tebar, 2003. p, 7).
• There are two main types of didactic strategies oriented to the achievement of the set objectives: those for
learning and those for teaching. Teaching strategies, used by the teaching agent to promote and facilitate
meaningful student learning. Learning strategies, used by the student to recognize, learn and apply the
information or content.
• Therefore, it is important to highlight that the strategies are focused on meeting the objectives that are set
in a given teaching and learning context, where the teaching and learning strategies are put into practice.
• Teaching strategies promote learning instances, promoting student participation. Regarding learning
strategies, it is relevant to mention that students use them to organize and understand key content or ideas.

71. The strategies, in general, share elements, aspects or features in common that are
considered fundamental components. Monereo (1997) describes them as:
1. Active participants in the teaching and learning process: student and teacher.
2. The content to teach (conceptual, procedural and attitudinal).
3. Spatio-temporal conditions or the learning environment.
4. The student's conceptions and attitudes regarding her own learning process.
5. The time factor.
6. The students' prior knowledge.
7. The type of work that is used (either individual, in pairs or in groups).
8. The evaluation process (either diagnostic, formative or summative).

72. Introduction to didactic strategies
CLASSIFICATION OF DIDACTIC STRATEGIES
Díaz y Hernández (1999)
• the moment of the class in which they will be dealt with, either during the start, development or closure,
• and also the way in which these strategies will be presented, an aspect that is intrinsically related to the
moment of their respective use.
• It is possible to identify the types of strategy in a teaching sequence, through the following scheme:
pre-instructional
Coinstructional
Post-instructional
Teaching and Learning episode

73. • Pre-instructional are those that prepare and alert in relation to what and how to learn, influencing
the activation or generation of prior knowledge-at the beginning.
• Coinstructional support curricular content during the teaching and learning process, promoting
the improvement of attention and detection of the main information-during
• Post-instructional are presented at the end of the teaching episode, allowing a synthetic,
integrative and even critical view of the content-closure, serve to make a final review of the class.
• There is the possibility of using a didactic strategy in the three moments and / or phases of the
class, either at the beginning, development or closing.

74. Elaboration of the
information
Representation of
information
Development of
communication
and group work
Understanding of
the information
Development of
oral and / or
communicative
ability
Essay
Conceptual map Roe palys
Sweep text /
Search for specific
information
Blogs
Graphic organizers
Get together,
think and share
Illustrations Debates
Brainstorming
Mind map Puzzle Inference Oratory
Semantic network
Discussion panel
Philosophical
chairs
Interview
T Table
Comic strip
Synoptic table
Time line

75. • The category of information elaboration is that the student builds knowledge from the generation of new ideas
that allow deeper elaboration at the cognitive level.
• the category of information representation, it should be noted that it reflects the knowledge acquired by
students through a visual or graphic representation, structuring and illustrating the content learned, through a
concept map, synoptic table, etc.
• Regarding the category of communication development and group work, it is possible to mention that this
generates instances to develop activities at a collaborative and cooperative level, putting into practice the ability
to communicate with their peers.
• The category of information comprehension allows the student to structure their mental schemas, analyze the
new content and appropriate it, understanding it in its entirety.
• The last category, development of oral and / or communicative ability, is aimed at putting oral competence into
practice and its role in the elaboration of discourses at the linguistic level.

76. Start Development Closure
Brainstorming Blogs Conceptual map
T table Graphic organizers Mind map
Graphic organizer Timeline Graphic organizers
Illustrations
Debate
Illustrations
Interview
Discussion panel
Role plays
Get together, think and share
Oratory
Essay
Inference
Comic strip
Synoptic table
Philosophical chairs
Text sweep / Search for specific
information

77. 1) Consideration of the general characteristics of the students (at the cognitive, socio-affective level,
motivational factors, knowledge, learning styles, etc.)
2) Type of domain of knowledge in general and of the curricular content in particular, to be addressed.
3) The pedagogical intention, that is, what objective is to be achieved and what pedagogical activities must be
carried out by the student to achieve it.
4) Constant monitoring of the teaching and learning process, of the teaching strategies used (if applicable), as
well as of the progress and learning of the students.

79. • Definition: The conceptual map is a didactic strategy that allows students to organize and
synthesize. It was developed in 1972 at Cornell University, based on David Ausubel's
cognitive learning psychology. (Activity)
• The conceptual map is characterized, as Novak (1998) indicates, for being “an effective way
of representing the capacity of understanding of an individual with respect to a specific field
of knowledge” (p. 13). (Description)
• The main idea on which the construction of a conceptual map is based is that learning is
carried out through the assimilation of new concepts and propositions. (Content)
• The structure of this knowledge, managed by the students, is known as "cognitive
structure".
• The relationships between concepts create meanings that, in turn, are intertwined with
connectors, whose function is to help establish the development, importance, and hierarchy
of key concepts.

80. Description: The phases for the development of concept maps are as follows:
1) It is explained to the students what a conceptual map consists of, making known the guidelines on
the structure, organization and use of both concepts and connectors.
2) After describing the elements, students are asked to choose a topic. To work on the subject, the
latter must research and collect information regarding it.
3) To carry out the construction of their maps, students must summarize the key ideas of the topic they
investigated and put together the base structure of the map.
4) The base structure of the conceptual map must present four elements: title, key concepts (enclosed
in a rectangle or an oval), connectors to establish relationships between concepts and examples
(when appropriate, in order to clarify relationships).
5) The development of the conceptual map must be monitored by the teacher.

83. Advantages and disadvantages: According to Novak (1998), it is possible to distinguish positive and negative
aspects of concept maps when using them as a didactic strategy. These would be:
Advantage
• Emphasizes the conceptual structure of a specific topic.
• The hierarchical organization of key concepts takes a
facilitating role in the learning process.
• It provides a general, broad and integrated vision of the
topic studied, through the key concepts and their
respective connectors.
Disadvantages
• If the students do not understand the meaning of the maps, the
construction of the maps is meaningless.
• There is a possibility that students perceive concept maps as
something complex and difficult to build, which could hinder the
learning process.
• If the teacher provides an example to follow from the conceptual
map, this could negatively affect the student's capacity and / or
organization and synthesis ability.

86. • As Campos (2005) and Díaz Barriga and Hernández (2010) point out, graphic organizers are visual
representations that rescue and graph those relevant aspects of a concept, content or idea related to a
specific theme.
• This type of organizers facilitate the presentation of information, making learning processes more flexible
and allowing students' mental schemas to be better organized.
• Semantic map, Venn diagram, cause and effect diagram, etc.)

87. According to Sánchez (2001), in the square or head –located on the right side– the main problem with which
we will work is written. In the major rectangles or spines –which appear above and below– main categories
are written within which the causes of the problem can be classified. The arrows or minor spines represent
the identification of the causes (if these are complex, they can be broken down into subcauses, locating
themselves in new spines).

89. Present the relationship between some effect and all the possible causes that generate it.

90. Didactic situation: In a university context, it is possible to use a graphic organizer at the end of the
revision of a new content (for example, “environmental problems”). In this way, the organizer can be
used as an evaluation strategy.
• Activity: Prepare a graphic organizer to publicize the causes of environmental problems that affect the
most polluted countries on the planet.
• Description: The teacher publishes the instructions and comments that the graphic organizer selected
to carry out the activity will be the cause-effect diagram (Ishikawa); Then, divide the course into groups
to assign each of them a country. The students carry out an investigation on the environmental
problems of the assigned countries and the main causes of it with the aim of drawing the diagram on a
cardboard to expose it to the rest of the course.
• General Objective: Investigate and expose the causes of the main environmental problems of the
planet using a cause and effect diagram.

91. Advantages
• They facilitate visual learning, as they graphically represent the main concepts and ideas that will be
learned.
• It contributes to developing and improving students' thinking skills, such as: reading, writing and
creativity.
• They are flexible, so they adapt to a wide variety of topics and circumstances.
Disadvantages
• Ignorance of the characteristics of graphic organizers can hinder their development.
• If they are used as an evaluation technique and there is no guideline, the objectivity of the evaluation
process can be easily lost.
• The wrong choice of the most suitable graphic organizers for each content could make the work of the
students difficult.

93. TESTING,
ASSESSING,
AND TEACHING

95. How did that make you feel?
Can tests be positive experiences?
Can they build a person's confidence and
become learning experiences?
Can they bring out the best in students?

96. WHAT IS A TEST?
A test, in simple terms, is a method of measuring a person's ability knowledge,
or performance in a given domain.
Test must measure. Some tests measure general ability. while others focus on
very specific competencies or objectives.

97. ASSESSMENT AND TEACHING
• Assessment is a popular and sometimes misunderstood term in current
educational practice. You might be tempted to think of testing and assessing as
synonymous terms, but they are not.
• Tests are prepared administrative procedures that occur at identifiable times in a
curriculum when learners muster all their faculties to offer peak performance,
knowing that their responses are being measured and evaluated.
• Assessment. on the other hand, is an ongoing process that encompasses a much
wider domain. Whenever a student responds to a question, offers a comment,
or tries out a new word or Structure, the teacher subconsciously makes an
assessment of the student's performance.

98. If you make assessments every time you teach
something in the classroom, does all teaching involve
assessment? Are the teachers constantly assessing
students with no interaction that is assessment-free?

100. CURRENT ISSUES IN CLASSROOMS TESTING
The design of communicative, performance-based assessment rubrics continues to
challenge both assessment experts and classroom teachers.
New Views on Intelligence
• Intelligence was once viewed strictly as the ability to perform (a) linguistic and (b)
Logical-mathematical problem solving.
• However, research on intelligence by psychologists like Howard Gardner. Robert
Sternberg, and Daniel Goleman has begun to turn the psychometric world upside down.
Gardner (1983, 1999), for example, extended the traditional view of intelligence to
seven different components.
• More recently, Daniel Goleman'S (1995) concept of EQ (emotional quotient) has
spurred us to underscore the importance of the emotions in our cognitive processing.
• We were prodded to cautiously combat the potential tyranny of "objectivity" and its
accompanying impersonal approach.

102. Traditional and "Alternative" Assessment

103. Computer -Based Testing
A computer-adaptive test, has been available for many years but has recently
gained momentum.

104. Computer -Based Testing
Tests are essential components of a successful curriculum and one of several partners in the learning
process.

105. Principles of Language
Assessment
• How do you know if a test is effective?
• Can it be given with appropriate administrative constraints?
• Is it dependable?
• Does it accurately measure what you wanted to measure?

106. • There are five cardinal criteria for testing a test: practicality, reliability, validity, authenticity, and
washback.

107. • The spooky story of an administrator who did not review the materials in advance.

108. Reliability
• A reliable test is consistent and dependable. If you give the same test to the same student or matched
students on two different occasions, the test should yield similar results.
• Mousavi, (2002) says that The issue of reliability of a test may best be addressed by considering the
following factors:
Student-Related Reliability
• The most common learner-related issue in reliability is caused by temporary illness, fatigue, a bad day,
anxiety, and other physical or psychological factors, which may make an observed score deviate from
one’s true score. Also included in this category are such factors as a test-taker’s test-wiseness or
strategies for efficient test taking
Rater reliability
• Human error, subjectivity, and bias may enter into the scoring process. Evaluators must take care of 2
parameters.
• Inter-rater reliability, it occurs when 2 or more scores yield inconsistent scores of the same test,
possible for lack of attention to scoring criteria, inexperience, inattention or even preconceived biases.
• Intra-rater reliability, it is a common occurrence for classroom teachers because of unclear scoring
criteria, fatigue, bias towards particular good or bad students, or simply carelessness.

109. Test administration reliability
• Unreliability may also result from the conditions in which the test is administered. For example, noisy
conditions, photocopying variation, the amount of light in different parts of the room, temperature, or
even desks and chairs.
Test reliability
• Sometimes the nature of the test itself can cause measurement errors.
• If the test is too long, test-takers may become fatigued and hastily respond incorrectly.
• Poorly written test items may be a further source of test unreliability.