the explanation about Reference and Inference material

1. George Yule: Words themselves do
not refer to anything, people refer.
We might think of reference as an
act in which a speaker, writer, or
user linguistic form to enable a lister
or reader, to identify something
Febri Ari Sandi 11310010

2. • Reference is the words we use to
identify things are in some direct
relationship to those things. In
discussing deixis, we assumed that
the use of words to refer to
people and things was a simple
matter.However, words themselves
don’t refer to anything. People
refer.

3. Reference: act in which a speaker/ writer
uses linguistic forms to enable a listener/
reader to identify something („words don't
refer, people do‟).
George Yule: Reference as an act in which
a speaker, writer, or user linguistic form to
enable a lister or reader, to identify
something. Those linguistic forms are
referring expressions

4. The categories of referring
expressions
1. Proper Nouns
2. Definate Noun Phrases
“Ed Sheeran”
“The Author”
“Yule” “Hawaii”
“The Island”
Referring
Expressions
4. Pronouns
3. Indenfinate Noun Phrases
“she” “he”
“ a man” “a women”
“them
“a beautiful Place”
The choice of expression depends largely on what the speaker assumes the listene
already knows (in shared visual contexts -> deictic expressions)

5. 1. Proper Nouns
Raja Ampat
Zahraa
2. Definate Noun Phrases
The City
The student

6. 3. Indenfinate Noun Phrases
A place
It
A women
4. Pronouns
She, her

7. The choice of one type of referring expression
rather than another seems to be based, to a
large extent, on what the speaker assumes the
listener already knows. Reference is clearly tied
to the speaker’s goals and beliefs in the use of
language. For successful reference to occur, we
must also regcognize the role inference.
Yule: "it is important to recognize
that not all referring expressions
have
identifiable
physical
referents. Indefinite noun phrases
can be used to identify a physically
present entity, but they can also be
used to describe entities that are
assumed to exist, but are unknown,
or entities that, as far as we know,
do not exist".

8. • "the key to making sense of reference is that
pragmatic process whereby speakers select
linguistic expressions with the intention of
identifying certain entities and with the
assumption that listeners will collaborate and
interpret those expressions as the speaker
intended".
• Successful reference is necessarily collaborative
(‘shared knowledge’). It allows us to make sense
of the following sentences:
Picasso’s on the far wall.
My Rolling Stones is missing.

9. Reference needs to use objectively correct naming, but can work with locally successful
choices of expression. at all referring expressions have identifiable physical referents
indefinite noun phrases can refer to:
a physically present entity: 'There's a man waiting for you„
an unknown entity assumed to exist: 'He wants to marry a woman with lots of money„
an entity that does not exist: 'We'd like to sign a nine-foot-tall basketball player„
use in b. (entity only known in terms of descriptive properties) is an attributive use
meaning 'who/whatever fits the description„
referential use has one specific entity in mind (Donnellan 1966)
This is sometimes called an attributive use, meaning 'whoever/whatever fits
the description'.attributive use is also possible with definite NPs: 'There was no sign of
the killer'(when talking about a mysterious death, referential use when a particular
person had been identified, chased into a building, but escaped). expressions themselves
do not have reference but are invested with referential function in a context by a
speaker/writer. It would be distinct from a referential use: a specific person is referred
to, although his/her name or some other description is not used.

10. Convention between all members of a cultural/language community:
collaboration of the intention to identify and the recognition of intention
'Shakespeare' does not refer only to a specific person:
-Can I borrow your Shakespeare?
-Yeah it's over there on the table
Conventional set of entities (e.g. things the writer produced)
-Shakespeare takes up the whole bottom shelf
-We're going to see Shakespeare in Londo
-I hated Shakespeare at school
'the cheese sandwich' can refer to a person
-Where's the cheese sandwich sitting?
-He's over there by the window
pragmatic connection between proper names and objects conventionally
associated within a socio-culturally defined community.

11. • Inferring is connecting prior knowledge to text based information
to create meaning beyond what is directly stated. The role of
inference in communication is to allow the listener to identify
correctly which particular entity the speaker is referring to. We can
even use vague expressions relying on the listener’s ability to infer
what is the referent that we have in mind.
•
•
Listeners make inferences about what is said in order to arrive at
an interpretation of the speaker’s intended meaning. The choice of
one type of referring expression rather than another seems to be
based on what the speaker assumes the listener already knows.
Inference: as there is no direct relationship between entities and
words, the listener's task is to infer correctly which entity the
speaker intends to identify by using a particular referring
expression.
 can use vague expressions ('the blue thing', 'that icky stuff',
'whatsisname')
 can use expressions focusing on one feature ('Mister Aftershave is
late today‘)

12. • “Can I look at your
• “Mr. Kawasaki.”
Chomsky?” “I enjoy
Used to refer to a
listening to Mozart.”
man who always
This process, where
rode loud and fast
additional
in his motorcycle.
information is needed
A brand name is
to connect what is
used to refer to a
said to what is meant,
person here.
is inference.

13. Example:
• A: Have you seen my Yule?
• B: Yeah, it is on the desk.
Inference – any additional information use by the listener to
connect what is said to what must be meant.
• The key process here is called Inference, it is an additional
information used by the listeners to connect what is said to
what must be meant. In the previous example, the listener has
to infer that name of the writer of a book can be used to
identify a book by that writer. Similar type of inferences are
necessary to understand some who says that Picasso is in the
museum or I saw Shakespeare in London or I enjoy listening
to Mozart.
The examples of inference
(1) a. Where is the fresh salad sitting?
b. He’s sitting by the door.
(2) a. Can I look at your Shakespeare?
b. Sure, it’s on the shelf over there.

14. Three-dimensional diagram
• Speakers------ reference------ intention
• Listeners------ inference------ interpretation
• Sense---reference---referent
• Word---meaning---entity
Logical understanding between reference and inference
• These examples make it clear that we can use names associated with
things (salad) to refer to people and names of people (Shakespeare)
to refer to things. The key process here is called inference. An
inference is any additional information used by the hearer to connect
what is said to what must be meant. In
• example (2), the hearer has to infer that the name of the writer of a
book can be used to identify a book by that writer. In pragmatics, the
act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or
reader to identify something is called reference.

15. In reference there is a basic collaboration at work:
• „intention-to-identify‟ and
• 'recognition-of-intention‟.
• Collaboration>This process needs not only work between one speaker and
one listener; it appears to work, in terms of convention, between all
members of a community who share a common language and culture.
• Yule:“Our ability to identify intended referents has actually depended on
more than our understanding of the referring expression". It has been aided
by the linguistic material, or co-text, accompanying the referring
expression. The referring expression actually provides a range of reference,
that is, a number of possible referents. In the examples below, the referring
expression 'cheese sandwich„ provides a number of possible referents.
However, the different co-texts lead to a different type ofinterpretation in
each case.

16.  The ability to identify intended referents does not just depend on the understanding of the
referring expression, but is aided by the linguistic material, or co-text, accompanying it.
Brazil wins World Cup
('wins World Cup' limits the range of possible interpretations)
 the referring expression provides a range of reference, a number of possible referents
The cheese sandwich is made with white bread
The cheese sandwich left without paying
 co-text: linguistic part of the environment in which a referring expression is used
 context: physical environment and (speech) conventions, e.g., a restaurant. or context, is
perhaps more easily recognized as having a powerful impact on how referring expressions are
to be interpreted.
The heart-attack mustn't be moved (hospital)
Your ten-thirty just cancelled (dentist)
A couple of rooms have complained about the heat (hotel)
 conventions may differ from one social group to another
 reference is a social act in which the speaker assumes that the word/phrase chosen to identify
an object/person will be interpreted as the speaker intended (not simply a relationship
between the meaning of a word/phrase and an object/person in the world). It is a social act, in
which the speaker assumes that the word or phrase chosen to identify an object or person
will be interpreted as the speaker intended”.

17. •
•
In English, initial reference is often indefinite. The definite noun phrases
and the pronouns are examples of subsequent reference to already
introduced referents, generally known as anaphoric reference,
or
anaphora". In technical terms, the second or subsequent expression is the
anaphora and the initial expression is the antecedent. Anaphora is a
subsequent reference to an already introduced entity. Mostly we use
anaphora in a text to maintain reference.
In talking and writing we have to keep track of who or what we are talking
about for more than one sentence at a time, we use anaphoric reference.
-In the film, a man and a woman were trying to wash a cat.
-The man was holding the cat while the woman poured water
on it.
-He said something to her and they started laughing.
 initial/introductory reference is often indefinite ('a man', 'a woman', 'a
cat')
 subsequent reference with definite NPs ('the man, 'the cat', 'the woman')
or with pronouns
('it', 'he', 'she')

18. • As with other types of reference, the connection
between referent and anaphora may not always be
direct. For example, In a complaint
” I was waiting for the bus, but he just
drove by
without stopping”
Notice that antecedent is bus and he anaphoric
expression is “ he” we would normally expect it to
be used for a bus. Obviously there is an inference
involved here: if someone is taking about a bus in
motion , assume that there is a drive. That assumed
driver is inferred referent for “ he” .The term
“inference „ has been used here to describe what
the listener or reader) does.

19. • In English, initial reference, or introductory mention,
is often indefinite (a man, a woman, a cat). In the
example the definite noun phrases (the man, the cat,
the woman) and the pronouns (it, he, her, they) are
examples of subsequent reference to already
introduced referents, generally known as anaphoric
reference, or anaphora.
• Reference to already introduced referents is called
anaphoric reference (initial expression: antecedent subsequent expression: anaphor)
• anaphoric reference need not be exactly identical to
antecedent:
-Peel and slice six potatoes. Put them in cold
salted water.('them' now refers to 'the six peeled
and sliced potatoes')
• sometimes reversal of antecedent-anaphor order.
-I turned the corner and almost stepped on it. There
was a large snake in the middle of the path.
Cataphoric pattern ('it' is a cataphor)

20. • While definite nouns and pronouns can act as
anaphors, ellipsis can as well (zero anaphor). zero
anaphora, or ellipsis is When the interpretation
requires us to identify an entity, and no linguistic
expression is presented.
Peel an onion and slice it.
Drop the slices into hot oil.
Cook * for three minutes. ( “slice” “them” was
eliminated “ellipsis”)
• The last utterance 'Cook for three minutes' works with
the expectation that the listener will be able to infer
that the speaker intends to identify the peeled onion
slices.

21. • Anaphora is a subsequent reference to an already introduced entity.
Mostly we use anaphora in a text to maintain reference. When we
establish a referent ( e.g. can I borrow your book?) and
subsequently referee to the same object( yeah, it‟s on the table) ,
we have particular kind of referential relationship between book
and it. The Second ( and any subsequent ) referring expression is
an example of anaphora and the first mentioned is called the
“antecedent”
• As with other types of reference, the connection between referent
and anaphora may not always be direct. For example, In a
complaint
” I was waiting for the bus, but he just drove by without
stopping”
Notice that antecedent is bus and he anaphoric expression is “ he”
we would normally expect it to be used for a bus. Obviously there
is an inference involved here: if someone is taking about a bus in
motion , assume that there is a drive. That assumed driver is
inferred referent for “ he” .The term “ inference „ has been used
here to describe what the listener or reader does.

22. A: Can I borrow your dictionary?
B: Yean, it’s on the table.
• Here, word it refers back to the word
dictionary. The previous word dictonary is
called the antecedent,and the second word it is
called the an aphor or anaphoric expression.
A:“Can I borrow your book?” Book and it have a referential
The
relationship. The first mention is called
the antecedent. The second and any
B:“Yes, it‟s on the table.”
subsequent
anaphora.
reference
is
called
the

23. I walked into the room. The windows looked out to the bay.
Antecedent
anaphor
Indirect anaphora or bridging reference
• Successful reference means that an intention was recognized,
via inference, indicating a kind of shared knowledge and hence
social connection.
Remember that:
Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than
is said.