Graduate School of Asia and Pacific Studies University of Waseda, Tokyo-JAPAN 2008

1. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: CONCEPTS AND
PRACTICE
II. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS
A DEVELOPING DISCIPLINE
Graduate School of Asia and Pacific Studies
University of Waseda, Tokyo-JAPAN
2008

2. CONTENTS
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS A DEVELOPING DISCIPLINE
PARADIGM 1: POLITICS/ADMINISTRATION DICHOTOMY,
/ ,
1900-1926
PARADIGM 2: THE PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION, 1926
– 1937
PARADIGM 3: PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS A POLITICAL
SCIENCE, 1950-1970
PARADIGM 4: PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS MANAGEMENT,
1956-1970
PARADIGM 5:PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION: 1970 –
PARADIGM 6:FROM GOVERNMENT TO GOVERNANCE
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3. CONSTITUTION
LEGISLATURE EXECUTIVE/ JUDICIARY
GOVERNMENT
PEOPLE ELECTED PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
=
CITIZEN
(DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY)
=
PUBLIC
PUBLIC PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION ADMINISTRATION
BUREAUCRACY
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4. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS A
DEVELOPING DISCIPLINE
PARADIGM 1:
POLITICS/ADMINISTRATION PERIOD OF ORTHODOXY
DICHOTOMY, 1900 – 1926
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
PARADIGM 2: BUREAUCRACY
THE PRINCIPLES OF
ADMINISTRATION, 1926 – 1937 POSDCORB
THE MOST SERIOUS CHALLENGE
PARADIGM 3:
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS A ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOR
POLITICAL SCIENCE, 1950 – 1970
EVOLUTION OF
PARADIGMS PARADIGM 4:
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT, 1956 – 1970
NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
PARADIGM 5:
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: 1970 REINVENTING GOVERNMENT
NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
PARADIGM 6:
6
FROM GOVERNMENT TO
NEW PUBLIC SERVICE
GOVERNANCE: 1990 -
POST MODERNISM
THE FUTURE (?)
DIGITAL (e) GOVERNANCE
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5. THE BEGINNING
WOODROW WILSON'S FAMOUS 1887 ESSAY THE STUDY
OF ADMINISTRATION.
THE PUBLICATION OF WILSON’S ESSAY IS GENERALLY
REGARDED AS THE BEGINNING OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION AS ASPECIFIC FIELD OF STUDY.
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6. WILSON SOUGHT TO MOVE THE CONCERNS OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION TO INVESTIGATING THE
ORGANIZATION AND METHODS OF GOVERNMENT
OFFICES TOWARD:
1. WHAT GOVERNMENT CAN PROPERLY AND SUCCESSFULLY
DO;
2. HOW IT CAN DO THESE PROPER THINGS WITH THE
UTMOST POSSIBLE EFFICIENCY AND AT THE LEAST
POSSIBLE COST EITHER OF MONEY OR ENERGY.
ENERGY
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7. IN HIS ESSAY, WILSON IS ALSO CREDITED WITH POSITING
THE EXISTENCE Of MAJOR DISTINCTION BETWEEN POLITICS
AND ADMINISTRATION.
WILSON HAD STARTED WHAT BECAME KNOWN AS THE
POLITICS-ADMINISTRATION DICHOTOMY.
POLITICS AND ADMINISTRATION COULD BE DISTINGUISHED,
HE ARGUED AS THE EXPRESSION OF THE WILL OF THE STATE
ARGUED,
(POLITICS) AND THE EXECUTION OF THAT WILL
(ADMINISTRATION).
(ADMINISTRATION)
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8. PARADIGM 1:
POLITICS/ADMINISTRATION DICHOTOMY,
1900-1926
1900 1926
AN EXAMINATION OF THE POLITICS-ADMINISTRATION
DICHOTOMY WAS OFFERED BY FRANK J. GOODNOW IN HIS
BOOK, POLITICS AND ADMINISTRATION (1900).
TO GOODNOW, MODERN ADMINISTRATION PRESENTED A
NUMBER OF DILEMMAS INVOLVING POLITICAL AND
ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS THAT HAD NOW
SUPPLANTED THE TRADITIONAL CONCERN WITH THE
SEPARATION OF POWERS AMONG THE VARIOUS BRANCHES
OF GOVERNMENT.
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9. THE MOST SIGNIFICANT OTHER EARLY SCHOLAR OF
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION WAS WILLIAM F.
WILLOUGHBY.
HE BELIEVED THAT PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION HAD
UNIVERSAL ASPECTS THAT WERE APPLICABLE TO ALL
BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT.
WRITING IN 1918, HE OUTLINED DEVELOPMENTS THAT
WERE LEADING TO THE CREATION OF MODERN BUDGET
SYSTEMS.
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10. WILLOUGHBY ARGUES THAT BUDGET REFORM
WOULD INVOLVE AROUND THREE MAJOR THREADS:
1. HOW BUDGETS WOULD ADVANCE AND PROVIDE FOR
POPULAR CONTROL;
2. HOW BUDGETS WOULD ENHANCE LEGISLATIVE AND
EXECUTIVE COOPERATION; AND
3.
3 HOW BUDGETS WOULD ENSURE ADMINISTRATIVE AND
MANAGEMENT EFFICIENCY.
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11. WHILE WOODROW WILSON PROVIDED THE
RATIONALE FOR PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION TO BE
O O U C S O O
AN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE AND PROFESSIONAL
SPECIALITY, IT REMAINED FOR LEONARD D. WHITE
TO MOST CLEARLY ARTICULATE ITS PRELIMINARY
OBJECTIVES.
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12. IN HIS PIONEERING 1926 BOOK, INTRODUCTION TO THE
STUDY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, THE FIRST TEXT IN THE
FIELD, HE NOTED FOUR CRITICAL ASSUMPTIONS THAT
FORMED THE BASIS FOR THE STUDY OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION:
1. ADMINISTRATION IS A UNITARY PROCESS THAT CAN BE STUDIED
UNIFORMLY, AT THE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL LEVELS;
O S OC S
2. THE BASIS FOR STUDY IS MANAGEMENT, NOT LAW;
3. ADMINISTRATION IS STILL AN ART, BUT THE IDEAL OF
TRANSFORMANCE TO A SCIENCE IS BOTH FEASIBLE AND
WORTHWHILE; AND
4.
4 THE RECOGNITION THAT ADMINISTRATION HAS BECOME, AND WILL
BECOME
CONTINUE TO BE THE HEART OF THE PROBLEM OF MODERN
GOVERNMENT.
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13. PARADIGM 2:
THE PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION,
1926 – 1937
AFTER WORLD WAR I PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
C
CHANGED INEXORABLY.
G O
THE UNITED STATES AND WESTERN EUROPE WERE
CHANGING FROM A RURAL AGRICULTURAL
SOCIETY TO AN URBAN INDUSTRIAL NATION.
THIS REQUIRED A CONSIDERABLE RESPONSE
Q
FROM PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION BECAUSE SO
MANY NEW FUNCTIONS AND PROGRAMMES WOULD
BE ESTABLISHED.
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14. AS THE POPULATION BECAME INCREASINGLY
URBAN, VASTLY EXPANDED PROGRAMMES WOULD
BE NEEDED IN PUBLIC WORKS, PUBLIC HEALTH,
O
AND PUBLIC SAFETY.
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS AN ACTIVITY WAS
BOOMING ALL DURING THE 1920.
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15. PERIOD OF ORTHODOXY
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION THEORISTS, SUCH AS DWIGHT
WALDO,
WALDO VINCENT OSTROM, NICHOLAS HENRY, AND HOWARD
OSTROM HENRY
MCCURDY, WOULD DESCRIBE THE PATTERN OF DEVELOPMENT
WITHIN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION BETWEEN THE WORLD
WARS AS A PERIOD OF ORTHODOXY.
THE TENETS OF THIS ORTHODOX IDEOLOGY HELD THAT
1) TRUE DEMOCRACY AND TRUE EFFICIENCY ARE SYNONYMOUS,
OR AT LEAST RECONCILABLE;
2) THE WORK OF GOVERNMENT COULD BE NEATLY DIVIDED INTO
DECISION MAKING AND EXECUTION;
3) ADMINISTRATION WAS A SCIENCE WITH DISCOVERABLE
PRINCIPLE.
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16. A CRITICAL LINKAGE FOR THE STUDY OF
ADMINISTRATION WAS ITS CONCERN, WITH
ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL.
BY DEFINITION, CONTROL WAS TO BE BUILT INTO
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND DESIGN TO ASSURE
BOTH ACCOUNTABILITY AND EFFICIENCY.
IN FACT, EARLY MANAGEMENT THEORIST, ASSUMED
THAT ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL WERE VIRTUALLY
SYNONYMOUS.
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17. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
AT ABOUT THE SAME TIME WOODROW WILSON WAS
CALLING FOR A SCIENCE OF MANAGEMENT, FREDERICK W.
TAYLOR WAS INDEPENDENTLY CONDUCTING SOME OF HIS
FIRST EXPERIMENTS IN A PHILADELPHIA STEEL PLANT
PLANT.
TAYLOR, GENERALLY CONSIDERED THE FATHER OF
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PIONEERED THE DEVELOPMENT
OF TIME AND MOTION STUDIES.
HE WROTE THE RESULTS OF HIS STUDIES IN 1911 IN THE
PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.
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18. PREMISED UPON THE NOTION THAT THERE WAS quot;ONE
BEST WAYquot; OF ACCOMPLISHING ANY GIVEN TASK,
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT SOUGHT TO INCREASE
OUTPUT BY DISCOVERING THE FASTEST, MOST
EFFICIENT, AND LEAST FATIGUING PRODUCTION
METHODS.
METHODS
THE JOB OF THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGER, ONCE THE ONE
BEST WAY WAS FOUND, WAS TO IMPOSE THIS
FOUND
PROCEDURE UPON ALL THE WORKFORCE.
CLASSICAL ORGANIZATION THEORY WOULD
EVOLVE FROM THIS NOTION.
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19. UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
U U C O SC C G
MOVEMENT, PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION BECAME
INCREASINGLY CONCERNED WITH UNDERSTANDING
BUREAUCRATIC FORMS OF ORGANIZATION.
THE DIVISION OF LABOR; SPAN OF CONTROL;
ORGANIZATIONAL HIERARCHY AND CHAIN OF COMMAND;
REPORTING SYSTEMS; DEPARTMENTALIZATION; AND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD OPERATING RULES, POLICIES,
RULES
AND PROCEDURES BECAME CRITICAL CONCERNS TO
SCHOLARS AND PRACTITIONERS IN THE FIELD.
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20. OTHER SIGNIFICANT WORKS RELEVANT TO THIS PHASE
WERE MARY FOLLET'S CREATIVE EXPERIENCE (1924),
HENRY FAYOL'S INDUSTRIAL AND GENERAL
MANAGEMENT (1930), AND JAMES D. MOONEY AND ALAN
C. REILEY'S PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION (1939).
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21. BUREAUCRACY
BUREAUCRACY EMERGED AS A DOMINANT FEATURE OF THE
CONTEMPORARY WORLD.
VIRTUALLY EVERYWHERE ONE LOOKED IN BOTH DEVELOPED
AND DEVELOPING NATIONS, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND
POLITICAL LIFE WERE EXTENSIVELY AND EVER INCREASINGLY
INFLUENCED BY BUREAUCRATIC ORGANIZATIONS.
BUREAUCRACY, WHILE IT IS OFTEN USED AS A GENERAL
INVECTIVE TO REFER TO ANY ORGANIZATION THAT IS
PERCEIVED TO BE INEFFICIENT, IS MORE PROPERLY USED TO
REFER TO A SPECIFIC SET OF STRUCTURAL ARRANGEMENTS.
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22. BUREAUCRACY LITERALLY MEANS RULE BY
OFFICIALS, THE ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY OF
THE STATE OR, MORE BROADLY, A RATIONAL AND
RULE-GOVERNED MODE OF ORGANIZATION.
(HEYWOOD, 2002)
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23. THE BASIC CONCEPTS
SPECIALIZED JURISDICTIONS, OFFICES, AND
O O
TASKS, THAT IS, A DIVISION OF LABOR AND
AUTHORITY REGARDING THE ACHIEVEMENT OF
THE ORGANIZATION’S GOALS.
A HIERARCHY OF AUTHORITY TO COORDINATE
THE ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIALIZED OFFICES
AND INTEGRATE THEIR JURISDICTIONAL
AUTHORITY.
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24. A CAREER STRUCTURE IN WHICH INDIVIDUAL
EMPLOYEES OF THE ORGANIZATION MOVE
THROUGH VARIOUS SPECIALIZATIONS AND
RANKS. MOVEMENT IS BASED ON MERIT
AND/OR SENIORITY.
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25. MINISTER
VICE/DEPUTY
MINISTER ASSISTANT
MINISTER
DIRECTOR SECRETARY INSPECTOR
GENERAL GENERAL GENERAL
DIRECTOR BUREAU INSPECTOR
REGIONAL SUB- WORKING
OFFICE DIRECTORATE UNIT DIVISION
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26. ORGANIZATION
DIRECTORATE GENERAL/
SECRETARY GENERAL
DIRECTORATE/BUREAU
DIVISION
SECTION
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27. BUREAUCRATIC STRUCTURE TENDS TO BE
PERMANENT. IT REMAINS INTACT REGARDLESS
OF THE FLOW OF MEMBERS IN AND OUT OF IT.
IT
SOCIETY BECOMES DEPENDENT ON THE
BUREAUCRACY S
BUREAUCRACY’S FUNCTIONING TO THE EXTENT
THAT CHAOS RESULTS IF IT IS DESTROYED.
BY IMPLICATION BUREAUCRACIES ARE LARGE
IMPLICATION,
ORGANIZATIONS.
(WEBER,
(WEBER 1947)
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28. IDEAL TYPE BUREAUCRACY
CONTEMPORARY THINKING ALONG THESE LINES BEGINS
WITH THE WORK OF THE BRILLIANT GERMAN SOCIOLOGIST
MAX WEBER.
HIS ANALYSIS OF BUREAUCRACY, FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1922
AFTER HIS DEATH, IS STILL THE MOST INFLUENTIAL
STATEMENT –THE POINT OF DEPARTURE FOR ALL FURTHER
ANALYSES
ANALYSES– ON THE SUBJECT.
WEBER USED AN quot;IDEAL-TYPEquot; APPROACH TO EXTRAPOLATE
THE CENTRAL CORE OF FEATURES CHARACTERISTIC OF THE
MOST FULLY DEVELOPED BUREAUCRATIC FORM OF
ORGANIZATION.
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29. WEBER’S IDEAL TYPE BUREAUCRACY
1. BUREAUCRACY IS BASED UPON RULES WHICH ARE
ACCEPTED (IN BOARD TERMS) BY THE MEMBERS OF THE
ORGANIZATION.
2.
2 BUREAUCRACY IS RELATIVELY COUNTINUOUS IN ITS
OPERATION.
3. THE SPHERES OF COMPETENCE OF BUREAUCRATIC
ADMINISTRATION ARE SPECIFIED.
SPECIFIED
4. BUREAUCRACY IS BASED UPON THE IDEA OF
HIERARCHY.
5. THE OFFICIALS ARE TRAINED SO THAT THE
STRUCTURES CAN FUNCTION IN THE WAYS INTENDED.
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30. 6.
6 OFFICIALS IN BUREAUCRACY ARE NOT THEMSELVES
OWNERS OF THE MEANS OF PRODUCTIONS.
7. OFFICIALS DO NOT ‘OWN’ THEIR JOBS, THAT IS, THE
O C S O O O O S, S,
JOB ITSELF BELONGS TO THE ORGANIZATION, NOT
TO THE INDIVIDUAL WHO HAPPENS TO BE
OCCUPYING IT.
IT
8. THE SUCCESSFUL AND COUNTINUING OPERATION OF
BUREAUCRACY DEPENDS TO A LARGE EXTENT UPON
WRITTEN RECORD.
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31. CHARACTERISTICS OF BUREAUCRACY:
IMPERSONAL
FORMALISTIC
RULE-BOUND
HIGHLY DISCIPLINED
(ROSENBLOOM & KRAVCHUCK, 2005)
KRAVCHUCK
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32. MANAGER
SUPERVISOR SUPERVISOR
A B
WORKER WORKER WORKER WORKER WORKER WORKER WORKER WORKER
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33. ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSIBILITY
DURING THIS FORMATIVE PERIOD OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION,
ADMINISTRATION MOST OF THE FOCUS WAS ON INTERNAL
ISSUES: MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND PROBLEMS;
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND STRUCTURES; AND
BUDGETING AND PERSONNEL ISSUES
ISSUES.
HOWEVER, THERE WAS ALSO ONGOING A PROFOUND
DISCUSSION, OVER EXTERNAL ISSUES-SPECIFICALLY THE
CONCEPT OF ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSIBILITY.
BASICALLY THE ISSUES INVOLVED WERE HOW CAN WE
ENSURE THAT GOVERNMENTAL ADMINISTRATION, IN
ADMINISTRATION
PURSUIT OF BEING RESPONSIVE TO INTEREST GROUPS,
EXECUTIVE AND LEGISLATIVE FORCES, AND
CONSTITUENCIES,
CONSTITUENCIES WILL ACT LEGALLY AND RESPONSIBLY?
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34. THESE ISSUES WERE HOTLY DISCUSSED IN THE LATE 1930S
AND EARLY 1940S BY CARL FRIEDRICH (1901-1984) AND
HERMAN FINER (1898-1969), TWO PROMINENT POLITICAL
( )
SCIENTISTS.
FRIEDRICH ARGUED THAT ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSIBILITY IS
BEST ASSURED INTERNALLY, THROUGH PROFESSIONALISM OR
PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS OR CODES.
INTERNAL CHECKS AND BALANCES WERE NECESSARY BECAUSE
THE MODERN BUREAUCRAT'S POLICY EXPERTISE AND
SPECIALIZED ABILITIES WERE SO EXTENSIVE (NECESSARILY SO
BECAUSE OF THE INCREASING COMPLEXITIES OF MODERN
POLICIES).
CONSEQUENTLY,
CONSEQUENTLY THERE WAS LITTLE REAL POSSIBILITY FOR
ADEQUATE REVIEW BY AN OUTSIDE POLITICAL OR LEGISLATIVE
SOURCE.
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35. FINER ARGUED ON THE OTHER HAND, THAT
ARGUED, HAND
ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSIBILITY COULD ONLY BE
MAINTAINED EXTERNALLY THROUGH LEGISLATIVE OR
POPULAR CONTROLS.
EXTERNAL CHECKS AND BALANCES WERE THE ONLY WAY
TO ENSURE SUBORDINATION OF BUREAUCRATS BECAUSE
INTERNAL POWER OF CONTROL WOULD, ULTIMATELY,
LEAD TO CORRUPTION.
CORRUPTION
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36. PUBLIC INTEREST
BUT THE CLASSIC OVERVIEW OF THIS PROBLEM OF
ADMINISTRATIVE RESPONSIBILITY AND ACCOUNTABILITY
CAME FROM E. PENDLETON HERRING'S BOOK PUBIC
ADMINISTRATION AND THE PUBLIC INTEREST (1937).
HERRING EXAMINED THE PROBLEMS POSED BY THE
DRAMATIC INCREASE IN THE SCOPE OF GOVERNMENT
AND THE INFLUENCE OF ADMINISTRATIVE DISCRETION.
HE ACCEPTED THAT LAWS PASSED BY LEGISLATURES,
INSTITUTIONS DESIGNED FOR COMPROMISE, WERE
NECESSARILY THE PRODUCTS OF LEGISLATIVE
COMPROMISE AND THUS OFTEN SO VAGUE THAT THEY
WERE IN NEED OF FURTHER DEFINITION.
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37. THE BUREAUCRAT, HAD THE JOB OF PROVIDING
DEFINITION TO THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES EMBODIED IN
A STATUTE BY ISSUING SUPPLEMENTAL RULES AND
REGULATIONS.
REGULATIONS
UPON THE SHOULDERS OF THE BUREAUCRAT HAS BEEN
PLACED IN LARGE PART THE BURDEN OF RECONCILING
GROUP DIFFERENCES AND MAKING EFFECTIVE AND
WORKABLE THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMPROMISES
ARRIVED AT THROUGH THE LEGISLATIVE PROCESS
PROCESS.
IN EFFECT, IT BECAME THE JOB OF THE
BUREAUCRAT TO ETHICALLY DEFINE THE PUBLIC
INTEREST.
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38. HERRING'S DISCUSSION OF THE PUBLIC INTEREST
AND THE CRITICAL ROLES PLAYED BY BUREAUCRATS
AND INTEREST GROUPS IN PUBLIC POLICY
FORMULATION CORRECTLY ANTICIPATED MANY OF
THE CRITICAL ISSUES STILL BEING GRAPPLED WITH IN
SCHOOLS OF PUBLIC POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION
TODAY.
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39. THE MOST SERIOUS CHALLENGE CAME
AMONG OTHERS FROM
1. PAUL APPLEBY, BIG DEMOCRACY (1945)
APPLEBY
2. HELBERT SIMON, ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOR: A
STUDY OF DECISION MAKING PROCESS IN
DECISION-MAKING
ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION (1947).
3.
3 ROBERT A. DAHL, THE SCIENE OF PUBLIC
A DAHL
ADMINISTRATION: THREE PROBLEMS (1948).
4.
4 DWIGHT WALDO ADMINISTRATIVE STATE: A
WALDO,
STUDY OF THE POLITICAL THEORY OF AMERICAN
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION (1948).
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40. APPLEBY COMPARED GOVERNMENT TO BUSINESS. IN
HIS CHAPTER quot;GOVERNMENT IS DIFFERENT“. HE
EMPHATICALLY SHATTERED PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION'S SELF-IMPOSED DEMARCATION
BETWEEN POLITICS AND ADMINISTRATION.
O O
HE HELD THAT IT WAS A MYTH THAT POLITICS WAS
SEPARATE AND COULD SOMEHOW BE TAKEN OUT OF
ADMINISTRATION.
ADMINISTRATION
POLITICAL INVOLVEMENT WAS GOOD –NOT EVIL–
BECAUSE POLITICAL INVOLVEMENT IN
ADMINISTRATION ACTED AS A CHECK ON THE
ARBITRARY EXERCISE OF BUREAUCRATIC POWER.
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41. ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOR
PERHAPS THE MOST SIGNIFICANT LANDMARK IN THE
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION WORLD OF THE 1940s WAS
HERBERT SIMON'S.
HE URGED THAT A TRUE SCIENTIFIC METHOD BE USED
IN THE STUDY OF ADMINISTRATIVE PHENOMENA,
THAT THE PERSPECTIVE OF LOGICAL POSITIVISM BE
USED IN DEALING WITH QUESTIONS OF POLICY
MAKING, AND THAT DECISION MAKING IS THE
TRUE HEART OF ADMINISTRATION.
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42. IT WAS HERE THAT SIMON REFUTED THE PRINCIPLES
APPROACH TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION THAT THEN
DOMINATED ADMINISTRATIVE THINKING.
THINKING
SIMON EXAMINED GULICK'S POSDCORB AND ITS
ASSOCIATED COMPONENTS AND FOUND THEM TO BE
INCONSISTENT, CONFLICTING, AND INAPPLICABLE TO
MANY OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE SITUATIONS FACING
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS
ADMINISTRATORS.
HE INTRODUCED HIS CONCEPT OF quot;BOUNDED
RATIONALITY
RATIONALITY“ IN DECISION MAKING, THE IDEA THAT
MAKING
PEOPLE ARE RATIONAL DECISION MAKERS – WITHIN
LIMIT.
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43. HE GOES ON TO BUILD UPON THE THEORETICAL
FOUNDATIONS OF CHESTER I. BARNARD TO ADVOCATE
A SYSTEMS APPROACH FOR EXAMINING THE VARIOUS
FACETS OF ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOR.
SIMON UNDERSTOOD THAT ADMINISTRATIVE DECISION
MAKERS WANTED TO MAKE RATIONAL CHOICES (I E (I.E.,
THE SINGLE quot;BESTquot; CHOICE), BUT THAT THERE WERE A
LOT OF VARIABLES STANDING IN THE WAY OF
LOCATING THE SINGLE MOST RATIONAL DECISION.
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44. FOR SIMON, A NEW PARADIGM FOR PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION MEANT THAT THERE OUGHT TO
BE TWO KINDS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONIST
WORKING IN HARMONY AND RECIPROCAL
O G O C OC
INTELLECTUAL STIMULATION:
1. THOSE SCHOLARS CONCERNED WITH DEVELOPING A
PURE SCIENCE OF ADMINISTRATION BASED ON A
THROUGH GROUNDING IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND;
2.
2 A LARGER GROUP CONCERNED WITH PRESCRIBING FOR
PUBLIC POLICY.
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45. ROBERT A. DAHL, ONE OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT OF
THE EARLY BEHAVIORALISTS IN POLITICAL SCIENCE,
ANALYZED THE STATE OF THE ART OF THE DISCIPLINE
OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION.
A SCIENCE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION SHOULD:
1. RECOGNIZES THE COMPLEXITIES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR,
2
2. DEALS WITH THE PROBLEMS OF NORMATIVE VALUES IN
ADMINISTRATIVE SITUATIONS, AND
3. TAKES INTO ACCOUNT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND ITS SOCIAL SETTING.
SETTING
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46. THE INITIAL CRITIQUES OF THE PRINCIPLES OF
ADMINISTRATION AND THE POLITICS-ADMINISTRATION
DICHOTOMY RECEIVED SUPPORT FROM ANOTHER VERY
INFLUENTIAL SOURCE, DWIGHT WALDO.
HE ALSO SOUGHT TO DEFINE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
IN TERMS OF CULTURE, GIVING STRONG IMPETUS TO
COMPARATIVE ADMINISTRATION.
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47. WALDO'S OVERALL PERSPECTIVE HELD THAT PUBLIC
WALDO S
ADMINISTRATION WAS A SUBSET OF POLITICAL
SCIENCE, THAT THE LONGSTANDING ART OF PUBLIC
,
ADMINISTRATION WOULD HAVE TO BE FUSED WITH THE
NEWLY EMERGING SCIENCE OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION.
ABOVE ALL, WALDO WAS A POPULIST WHO WAS
CONTINUALLY CONCERNED ABOUT THE VALUES OF
DEMOCRACY AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION.
ADMINISTRATION
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48. BY MID-20th CENTURY THE TWO DEFINING PILLARS OF
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION –THE POLITICS/
ADMINISTRATION DICHOTOMY AND THE PRINCIPLES
OF ADMINISTRATION– HAD BEEN ABANDONED BY
ADMINISTRATION
CREATIVE INTELLECTS IN THE FIELD. THIS
ABANDONMENT LEFT PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
BEREFT OF A DISTINCT EPISTEMOLOGICAL AND
INTELLECTUAL IDENTITY.
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49. PARADIGM 3:
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS A POLITICAL
SCIENCE, 1950-1970
SCIENCE 1950 1970
BY THE END OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR, PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION IN THE U.S. AND OTHER WESTERN
COUNTRIES HAD BEEN TRANSFORMED INTO A MODERN
BUREAUCRATIC STATE
STATE.
BUT THE PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION AS ESPOUSED BY
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PROVED TO BE INCREASINGLY
INADEQUATE WHEN GAUGED AGAINST THE SIZE AND
COMPLEXITY OF MODERN GOVERNMENTS.
IN THE POSTWAR PERIOD, NEW CHALLENGES TO THE
TRADITIONAL THEMES OF ADMINISTRATION PREVAILED.
PREVAILED
MOST PROMINENT WERE THE FAMILIAR ISSUES OF THE
NATURE AND EFFECTS OF BUREAUCRATIC ORGANIZATIONS
AND THE POLITICAL DIMENSIONS OF THE NEW
ADMINISTRATIVE STATE.
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50. THE NEW DEAL AND WORLD WAR II KEYNESIAN
ECONOMIC THEORY WERE SIGNIFICANT INFLUENCES
O
ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF PUBLIC
O C C O U C
ADMINISTRATION.
WHILE THOSE WARS AGAINST DEPRESSION AND
OPPRESSION WERE PRIMARILY ECONOMIC AND
MILITARY OPERATIONS, THEY WERE ALSO IMMENSE
MANAGERIAL UNDERTAKINGS.
THE EXPERIENCE OF THOSE YEARS CALLED INTO
QUESTION MUCH OF WHAT WAS THEN THE
CONVENTIONAL WISDOM OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION.
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51. THE POLITICS-ADMINISTRATION DICHOTOMY OF
THE REFORM MOVEMENT LOST ITS VIABILITY AMID
THE NEW DEAL AND THE WAR EFFORT.
EFFORT
IT WAS SIMPLY NOT POSSIBLE TO TAKE VALUE-FREE
PROCESSES OF BUSINESS AND APPLY THEM TO
GOVERNMENT. GOVERNMENT, IN SPITE OF THE BEST
EFFORTS OF MANY REFORMERS, WAS NOT A
BUSINESS AND WAS NOT VALUE FREE.
DURING THIS PERIOD PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
HAD RETURNED TO THE FOLD OF POLITICAL
SCIENCE.
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52. PARADIGM 4:
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS MANAGEMENT,
1956-1970
PARTLY BECAUSE OF THEIR SECOND-CLASS
CITIZENSHIP STATUS IN A NUMBER OF POLITICAL
SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF UNIVERSITIES, SOME
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONISTS BEGAN SEARCHING
FOR AN ALTERNATIVE
ALTERNATIVE.
THE MANAGEMENT OPTION —WHICH SOMETIMES IS
CALLED quot;ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCEquot; OR quot;GENERIC
MANAGEMENT“— WAS A VIABLE ALTERNATIVE FOR A
SIGNIFICANT NUMBER OF SCHOLARS IN PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION.
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53. MANAGEMENT IS A FIELD THAT COVERS ORGANIZATION
THEORY AND BEHAVIOR, PLANNING, DECISION MAKING,
VARIOUS TECHNIQUES OF quot;MANAGEMENT SCIENCEquot;
Q
SUCH AS PATH ANALYSIS AND QUEUING THEORY,
HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT, LEADERSHIP,
MOTIVATION COMMUNICATION MANAGEMENT
MOTIVATION, COMMUNICATION,
INFORMATION SYSTEMS, BUDGETING, AUDITING,
PRODUCTIVITY, AND MARKETING.
MANAGEMENT THINKING MANY STEMMING FROM THE
BUSINESS SCHOOLS, FOSTERED THE ALTERNATIVE
PARADIGM OF MANAGEMENT.
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54. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT AND PRINCIPLES GAVE WAY
TO ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT SCIENCE.
FOREMOST AMONG THESE VOICES WAS THAT OF
CATHERYN SECKLER-HUDSON (BASIC CONCEPTS IN THE
STUDY OF PUBLIC MANAGEMENT, 1955).
SHE RECOGNIZED THE POLICY AND POLITICAL
IMPLICATIONS WITHIN THE SETTING OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION BUT GAVE PRIMARY WEIGHT TO THE
PROBLEMS OF PUBLIC MANAGEMENT.
SHE ARGUED THAT MANAGEMENT IS THE EFFECTIVE
UTILIZATION OF HUMAN RESOURCES AND MATERIAL TO
REACH THE KNOWN GOAL.
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55. SUCH OTHER WORKS AS JAMES G. MARCH AND HERBERT
G
SIMON’S ORGANIZATION (1858), RICHARD CYERT AND
MARCH’S A BEHAVIORAL THEORY OF THE FIRM (1963),
( ),
MARCH’S HANDBOOK OF ORGANIZATION (1965), AND
JAMES D. THOMPSON’S ORGANIZATION IN ACTION
(1967) GAVE SOLID THEORETICAL REASONS FOR
CHOOSING MANAGEMENT, WITH AN EMPHASIS ON
ORGANIZATION THEORY AS THE PARADIGM OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION.
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56. ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
IN THE EARLY 1960s ORGANIZATION DEVELOP MENT
BEGAN ITS RAPID RISE AS A SPECIALTY OF
MANAGEMENT. AS A FOCUS, ORGANIZATION
DEVELOPMENT REPRESENTED A PARTICULARLY
TEMPTING ALTERNATIVE TO POLITICAL SCIENCE FOR
MANY PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONISTS.
ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT AS A FIELD IS GROUNDED
IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND VALUES THE
quot;DEMOCRATIZATIONquot; OF BUREAUCRACIES, WHETHER
PUBLIC OR PRIVATE, AND THE quot;SELF-ACTUALIZATIONquot;
OF INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS OF ORGANIZATIONS.
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57. IN AN EARLY WORK, MEN, MANAGEMENT, AND MORALITY
(1967),
(1967) GOLEMBIEWSKI DEVELOPED A CRITIQUE OF
TRADITIONAL THEORIES OF ORGANIZATION, WITH THEIR
EMPHASIS ON TOP DOWN AUTHORITY, HIERARCHICAL
,
CONTROL, AND STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES,
ARGUING THAT SUCH APPROACHES REFLECT AN
INSENSITIVITY TO THE MORAL POSTURE OF THE INDIVIDUAL,
INDIVIDUAL
SPECIFICALLY THE QUESTION OF INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM.
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58. HE SUGGESTED THAT DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM-
DECISION-MAKING PROBLEM
SOLVING RESPONSIBILITIES BE LOCATED AS CLOSE AS
POSSIBLE TO INFORMATION SOURCES AND TO MAKE
COMPETITION,
COMPETITION WHERE IT EXISTS CONTRIBUTE TO MEETING
EXISTS,
WORK GOALS AS OPPOSED TO WIN-LOSE COMPETITION.
MANAGERS SHOULD WORK, TO INCREASE SELF CONTROL AND
SELF-CONTROL
SELF-DIRECTION FOR PEOPLE WITHIN THE ORGANIZATION,
TO CREATE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH CONFLICT IS
SURFACED AND MANAGED APPROPRIATELY AND POSITIVELY,
POSITIVELY
AND TO INCREASE AWARENESS OF GROUP PROCESS AND ITS
CONSEQUENCES FOR PERFORMANCE.
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59. GOLEMBIEWSKI URGED MANAGERS TO CREATE AN OPEN
PROBLEM-SOLVING CLIMATE THROUGH THE
ORGANIZATION SO THAT MEMBERS CAN CONFRONT
PROBLEMS RATHER THAN FIGHT ABOUT OR FLEE FROM
THEM. HE ENCOURAGED THEM TO BUILD TRUST AMONG
INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS TROUGHOUT THE
ORGANIZATION, TO SUPPLEMENT OR EVEN REPLACE THE
AUTHORITY OF ROLE OR STATUS WITH THE AUTHORITY
OF KNOWLEDGE AND COMPETENCE.
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60. BECAUSE OF THESE VALUES, ORGANIZATION
VALUES
DEVELOPMENT WAS SEEN BY MANY YOUNGER PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATIONISTS AS OFFERING A VERY
COMPATIBLE AREA OF RESEARCH WITH-IN THE
FRAMEWORK OF MANAGEMENT.
DEMOCRATIC VALUES COULD BE CONSIDERED,
CONSIDERED
NORMATIVE CONCERNS COULD BE BROACHED, AND
INTELLECTUAL RIGOR AND SCIENTIFIC
C U GO SC C
METHODOLOGIES COULD BE EMPLOYED.
(SEE AMONG OTHERS ROBERT T. GOLEMBIEWSKI,
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS A DEVELOPING
DISCIPLINE, PART 2 ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT AS
ONE OF A FUTURE FAMILY OF MINIPARADIGMS, 1977).
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61. PARADIGM 5:
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION: 1970 –
IMPORTANT INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENTS OCCURRED IN
THE STUDY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION HAD THE EFFECT
OF ENCOURAGING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION SCHOLARS TO
RE-CONSIDER THEIR LINKAGES WITH POLITICAL SCIENCE.
THE FIRST, WAS THE EMERGENCE OF SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY
FIRST SCIENCE,
AND PUBLIC POLICY. THESE PROGRAM WERE THE
INTELLECTUAL FORERUNNERS OF A LATER AND DEEPER
SCHOLARLY INTERE INTEREST IN THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE AND POWER, BUREAUCRACY AND
DEMOCRACY, TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT, AND
RELATED TECHNOBUREAUCRATIC DIMENSIONS
DIMENSIONS.
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62. SECOND, THE RETURN OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
AS AN INDEPENDENT FIELD OF STUDY HAS BEEN
STRENGTHENED BY THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW
THINKING IN THE FIELD, GIVING NEW MEANING,
DIRECTION AND PURPOSE IN THE STUDY OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION AS WELL AS IN ITS PRACTICAL
APLICATION, SUCH AS: NEW PUBLIC
,
ADMINISTRATION, REINVENTING
GOVERNMENT, NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT,
NEW PUBLIC SERVICE
SERVICE.
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63. PARADIGM 6:
FROM GOVERNMENT TO GOVERNANCE
ETYMOLOGICALLY, GOVERNANCE CAN BE TRACED
BACK TO THE GREEK VERB KUBERNÂN (TO PILOT
OR STEER) AND WAS USED BY PLATO WITH
REGARD TO HOW TO DESIGN A SYSTEM OF RULE.
THE GREEK TERM GAVE RISE TO THE MEDIEVAL
LATIN GUBEMARC, WHICH HAS THE SAME
CONNOTATION OF PILOTING RULE MAKING OR
RULE-MAKING
STEERING.
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64. GOVERNANCE IS THE INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY OF
PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS TO PROVIDE THE PUBLIC AND
OTHER GOODS DEMANDED BY A COUNTRY'S CITIZENS
OR THEIR REPRESENTATIVES IN AN EFFECTIVE,
TRANSPARENT IMPARTIAL AND ACCOUNTABLE MANNER,
TRANSPARENT, IMPARTIAL, MANNER
SUBJECT TO RESOURCE CONSTRAINTS (WORLD BANK,
2000).
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65. WHY GOVERNANCE AND NOT MERELY GOVERNMENT?
GOVERNANCE,
GOVERNANCE IS A BROADER AND MORE FUNDAMENTAL
CONCEPT THAN THAT OF GOVERNMENT ALONE.
ALONE
THE CONCERN IS WITH THE LINKS BETWEEN PARTS OF
THE POLITICAL SYSTEM AS WITH THE INSTITUTIONS
THEMSELVES.
PROBLEM OF MODERN GOVERNANCE IS NOT SO MUCH
AN INSUFFICIENCY OF INSTRUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE
CHANGING ON OBJECTIVES, BUT RATHER THE DEGREE
OF INCOMPATIBILITY BETWEEN OBJECTIVES .
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66. GOOD GOVERNANCE
IN MANY COUNTRIES GOOD GOVERNANCE IS VERY
MUCH A CURRENT TOPIC, AS PART OF THE AGENDA
OF THE REFORM MOVEMENT.
MOVEMENT
IT IS CONCERNED WITH SUCH ISSUES AS
CORRUPTION,
CORRUPTION HUMAN RIGHTS, SOCIAL JUSTICE,
RIGHTS JUSTICE
EQUITY, RULE OF LAW.
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67. UNIVERSALLY ‘GOOD GOVERNANCE’ RAISES SUCH ISSUES
AS:
STAKEHOLDERS ENGAGEMENT;
TRANSPARENCY;
THE EQUALITIES AGENDA (GENDER, ETHNIC GROUP, AGE,
Q ( , , ,
RELIGION, ETC);
ETHICAL AND HONEST BEHAVIOR;
ACCOUNTABILITY;
ACCOUNTABILITY
SUSTAINABILITY.
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68. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF 'GOOD
GOVERNANCE‘:
1)
) AN EFFICIENT PUBLIC SERVICE;;
2) AN INDEPENDENT JUDICIAL SYSTEM AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK
TO ENFORCE CONTRACTS;
3) THE ACCOUNTABLE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC FUNDS;
4) AN INDEPENDENT PUBLIC AUDITOR, RESPONSIBLE TO A
REPRESENTATIVE LEGISLATURE;
5) RESPECT FOR LAW AND HUMAN RIGHTS AT ALL LEVELS OF
GOVERNMENT;
6) A PLURALISTIC INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE; AND
7) A FREE PRESS (RHODES 1997).
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