International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
Development of 2050’s national long-term energy plans for carbon neutrality t...IEA-ETSAP
Development of national long-term energy plans, for 2050’s carbon neutrality targets, using the DESSTINEE model.
Dr. Gabriel David Oreggioni, Imperial College London
The Regional Carbon Freedom (Presented: 2019)Kalle Karttunen
The aim of the study is to promote ways to reach the goals of the carbon neutrality at the South Savo region in eastern Finland by examining the solutions for emission reductions and forest use. The study has taken the first step for reaching the cost-effective carbon neutrality at the regional level in Finland. The carbon dioxide neutral region means that the region's internal activity does not change the carbon content of the atmosphere. The carbon neutral society produces just as much carbon emissions as it can bind from the atmosphere.
The study started by updating the regional energy balance and its carbon influence. Second, the carbon impact on
forest use was measured. Finally, the cost-efficiency of alternative carbon neutrality solutions will be estimated. The
study will be carried out by combining alternative emission reduction solutions and forest management simulations
with computable general equilibrium (CGE) modelling. Permanent National Forest Inventory plots were used as an
input of forest management simulations. Then, applying a modified CGE model (RegFinDyn), the economic and
emission impacts of alternative carbon balance solutions will be assessed at the regional level.
Earlier results have shown that a more intensive use of forests decreases the carbon sequestration potential but
increases the regional socio-economic benefits. The carbon balance should be compensated either for emission
reduction solutions or by controlling the use of forests. It is important to choose the solutions which are not only the
emission efficient but also cost-efficient at the regional level.
Using Ground Source Heat Pumps for Renewable EnergyIJERA Editor
This paper provides background information on the current energy supply, energy demand, and energy sources in Kosovo. Moreover, it presents the country‟s current level of applying alternative energy sources. Additionally, this paper focuses on geothermal energy as a renewable energy resource with the potential to contribute to a sustainable use of resources to meet renewable energy and energy efficiency requirements of the European Union (EU), “EU 20 20 by 2020” policy. Hence, a careful analysis is included on how to approach the aforementioned targets through investments in geothermal energy through providing an energy consumption forecast and analysing geothermal energy projects in Europe and specifically in Kosovo. This paper carefully represents the potential usage of geothermal energy in Kosovo, renewable energy source targets, and it addresses the importance of laws, regulations, and reports regarding the utilization of this type of energy. Economic and environmental implications of investing in geothermal energy - geothermal heat pumps for the case of International Village are additionally analysed. Lastly, recommendations and conclusions, for future actions, are derived and addressed to relevant stakeholders, primarily policy-makers, and government representatives
Development of 2050’s national long-term energy plans for carbon neutrality t...IEA-ETSAP
Development of national long-term energy plans, for 2050’s carbon neutrality targets, using the DESSTINEE model.
Dr. Gabriel David Oreggioni, Imperial College London
The Regional Carbon Freedom (Presented: 2019)Kalle Karttunen
The aim of the study is to promote ways to reach the goals of the carbon neutrality at the South Savo region in eastern Finland by examining the solutions for emission reductions and forest use. The study has taken the first step for reaching the cost-effective carbon neutrality at the regional level in Finland. The carbon dioxide neutral region means that the region's internal activity does not change the carbon content of the atmosphere. The carbon neutral society produces just as much carbon emissions as it can bind from the atmosphere.
The study started by updating the regional energy balance and its carbon influence. Second, the carbon impact on
forest use was measured. Finally, the cost-efficiency of alternative carbon neutrality solutions will be estimated. The
study will be carried out by combining alternative emission reduction solutions and forest management simulations
with computable general equilibrium (CGE) modelling. Permanent National Forest Inventory plots were used as an
input of forest management simulations. Then, applying a modified CGE model (RegFinDyn), the economic and
emission impacts of alternative carbon balance solutions will be assessed at the regional level.
Earlier results have shown that a more intensive use of forests decreases the carbon sequestration potential but
increases the regional socio-economic benefits. The carbon balance should be compensated either for emission
reduction solutions or by controlling the use of forests. It is important to choose the solutions which are not only the
emission efficient but also cost-efficient at the regional level.
Using Ground Source Heat Pumps for Renewable EnergyIJERA Editor
This paper provides background information on the current energy supply, energy demand, and energy sources in Kosovo. Moreover, it presents the country‟s current level of applying alternative energy sources. Additionally, this paper focuses on geothermal energy as a renewable energy resource with the potential to contribute to a sustainable use of resources to meet renewable energy and energy efficiency requirements of the European Union (EU), “EU 20 20 by 2020” policy. Hence, a careful analysis is included on how to approach the aforementioned targets through investments in geothermal energy through providing an energy consumption forecast and analysing geothermal energy projects in Europe and specifically in Kosovo. This paper carefully represents the potential usage of geothermal energy in Kosovo, renewable energy source targets, and it addresses the importance of laws, regulations, and reports regarding the utilization of this type of energy. Economic and environmental implications of investing in geothermal energy - geothermal heat pumps for the case of International Village are additionally analysed. Lastly, recommendations and conclusions, for future actions, are derived and addressed to relevant stakeholders, primarily policy-makers, and government representatives
The Scope for Electricity & Carbon Saving in the EU through the use of EPM Te...Leonardo ENERGY
Highlights:
* Discusses the features and advantages of electromagnetic processing of materials (EPM).
* EPM provides significant opportunities to save energy and reduce carbon emissions in industrial thermal processes.
* Describes a scenario in which industrial processes are gradually switched to 100% electrical operation.
* Suggests that the most energy intensive industrial thermal processes could be replaced by electrothermal technologies.
Paweł Wróbel:
How the European Green Deal accelerates the transition of the Polish energy sector
Comments by: Michał Myck, Centre for Economic Analysis
This presentation was presented by Michal Myck during the annual SITE Development Day 2021 conference at Stockholm School of Economics via Zoom.
Disclaimer: SITE has the permission from Michal Myck to upload this presentation slide.
This presentation was presented by Chloé Le Coq during the annual SITE Development Day 2021 conference at Stockholm School of Economics via Zoom.
Disclaimer: SITE has the permission from Chloé Le Coq to upload this presentation slide.
This presentation was presented by Paweł WRÓBEL during the annual SITE Development Day 2021 conference at Stockholm School of Economics via Zoom.
Disclaimer: SITE has the permission from Paweł WRÓBEL to upload this presentation slide.
This is part of the WEST Buildings As Power Stations course.
To find out more go to:
https://www.westproject.org.uk/sites/default/files/images/Buildings-As-Power-Stations.pdf
or visit our SolarPV page on the WEST website here:
https://www.westproject.org.uk/content/solar-pv
SkyAI heat detection whitepaper: Europes plans to reduce heat wasteJoost van Oorschot
This whitepaper provides an overview of the current heat network in Europe as well as the policies and goals of the EU to reduce its heat waste. The paper finalises with SkyAI's perspective on how to effectively reduce heat waste in the EU
Presentation from Professor Trevor Drage on behalf of the UKCCSRC at the National CCS Week conference in Sydney, Australia on 1 September 2014. http://www.nationalccsweek.com.au/
Harnessing the Potential of Power-to-Gas Technologies. Insights from a prelim...Université de Liège (ULg)
This presentation explores the potential of power-to-gaz
technologies for a deep decarbonization of our economies. A case study carried out on the Belgian energy system is discussed.
:Germany is concerned about climate change. Germany has always taken a proactive stance on international climate change agreements: Bonn 1995 Commitments of the government Hosting the UNFCCC Secretariat National and EU policies Current commitment: EU: 20 % emissions reductions by 2020; 20 % renewables, 20 % energy efficiency. In case of new climate agreement: 30 % reduction.
The Scope for Electricity & Carbon Saving in the EU through the use of EPM Te...Leonardo ENERGY
Highlights:
* Discusses the features and advantages of electromagnetic processing of materials (EPM).
* EPM provides significant opportunities to save energy and reduce carbon emissions in industrial thermal processes.
* Describes a scenario in which industrial processes are gradually switched to 100% electrical operation.
* Suggests that the most energy intensive industrial thermal processes could be replaced by electrothermal technologies.
Paweł Wróbel:
How the European Green Deal accelerates the transition of the Polish energy sector
Comments by: Michał Myck, Centre for Economic Analysis
This presentation was presented by Michal Myck during the annual SITE Development Day 2021 conference at Stockholm School of Economics via Zoom.
Disclaimer: SITE has the permission from Michal Myck to upload this presentation slide.
This presentation was presented by Chloé Le Coq during the annual SITE Development Day 2021 conference at Stockholm School of Economics via Zoom.
Disclaimer: SITE has the permission from Chloé Le Coq to upload this presentation slide.
This presentation was presented by Paweł WRÓBEL during the annual SITE Development Day 2021 conference at Stockholm School of Economics via Zoom.
Disclaimer: SITE has the permission from Paweł WRÓBEL to upload this presentation slide.
This is part of the WEST Buildings As Power Stations course.
To find out more go to:
https://www.westproject.org.uk/sites/default/files/images/Buildings-As-Power-Stations.pdf
or visit our SolarPV page on the WEST website here:
https://www.westproject.org.uk/content/solar-pv
SkyAI heat detection whitepaper: Europes plans to reduce heat wasteJoost van Oorschot
This whitepaper provides an overview of the current heat network in Europe as well as the policies and goals of the EU to reduce its heat waste. The paper finalises with SkyAI's perspective on how to effectively reduce heat waste in the EU
Presentation from Professor Trevor Drage on behalf of the UKCCSRC at the National CCS Week conference in Sydney, Australia on 1 September 2014. http://www.nationalccsweek.com.au/
Harnessing the Potential of Power-to-Gas Technologies. Insights from a prelim...Université de Liège (ULg)
This presentation explores the potential of power-to-gaz
technologies for a deep decarbonization of our economies. A case study carried out on the Belgian energy system is discussed.
:Germany is concerned about climate change. Germany has always taken a proactive stance on international climate change agreements: Bonn 1995 Commitments of the government Hosting the UNFCCC Secretariat National and EU policies Current commitment: EU: 20 % emissions reductions by 2020; 20 % renewables, 20 % energy efficiency. In case of new climate agreement: 30 % reduction.
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
Performance Analysis of Three Phase Cascaded H-Bridge Multi Level Inverter fo...IJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
A Note on a Three Variables Analogue of Bessel PolynomialsIJMER
The present paper deals with a study of a three variables analogue of Bessel polynomials.
Certain representations, a Schlafli’s contour integral, a fractional integral, Laplace transformations, some
generating functions and double and triple generating functions have been obtained.
A Study of Wind Turbine Blade Power Enhancement Using Aerodynamic Properties IJMER
Technological advancements have improvised them over time. In this paper we shall glance at
the features. Wind energy is the most popular renewable energy. In order to increase the use of wind
energy, it is important to develop wind turbine rotor models with high rotation rates and power
coefficients. These elemental forces are summed along the span of the blade to calculate the total forces
and moments exerted on the turbine. This study aimed at manufacturing highly efficient wind turbine
rotor models using NACA profiles.
An Approach for Project Scheduling Using PERT/CPM and Petri Nets (PNs) ToolsIJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
Performance Analysis of the Constructed Updraft Biomass Gasifier for Three Di...IJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) covers all the fields of engineering and science: Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Computer Engineering, Agricultural Engineering, Aerospace Engineering, Thermodynamics, Structural Engineering, Control Engineering, Robotics, Mechatronics, Fluid Mechanics, Nanotechnology, Simulators, Web-based Learning, Remote Laboratories, Engineering Design Methods, Education Research, Students' Satisfaction and Motivation, Global Projects, and Assessment…. And many more.
Alternatives for Cellulase Production in Submerged Fermentation with Agroindu...IJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) covers all the fields of engineering and science: Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Computer Engineering, Agricultural Engineering, Aerospace Engineering, Thermodynamics, Structural Engineering, Control Engineering, Robotics, Mechatronics, Fluid Mechanics, Nanotechnology, Simulators, Web-based Learning, Remote Laboratories, Engineering Design Methods, Education Research, Students' Satisfaction and Motivation, Global Projects, and Assessment…. And many more.
Implementation of Six Sigma Using DMAIC Methodology in Small Scale Industries...IJMER
The fast changing economic conditions such as global completion, declining profit margin, customer demand for high quality product, product variety and reduced lead time etc had a major impact on manufacturing industries. To respond to these needs a new paradigm in this area of manufacturing strategies is six sigma. The six sigma has been increasingly adopted world wide in the manufacturing sector in order to enhance productivity and quality performance and to make the process robust to quality variations. This paper deals with an application of six sigma using DMAIC methodology in a gas industry which provides a frame work to identify, quantify and eliminate sources of variation in an operational process in question, to optimize the operation variables, improve and sustain performance viz process yield with well executed control plans. Six sigma improves the process performance of the critical operational process, leading to better utilization of resources, decreases variations and maintains consistent quality of the process output.
Nose Tip Detection Using Shape index and Energy Effective for 3d Face Recogni...IJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
Regression techniques to study the student performance in post graduate exam...IJMER
Aptitude of students entering into Post graduate courses in INDIA is an aspect to be studied.
Entrance Examinations do test the aptitude but to a certain extent. Post graduate students are expected to
have a certain level of aptitude and this aptitude should be sustained till the end of their course and
beyond. Therefore, it is a necessity to examine to what extent their aptitudes are getting tested. The marks
scored by the students in the entrance examination is an indicator of the aptitude but does not speak of the
ability of the students in all the aspects or the subject of their specialization in the post graduate courses.It
has been observed that a causal dependency exists between the degree marks and the entrance test marks.
This paper tries to investigate this dependency with linear regression techniques. On the whole , categories
of students are identified by studying the distribution of marks. A mapping between the marks and the
questions are being studied. Linear regression technique is being used to identify the groups of students
and to predict the expected marks that the future students would score.
Abstract— Emanations of nursery gasses and different contaminations are expanding in India with the expanding interest for power. Coal is the essential fuel for power era in India and its use is persistently expanding to meet the vitality requests of the nation. This paper displays the investigation of warm plant and cogeneration plant as far as power era and emanations, impacts of discharges on condition and human wellbeing are talked about. Correlation of warm plant is made with the bagasse based cogeneration plant. In coal based Thermal power plant input coal every day ranges from 650 to 850 Tons so that 250 to 350 Tons of Ash is produced and 550000 to 650000 Units of power is created. In bagasse based cogeneration plant bagasse utilized every day ranges from 100 to 2000 Tons, Ash created is 10 to 80 Tons and power of 20000 to 800000Units are produced. By consuming unit ton of coal 0.3 to 0.4 tons of Ash is created, where as 750 to 850 Units of power is produced. In any case, from cogeneration plant utilizing 1Tonne of bagasse 0.04 Ton of Ash and 400Units of Electricity is produced. In this manner Ash produced from Thermal power plant is 10 times more than the Ash created from the Cogeneration Plant. The coal based plants impact the earth and human wellbeing by discharges like Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Sulfur Oxides (SOx), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx ) and Particulate Matter. Gauges from the cogeneration comes about that the discharges are similarly not as much as the coal based warm power plant.
Keywords— Ash generation, Bagasse, Cogeneration plant, Emissions, Thermal Plant.
Waste heat recovery dynamics an analogy of electricity generation & emiss...Arya Jena
This blog concentrates on discussing the untapped energy potential in waste heat recovery in Industries in India. And it's potential benefits in achieving energy efficiency, negawatt (Negative Watt) capacity addition and positive impact on the environment.
Comparative Study of Electricity Production Cost of Energy Mix of Burkina Fasoijtsrd
This paper presents the feasibility study of replacing HFO power plants with LNG power plant, taking into account the balance of electricity supply and demand in the energy mix of Burkina Faso. The study consisted of calculating and comparing the optimal electricity production costs of each production mode and verifying the competitiveness of electricity production cost using LNG compared to HFO. The simulations results showed that LNG cost being less expensive than HFO cost, the production cost per kWh of electricity using LNG is very competitive compared to the production cost per kWh of electricity using HFO. Power plants running on LNG can replace HFO plants in electricity production in Burkina Faso. Switching to natural gas will optimize Burkina Fasos energy mix and ensure energy security at a compatible cost with household income. This will gradually reduce the countrys dependence on imported electrical energy. KY J. B. | Tissologo M. | Ouedraogo S. | Nikiema O. | Ouattara F. "Comparative Study of Electricity Production Cost of Energy Mix of Burkina Faso" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-6 , December 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd60085.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/60085/comparative-study-of-electricity-production-cost-of-energy-mix-of-burkina-faso/ky-j-b
FEASIBILITY STUDY OF ORKNEY’S WINDFARM DEVELOPMENT FOR SELF-SUFFICIENT FOR ...AEIJjournal2
In Orkney islands, a number of wind energy projects have been established due to its potential for wind
energy development especially as cluster developments on hilltop and moorland. This Self-sufficient
Orkney Wind Energy (SOWE) project is trying to follow this pattern of development and has designed as a
simple linear development of medium-large scale wind turbines which avoids dominating the landscape,
while providing diversification required for the energy security, along with strong economic benefits to the
local community. The developer completed preliminary designs and landscape assessment, resulting in the
detailed design and the development of 27 wind turbine project for the expectation to generated electricity
of 549.2 GWh annually.
FEASIBILITY STUDY OF ORKNEY’S WINDFARM DEVELOPMENT FOR SELF-SUFFICIENT FOR EN...AEIJjournal2
In Orkney islands, a number of wind energy projects have been established due to its potential for wind
energy development especially as cluster developments on hilltop and moorland. This Self-sufficient
Orkney Wind Energy (SOWE) project is trying to follow this pattern of development and has designed as a
simple linear development of medium-large scale wind turbines which avoids dominating the landscape,
while providing diversification required for the energy security, along with strong economic benefits to the
local community. The developer completed preliminary designs and landscape assessment, resulting in the
detailed design and the development of 27 wind turbine project for the expectation to generated electricity
of 549.2 GWh annually.
FEASIBILITY STUDY OF ORKNEY’S WINDFARM DEVELOPMENT FOR SELF-SUFFICIENT FOR EN...AEIJjournal2
In Orkney islands, a number of wind energy projects have been established due to its potential for wind
energy development especially as cluster developments on hilltop and moorland. This Self-sufficient
Orkney Wind Energy (SOWE) project is trying to follow this pattern of development and has designed as a
simple linear development of medium-large scale wind turbines which avoids dominating the landscape,
while providing diversification required for the energy security, along with strong economic benefits to the
local community. The developer completed preliminary designs and landscape assessment, resulting in the
detailed design and the development of 27 wind turbine project for the expectation to generated electricity
of 549.2 GWh annually.
FEASIBILITY STUDY OF ORKNEY’S WINDFARM DEVELOPMENT FOR SELF-SUFFICIENT FOR EN...aeijjournal
In Orkney islands, a number of wind energy projects have been established due to its potential for wind energy development especially as cluster developments on hilltop and moorland. This Self-sufficient Orkney Wind Energy (SOWE) project is trying to follow this pattern of development and has designed as a simple linear development of medium-large scale wind turbines which avoids dominating the landscape, while providing diversification required for the energy security, along with strong economic benefits to the local community. The developer completed preliminary designs and landscape assessment, resulting in the detailed design and the development of 27 wind turbine project for the expectation to generated electricity
of 549.2 GWh annually. The SOWE project has been designed and selected the use of the Enercon E44 - 900 kW and Norex N80 - 2.5 MW wind turbines. These machines represent the maximum scale, respectively, as; • the site layout and all modelling have used a 45m, and 60m turbine tower height;
• a rotor diameter of 44 m, and 80 m; and • The blade length is 22 m and 40 m. It has been found that the SOWE project provides a promising contribution towards the Scottish
Government renewable energy production and carbon reduction targets.
KEYWORDS
feasibility study, windfarm, Orkney, road transport
FEASIBILITY STUDY OF ORKNEY’S WINDFARM DEVELOPMENT FOR SELF-SUFFICIENT FOR EN...AEIJjournal2
Advanced Energy: An International Journal (AEIJ) is a quarterly open access peer-reviewed journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of the Energy Engineering and allied fields. This multi disciplinary journal is devoted to the publication of high quality papers on theoretical and practical aspects of Energy Engineering.
Sustainable Strategies for the Exploitation of End-of-Life Permanent MagnetsNOMADPOWER
Rare Earth Magnets (REM), especially the NdFeB type, are essential components in high-performance electric motors and wind turbines, playing an important role in the shift towards a low-carbon energy matrix. However, little work has been done to understand how the production of REM can be in line with the global sustainable transition. To overcome this lack and help with future research, as well as decision-making, this paper provides a literature overview of which aspects of sustainability are being investigated in the REM supply chain, and how each of them contributes to achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). This research is developed through a consistent analysis of 44 peer-reviewed publications, followed by an analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Four main subjects of studies were identified: environmental impact; social impact; economic aspects and circular economy. Most of the studies focus on computing the environmental impact through life cycle assessment and discussing techniques towards exploring the circular economy concept. In addition to contributing to a greener economy, the majors identified strengths of REM are the great potential of its supply chain in reducing primary resource extraction, since REM recovery and recycling seem to be viable, and the promising techniques to minimize environmental impacts along the rare earth elements production chain.
Carbon Emission Factor for Ukrainian Electricity GridMykola Shlapak
The article provides the results of calculation of carbon emission factor for Ukrainian electricity grid for the period 2012-2015 using publicly available data. Carbon emission factor for Ukrainian electricity grid is estimated using operation margin emission factor method in line with the provisions of the latest versions of the relevant CDM tools. The results provided could be used when calculating GHG emission reduction for renewable energy (where a project activity supplies electricity to a grid) and energy efficiency projects (project activity that results in savings of electricity that would have been provided by the grid.
Electric vehicles as the future of personal transportation?benboycott
An analysis of three cases against and three cases for electric vehicles. Cases against include: well to wheel carbon emissions, power station requirements and rare earth metal supply. Cases for include: carbon reduction and facilitation of renewable electricity, reduced reliance on oil and health improvements in urban environments.
Cyprus hydrocarbons - Energy security for the EU in the pipeline?Harris Samaras
The confirmation of significant quantities of hydrocarbons in Cyprus, (the Levantine Basin, the Nile Delta Cone, the Eratosthenes Continental Block and the Herodotus Basin) may prove to be a tremendous opportunity not only for the island but for the EU as a whole. The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that the aforementioned areas hold an estimated 13.8 trillion cubic meters (tcm) of natural gas. Also as per the BEICIP/FRANLAB and the Institut Français du Pétrole, the Cyprus Exclusive Economic Zone alone holds an estimated 3 tcm of natural gas.
Cyprus, an EU member country, a regional business and financial hub (and an established investment gateway to and from Russia) is firmly on its way to becoming an energy superpower and a guaranteed primary natural gas source and transit route to the EU, of the EU; a hub of reconciliation and regional stability!
Similar to Characterization, Classification and Standardization of Fly Ash of Kosovo Lignite-Fired Power Stations as Industrial Construction Product (20)
A Study on Translucent Concrete Product and Its Properties by Using Optical F...IJMER
- Translucent concrete is a concrete based material with light-transferring properties,
obtained due to embedded light optical elements like Optical fibers used in concrete. Light is conducted
through the concrete from one end to the other. This results into a certain light pattern on the other
surface, depending on the fiber structure. Optical fibers transmit light so effectively that there is
virtually no loss of light conducted through the fibers. This paper deals with the modeling of such
translucent or transparent concrete blocks and panel and their usage and also the advantages it brings
in the field. The main purpose is to use sunlight as a light source to reduce the power consumption of
illumination and to use the optical fiber to sense the stress of structures and also use this concrete as an
architectural purpose of the building
Developing Cost Effective Automation for Cotton Seed DelintingIJMER
A low cost automation system for removal of lint from cottonseed is to be designed and
developed. The setup consists of stainless steel drum with stirrer in which cottonseeds having lint is mixed
with concentrated sulphuric acid. So lint will get burn. This lint free cottonseed treated with lime water to
neutralize acidic nature. After water washing this cottonseeds are used for agriculter purpose
Study & Testing Of Bio-Composite Material Based On Munja FibreIJMER
The incorporation of natural fibres such as munja fiber composites has gained
increasing applications both in many areas of Engineering and Technology. The aim of this study is to
evaluate mechanical properties such as flexural and tensile properties of reinforced epoxy composites.
This is mainly due to their applicable benefits as they are light weight and offer low cost compared to
synthetic fibre composites. Munja fibres recently have been a substitute material in many weight-critical
applications in areas such as aerospace, automotive and other high demanding industrial sectors. In
this study, natural munja fibre composites and munja/fibreglass hybrid composites were fabricated by a
combination of hand lay-up and cold-press methods. A new variety in munja fibre is the present work
the main aim of the work is to extract the neat fibre and is characterized for its flexural characteristics.
The composites are fabricated by reinforcing untreated and treated fibre and are tested for their
mechanical, properties strictly as per ASTM procedures.
Hybrid Engine (Stirling Engine + IC Engine + Electric Motor)IJMER
Hybrid engine is a combination of Stirling engine, IC engine and Electric motor. All these 3 are
connected together to a single shaft. The power source of the Stirling engine will be a Solar Panel. The aim of
this is to run the automobile using a Hybrid engine
Fabrication & Characterization of Bio Composite Materials Based On Sunnhemp F...IJMER
The present day technology demands eco-friendly developments. In this era the
composite material are playing a vital roal in different field of Engineering .The composite materials
are using as a principle materials. Nowaday the composite materials are utilizing as a important
component of engineering field .Where as the importance of the applications of composites is well
known, but thrust on the use of natural fibres in it for reinforcement has been given priority for some
times. But changing from synthetic fibres to natural fibres provides only half green-composites. A
partial green composite will be achieved if the matrix component is also eco-friendly. Keeping this in
view, a detailed literature surveyed has been carried out through various issues of the Journals
related to this field. The material systems used are sunnhemp fibres. Some epoxy and hardener has
been also added for stability and drying of the bio-composites. Various graphs and bar-charts are
super-imposed on each other for comparison among themselves and Graphs is plotted on MAT LAB
and ORIGIN 6.0 software. To determining tensile strengths, Various properties for different biocomposites
have been compared among themselves. Comparison of the behaviour of bio-composites of
this work has been also compare with other works. The bio-composites developed in this work are
likely to get applications in fall ceilings, partitions, bio-degradable packagings, automotive interiors,
sports things (e.g. rackets, nets, etc.), toys etc.
Geochemistry and Genesis of Kammatturu Iron Ores of Devagiri Formation, Sandu...IJMER
The Greenstone belts of Karnataka are enriched in BIFs in Dharwar craton, where Iron
formations are confined to the basin shelf, clearly separated from the deeper-water iron formation that
accumulated at the basin margin and flanking the marine basin. Geochemical data procured in terms of
major, trace and REE are plotted in various diagrams to interpret the genesis of BIFs. Al2O3, Fe2O3 (T),
TiO2, CaO, and SiO2 abundances and ratios show a wide variation. Ni, Co, Zr, Sc, V, Rb, Sr, U, Th,
ΣREE, La, Ce and Eu anomalies and their binary relationships indicate that wherever the terrigenous
component has increased, the concentration of elements of felsic such as Zr and Hf has gone up. Elevated
concentrations of Ni, Co and Sc are contributed by chlorite and other components characteristic of basic
volcanic debris. The data suggest that these formations were generated by chemical and clastic
sedimentary processes on a shallow shelf. During transgression, chemical precipitation took place at the
sediment-water interface, whereas at the time of regression. Iron ore formed with sedimentary structures
and textures in Kammatturu area, in a setting where the water column was oxygenated.
Experimental Investigation on Characteristic Study of the Carbon Steel C45 in...IJMER
In this paper, the mechanical characteristics of C45 medium carbon steel are investigated
under various working conditions. The main characteristic to be studied on this paper is impact toughness
of the material with different configurations and the experiment were carried out on charpy impact testing
equipment. This study reveals the ability of the material to absorb energy up to failure for various
specimen configurations under different heat treated conditions and the corresponding results were
compared with the analysis outcome
Non linear analysis of Robot Gun Support Structure using Equivalent Dynamic A...IJMER
Robot guns are being increasingly employed in automotive manufacturing to replace
risky jobs and also to increase productivity. Using a single robot for a single operation proves to be
expensive. Hence for cost optimization, multiple guns are mounted on a single robot and multiple
operations are performed. Robot Gun structure is an efficient way in which multiple welds can be done
simultaneously. However mounting several weld guns on a single structure induces a variety of
dynamic loads, especially during movement of the robot arm as it maneuvers to reach the weld
locations. The primary idea employed in this paper, is to model those dynamic loads as equivalent G
force loads in FEA. This approach will be on the conservative side, and will be saving time and
subsequently cost efficient. The approach of the paper is towards creating a standard operating
procedure when it comes to analysis of such structures, with emphasis on deploying various technical
aspects of FEA such as Non Linear Geometry, Multipoint Constraint Contact Algorithm, Multizone
meshing .
Static Analysis of Go-Kart Chassis by Analytical and Solid Works SimulationIJMER
This paper aims to do modelling, simulation and performing the static analysis of a go
kart chassis consisting of Circular beams. Modelling, simulations and analysis are performed using 3-D
modelling software i.e. Solid Works and ANSYS according to the rulebook provided by Indian Society of
New Era Engineers (ISNEE) for National Go Kart Championship (NGKC-14).The maximum deflection is
determined by performing static analysis. Computed results are then compared to analytical calculation,
where it is found that the location of maximum deflection agrees well with theoretical approximation but
varies on magnitude aspect.
In récent year various vehicle introduced in market but due to limitation in
carbon émission and BS Séries limitd speed availability vehicle in the market and causing of
environnent pollution over few year There is need to decrease dependancy on fuel vehicle.
bicycle is to be modified for optional in the future To implement new technique using change in
pedal assembly and variable speed gearbox such as planetary gear optimise speed of vehicle
with variable speed ratio.To increase the efficiency of bicycle for confortable drive and to
reduce torque appli éd on bicycle. we introduced epicyclic gear box in which transmission done
throgh Chain Drive (i.e. Sprocket )to rear wheel with help of Epicyclical gear Box to give
number of différent Speed during driving.To reduce torque requirent in the cycle with change in
the pedal mechanism
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δ
ˆ
s-locally closed sets and spaces are known as
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s-normal space and
δ
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s-connected space and
discussed some of their properties
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system is loaded to neuro-fuzzy toolbox as an input and the final ANFIS structure is generated for
outcome of neuro-fuzzy approach. The experiments and evaluations of the proposed method were
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based on the combination of, two techniques using decision tree and Association rule mining
efficiently detected probe attacks. Experimental results shows better results for detecting intrusions as
compared to others existing methods
Natural Language Ambiguity and its Effect on Machine LearningIJMER
"Natural language processing" here refers to the use and ability of systems to process
sentences in a natural language such as English, rather than in a specialized artificial computer
language such as C++. The systems of real interest here are digital computers of the type we think of as
personal computers and mainframes. Of course humans can process natural languages, but for us the
question is whether digital computers can or ever will process natural languages. We have tried to
explore in depth and break down the types of ambiguities persistent throughout the natural languages
and provide an answer to the question “How it affects the machine translation process and thereby
machine learning as whole?” .
Today in era of software industry there is no perfect software framework available for
analysis and software development. Currently there are enormous number of software development
process exists which can be implemented to stabilize the process of developing a software system. But no
perfect system is recognized till yet which can help software developers for opting of best software
development process. This paper present the framework of skillful system combined with Likert scale. With
the help of Likert scale we define a rule based model and delegate some mass score to every process and
develop one tool name as MuxSet which will help the software developers to select an appropriate
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Material Parameter and Effect of Thermal Load on Functionally Graded CylindersIJMER
The present study investigates the creep in a thick-walled composite cylinders made
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of SiCp is assumed to be either uniform or decreasing linearly from the inner to the outer radius of
the cylinder. The creep behavior of the cylinder has been described by threshold stress based creep
law with a stress exponent of 5. The composite cylinders are subjected to internal pressure which is
applied gradually and steady state condition of stress is assumed. The creep parameters required to
be used in creep law, are extracted by conducting regression analysis on the available experimental
results. The mathematical models have been developed to describe steady state creep in the composite
cylinder by using von-Mises criterion. Regression analysis is used to obtain the creep parameters
required in the study. The basic equilibrium equation of the cylinder and other constitutive equations
have been solved to obtain creep stresses in the cylinder. The effect of varying particle size, particle
content and temperature on the stresses in the composite cylinder has been analyzed. The study
revealed that the stress distributions in the cylinder do not vary significantly for various combinations
of particle size, particle content and operating temperature except for slight variation observed for
varying particle content. Functionally Graded Materials (FGMs) emerged and led to the development
of superior heat resistant materials.
Energy Audit is the systematic process for finding out the energy conservation
opportunities in industrial processes. The project carried out studies on various energy conservation
measures application in areas like lighting, motors, compressors, transformer, ventilation system etc.
In this investigation, studied the technical aspects of the various measures along with its cost benefit
analysis.
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2. Use of electronic ballast instead of copper ballast.
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An Implementation of I2C Slave Interface using Verilog HDLIJMER
The focus of this paper is on implementation of Inter Integrated Circuit (I2C) protocol
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XST 14.1. This module acts as a slave for the microprocessor which can be customized for no data loss.
Discrete Model of Two Predators competing for One PreyIJMER
This paper investigates the dynamical behavior of a discrete model of one prey two
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GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using Deplo...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
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The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
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Bob Boule
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Gopinath Rebala
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Characterization, Classification and Standardization of Fly Ash of Kosovo Lignite-Fired Power Stations as Industrial Construction Product
1. www.ijmer.com
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER)
Vol. 3, Issue. 5, Sep - Oct. 2013 pp-3063-3070
ISSN: 2249-6645
Characterization, Classification and Standardization of Fly Ash of
Kosovo Lignite-Fired Power Stations as Industrial Construction
Product
Mevlan Qafleshi1, Lulezime Aliko2
1
2
Faculty of Mathematical Engineering and Physical Engineering, Polytechnic University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania
Faculty of Mathematical Engineering and Physical Engineering, Polytechnic University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania
ABSTRACT: Kosovo generates around 6000 GWh of electrical energy annually. Over 97% of this is produced by lignitefired power-plants and less than 3% by hydro-plants. The lignite combustion, around 8 Mt/a, besides the emission of gases,
produces a residue ash, fly ash and bottom ash. Since the first operation of power-plants in 1962 up to now, this ash was
removed and stockpiled as a waste without utilization, which presents a great threat as pollutant for people and
environment. It is a fact that many countries utilize their fly ash as cement substitute in concrete production and/or as
additive in concrete for achieving specific properties in construction sector; as fill material in road construction; industry as
filler etc. But in Kosovo, the Fly ash is literally only a waste. In the world, the cement is the second most consumed
substance after water, and its production emits around 5% of CO2 globally; from 900 kgCO2/t- 935 kgCO2/t of cement. The
results show that for 1kg of cement substituted by 1kg fly ash, we will have 1kg less CO2 in atmosphere, i.e. less green house
gases, less global warming. The core part of this paper is to classify the Kosovo fly ash based on its chemical and
mineralogical analyzes, and standardize this waste to an industrial product conform international standards, specifically
European and American standards. If we standardize this waste to a construction product, then the utilization of Fly ash
from Kosovo TPP would be of a great importance environmentally and economically.
Keywords: Kosovo, fly ash, characterization, classification, standardization
I.
INTRODUCTION
In Kosovo the first lignite-fired power plant unit Kosova A1 started operating in 1962 and all over the years other
units A2, A3, A4, A5, and B1 and B2. These units combusting lignite as fuel generate up to 97% of electrical energy in
Kosovo. This is a significant indicator that Kosovo is profoundly dependent from the energy produced by thermal power
plants (TPP) since the contribution of electricity produced by hydro-power plants (HPP) is very of low with a participation
of less than 3%. The orientation of Kosovo for a sustainable energy production by TPP is based on the fact that Kosovo
possesses huge lignite reserves around 14 bt [1], the third place in Europe after Germany and Poland. This abundance of
Kosovo with lignite as fuel has made the Kosovo Government to plan the construction of one other TPP unit “The New
Kosovo”, with anticipated installed capacity 1000 MW in the first phase, and with another 1000 MW in the second phase
[2].This unit of New Kosovo is anticipated to be operational in 2016. Since the first operation of TPP units in 1962 till 2012,
the energy production of all units sums 158,829,841 MWh [3]. This energy production annually consumes around 7-8 Mt
lignite [4]. In other terms, for the production of 1 MWh of electrical energy approximately 1.4 t of lignite is consumed as
fuel, i.e. 1.4t/MWh for Kosovo B units and 1.8t/MWh for Kosova A units.[ 3][5].
The burning process of lignite besides the emission of gases generates an amount of ash as combustion byproduct.
Around 80% of this ash flies with flue gases and before exiting the stack gets captured by Electrostatic Precipitators-ESP (or
electro-filters) in the form of Fly Ash. 20% of ash falls down as bottom ash. Both ashes are waste and for decades have been
transported and dumped to the stockpiles; they have not been utilized at all. From the analyses of Kosovo lignite, the content
of ash in lignite is around 14-17% by mass [6]. This indicates that from burning of 1ton lignite the residue ash is around 160
kg. A calculation shows that up to 2012, in Kosovo there are around 27 Mt of unutilized fly ash. Only in 2012 the lignite
combustion in TPP produced around 1 Mt of fly ash. The aim of this paper is to characterize, based on its chemical and
mineralogical composition, and standardize this unutilized fly ash to an industrial beneficial product and produce with it
environmentally friendly concrete-green concrete.
II.
ELECTRICITY GENERATION IN KOSOVO
Basically Kosovo’s power demand is supplied by thermal power plants (TPP) combusting lignite as fuel and a small
amount is a contribution from hydro-power plants (HPP). In terms of percentage 97% of electricity is provided by Kosovo
Energy Corporation KEK (in Albanian: Korportata Energjetike e Kosovës), which is a public owned enterprise situated in
the central part of Kosovo, and the 3% is supplied by low capacity HPP in different regions. [4].
Table I. Energy production by Kosovo TPP and HPP in a period from 2002-2012 [5][3]
www.ijmer.com
3063 | Page
2. www.ijmer.com
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER)
Vol. 3, Issue. 5, Sep - Oct. 2013 pp-3063-3070
ISSN: 2249-6645
Energy produced by Energy produced by TPP+HPP
TPP
HPP
GWh
GWh
3151.7
3221.1
3481.1
3999.5
3970.5
4309.5
4505.8
5260.0
5481.0
5696.4
5847.2
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
7000
%
97.52
98.44
96.88
97.32
97.54
97.88
98.35
98.34
97.94
98.69
98.90
GWh
80
51
112
110
100
93.2
75.7
88.7
115.5
75.4
65.0
%
2.48
1.56
3.12
2.68
2.46
2.12
1.65
1.66
2.06
1.31
1.10
3231.7
3272.1
3593.1
4109.5
4070.5
4402.7
4581.5
5348.7
5596.5
5771.8
5912.2
Electricity generation
6000
GWh
5000
4000
TPP
3000
2000
Total
(TPP+HPP) GWh
1000
HPP
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
0
Years
Figure1: Electricity generation from TPP and HPP in Kosovo
From the Table I and the Fig. 1 it can be seen that, for a decade, 97.98 % of electrical energy is produced by TPP
and only 2.02 % is the contribution of HPP. This low electrical generation from HPP dictates the prospect of Kosovo energy
to be basically oriented towards a sustainable generation from TPP.
As it is shown in Table I, the greater quantity of electrical energy in Kosovo is produced by Thermo Power Plants-l
ignite-fired power plants. The construction of KEK units was done over the period since 1962 till 1984. The Kosovo Energy
Corporation-KEK consists of two thermal power plants Kosova A with five Units: A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 and Kosova B with
two generating units: B1 and B2.
The overall installed power capacity of TPP Kosova A and B is 1478 MW and for each generating unit is given in
the table below
TPP
Kosova A
Total Kosova
A
Kosova B
Total Kosova B
Table II. Overview of installed capacity of Kosova (A+B) TPP [7]
Unit Commission
Installed
Available capacity
Technical minimum
year
capacity
load
MW
MW
Generator
Entry Generator
Entry
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
1962
1965
1970
1971
1975
65
125
200
200
210
800
0
0
135
135
135
405
0
0
110
110
110
330
0
0
110
110
100
320
0
0
100
100
97
297
B1
B2
1983
1984
339
339
678
290
280
570
265
265
530
200
200
400
182
182
364
www.ijmer.com
3064 | Page
3. International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER)
www.ijmer.com
Vol. 3, Issue. 5, Sep - Oct. 2013 pp-3063-3070
ISSN: 2249-6645
Since the capacity of HPP is very low, only 52.15 MW, in regard to the requirements in Kosovo, the electricity
production generally is covered by KEK TPPs. The energy which is converted in thermo power plants to electrical energy is
the energy of lignite with which Kosovo is abundant, thus lignite represents an outstanding source for energy generation in
Kosovo and will remain as principal fuel for electricity generation in the long term future.
III.
LIGNITE OF KOSOVO
With 14,700 Mt, Kosovo possesses the world’s fifth-largest proven reserves of lignite. Lignite deposits of Kosovo
are distributed across Kosova (here Kosova as a region within the Republic of Kosovo), Dukagjini and Drenica Basins. The
Kosovo lignite open-cast mines are operated as one as most favorable lignite deposits in Europe due to its geological
condition. The average stripping ratio for 1 ton of coal is 1.7 m3 of top soil overburden, and the average deposits thickness of
40 m. With an average of net calorific value (NCV) of 7.8 MJ/kg, lignite of Kosovo is considered of high quality for
exploitation and utilization for electricity generation. These parameters of lignite make the generation of electricity to be of a
low cost comparing to the countries in region [1].
A study “Energy Strategy and Policy of Kosovo”, by EU Pillar, PISG Energy Office, ranks Kosovo as third in
Europe with 10000 Mt economically exploitable resource of lignite. Thus Kosovo represents one of the richest sources of
lignite in Europe. In the Table IV below it is shown the ranking of some European countries based on lignite exploitable
resources.
Slov
enia
Spai
n
0.15
0.04
42.8
Spain
Slovenia
BiH
Slovakia
7.8 5.9
4.2 3.5 3 2.5
1.7 0.380.310.150.04
Macedonia
10
Bulgaria
14
Romania
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Germany
l
i
g
B
n
t
i
t
e
Czech Republic
14.0
Greece
42.8
Turkey
Bt
Table IV: Exploitable lignite reserves in European countries in Bt [6]
Kos Hun Tur Gre Czec Rom Bul Ma Slov BiH
ovo
gary key ece
h R.
ania gar ced akia
ia
oni
a
10.0 7.8
5.9
4.2
3.5
3.0
2.5 1.7 0.38 0.31
Hungary
Pola
nd
Kosovo
Ger
man
y
Poland
Co
unt
ry
Figure 2: Lignite reserves of Kosovo comparing to European countries
Annually the lignite consumption from TPP Kosova A and TPP Kosova B is 7-8 Mt/a. The Table V below shows the annual
lignite consumption for a period from 2002 to 2012.
Table V: The overall lignite consumption in TPP Kosova A and Kosova B [3][5].
Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
5.23 5.64 5.59 6.27 6.35 7.11 7.46 8.41 9.34 9.11
Lignite
Mt
consumption
2012
9.35
Note: The calculations for 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012 are done from specific average of coal consumption for
Kosova A 1.83 t/MWh, and Kosova B 1.4t/MWh , taking the specific average for both Kosova A and Kosovo B as 1.6
t/MWh.
In the Table VI there are presented some parameters and characteristic to feature the lignite as the main fuel used in
the process of generation of electricity in Kosovo TPP
www.ijmer.com
3065 | Page
4. www.ijmer.com
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER)
Vol. 3, Issue. 5, Sep - Oct. 2013 pp-3063-3070
ISSN: 2249-6645
M ton
Lignite consumption in KEK
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Lignite consumption
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Years
Figure 3: Total Lignite consumption in TPP Kosova A and Kosova B
Ash content
Moisture content
Heating values
Sulfur content
Lime
IV.
Table VI: Kosovo lignite quality and parameters [6]
12-21%. The average values 14-17%
35-50%
Bardh -Mirash
7800 KJ/kg
Sibovc
8100 KJ/kg
Total reserves
29%
> 8.4 MJ/kg
43%
7.7-8.4 MJ/kg
25%
5.8-7.7 MJ/kg
1 %. In all deposits/mines. The average content of combustible sulfur is 0.35%
The concentration of lime is sufficient to absorb the SOx gas emitted during
combustion- no need for desulfurization of flue gases
FLY ASH AS LIGNITE COMBUSTION BYPRODUCT AT TPP KOSOVA A AND KOSOVA B
Lignite, after extraction from the deposits, is transported through a system of conveyers to the TPP. There it
undergoes a drying process; grinding-pulverization up to baking flour sized particles and sprayed to the combustion chamber
of the TPP. The pulverized lignite combustion process heats up the water steam that is beneficial for pressure steam turbine
rotation and finally the generation of electrical energy in generators, which are connected to the transmission system. This is
advantage and benefit of usage of lignite.
The combustion process is associated, apart from energy release, with the emission of some other combustion
byproducts:
gaseous products: carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur oxides (SOX), nitrogen oxides (NOX),
lignite ash (particulate matter-PM): fly ash, bottom ash
The aim of this study is lignite ash that is a mineral residue from the combustion process of lignite in Kosova TPPs.
The coal ash from lignite fired power plants depends from the ash content of lignite and boiler operation. The emission of
PM for the coal with high ash content depends more on the coal ash than combustion efficiency [ 8], whilst the coal, lignite
in this case, with low ash content depends more on the combustion efficiency.
Bottom ash, which represents 10-15% [9] of the overall coal ash, is a coarse granular ash almost sand like material. It is the
noncombustible residue of lignite combustion. It is called bottom ash because during the high temperature combustion,
some of the ash melts and accumulates on the boilers walls and steam tubes and then it is collected from the bottom of the
boiler where the combustion takes place.
Fly ash is also a noncombustible residue from the combustion of lignite in the TPP. It is the finest of coal ash particles
which constitutes 85-90% of the overall ash. [9]
The control of dust (PM) in most lignite fired TPP is done through Electrostatic precipitators (ESP). The designed efficiency
of ESP in TPP B is 99.14 %, for TPP 98% [10]. The fly ash is carried together with other flue gases (this why it is called
“fly”) and before exiting the stack it is collected by ESP.
Fly ash features cementitious (property of a material to harden when mixed with water) and pozzolanic (the property of
material that in the presence water reacts with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties. The definition of fly ash in EN 450-1[11], which is the European standard for Fly ash in Concrete,
is:
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“Fine powder of manly spherical, glassy particles derived from burning of pulverized coal, with or without co-combustion
materials, which has pozzolanic properties and consists essentially of SiO2 and Al2O3” [11].
The properties of fly ash resulting from its chemical composition and reaction make it of a great use either in concrete
production as cement substitute or aggregate.
As it is known that in the world, the cement is the second most consumed substance after water [12][13], and during the
cement production a great quantity of CO2 is emitted, approximately from 900 kgCO2/t- 935 kgCO2/t of cement. This
means that for 1kg of cement replaced by 1kg Fly ash, we have 1kg less CO2 released in our air we breath, i.e. less green
house gas, less global warming [14].
Many countries in the world utilize Fly ash (and bottom ash as aggregate substitute) as cement replacement in concrete
production and as additive in concrete to archive specific properties in construction sector; as fill material in road
construction; industry as filler in plastic, paint sealing material etc. But in Kosovo, the Fly ash is literally only a waste with
health and environmental consequences.
The core part of this paper is to classify and standardize this waste to a product conform other international recognized
standards, specifically European and American standards. If we standardize this waste to a construction product, then the
utilization of Fly ash from KEK TPP would be of a great importance, economically and environmentally, for Kosovo
industry and environment. Up to now, there is no evidence of its utilization in Kosovo, i.e. our Fly ash is only a threatening
waste that waits for exploitation.
V.
FLY ASH OF KOSOVA B TPP
Fly ash as a residue of combustion of lignite for generating electrical energy comprises of fine particles that rise
with flue gases, but these particle (Particulate matter) before exiting the stack get captured by ESP or electro-filters, and then
can be carried to storage or silos. In Kosovo none of these, the fly ash is stockpiled ore better said dumped.
The sample for analyses are taken from Kosovo B TPP and the chemical, physical and mineralogical analyses were
conducted at laboratory ZAG, Department of materials, Laboratory for cement, mortar and ceramics, Lubljana,
Slovenia. The analyses were conducted in conformity with European Standards SIST EN 450-1:2005 5.2 and 5.3 [11].
Conform EN 450-1 the fly ash is defined as Fine powder of mainly spherical, glassy particles derived from burning
of pulverized coal, with or without co-combustion material, which has pozzolanic properties and consists essentially of SIO2
and Al2O3.
According to ASTM C618 12a [15], Standard chemical requirements there are two classes of fly ash determined by
the content by mass of lime:
Class F: lime (CaO) content less than 20% by mass
Class C: lime (CaO) content more than 20% by mass
5.1. Chemical composition of Kosovo Fly Ash
Table VII: Chemical composition of TPP Kosova B Fly Ash.
Constituent
% by mass
Requirements of
Test method
SIST EN 450-1 cl.5.2
≤5.0%, A category
SIST EN 196-2 cl. 7
Loss on ignition
2.09
≥75%*
SIST EN 196-2 cl.13.6
SiO2 total
29.7
SIST EN 196-2 cl. 13.8
SiO2soluble
0.27
SIST EN 196-2 cl.13.11
Al2O3
10.65
SIST EN 196-2 cl. 13.10
Fe2O3
6.18
SIST EN 197-1 cl.3.1
CaO
32.92
≤4.0%
SIST EN 196-2 cl. 13.13
MgO
5.93
≤3.0%
SIST EN 196-2 cl. 8
SO3
9.98
SIST EN 196-2 cl. 17
Na2O
0.74
SIST EN 196-2 cl. 17
K 2O
0.61
≤5.0%
Calculated
Na2O equivalent
1.14
SIST EN 196-2 cl. 10
Insoluble residue
5.65
≤1.5%**
SIST EN 451-1
CaO free
6.49
≤10.0 %
CaO reactive
24.62
SIST EN 197-1 cl. 3.2
SiO2 reactive
26.30
≤0.10 %
SIST EN 196-2 cl. 14
Cl0.019
≤0.100 mg/kg
P2O5 soluble, mg/kg
0.00
SIST EN 450-1, Annex C
Added ml NaOH
0.00
(1 mol/l)
*for Siliceous fly ash (Class F), 50% for Calcareous fly ash class C
**≤1.5% with the SIST EN 450-1 New this is changed from ≤1.0% to 1.5% [24].
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Sodium oxide
1%
Sulfur
10%
Potassium oxide
1%
Loss on ignition
2%
Magnesium
oxide
6%
Silica
30%
Lime
33%
Alumina
11%
Iron Oxide
6%
Figure 4: Chemical composition in %/weight of Kosovo Fly Ash
VI.
CLASSIFICATION OF KOSOVO B TPP FLY ASH
Fly ash produced from the combustion of lignite generally is composed of silica, alumina, small quantities of oxides
of magnesium, iron, calcium and some other elements. The percentage of its constituents depends. The general classification
of Fly ash is done by the percentage content of CaO, which depends on the type of the fuel. This fly ash that is produced
from burning lignite showed to have 32.92 % CaO (testing method SIST EN 197-1, clause 3.1) and conform this percentage
value, the Kosovo B TPP Fly ash belongs to Class C. Class C Fly ash in addition of pozzolanic properties has also
cementitious properties.
Cementitious property is the property of a material (in this case fly ash) that in the presence of water to harden,
whilst the pozzolanic property is the property that in the presence of water and other activating agent (cement, quicklime, or
hydrated lime) to react chemically and have cementitious properties.
These properties make Kosovo Fly ash very useful for utilization as substitute of cement in concrete production industry.
Note: the other Class F of Fly ash has less then 10% CaO and has only pozzolanic properties. This is produced when
other types of fuel are burned.
VII.
CHARACTERIZATION AND STANDARDIZATION OF FLY ASH OF TPP KOSOVA B
7.1. Loss on Ignition 2.09%
Loss on ignition indicates the content of unburned carbon in fly ash. This property of fly ash is very important
because the carbon content has a significant influence on the effect of air-entraining admixtures that are used for the
improvement of concrete to the freezing and thawing. Generally portland cement concrete has less than 3% entrapped air.
The presence of fly ash in concrete lowers the content of air by 05.-1 % [16].
Carbon absorbs the air-entraining admixture, resulting with lower entrapped air in concrete, which directly affects the
resistance to free-thaw cycles.
The SIST EN 450-1 cl.5.2 requirement is ≤5.0%, and the Loss on ignition determined conform SIST EN 196-2 cl. 7 of
Kosovo fly ash is 2.09 that is absolutely compatible with European standard and American standard ASTM C618.
7.2. Calcium Oxide (CaO)
7.2.1. Total calcium oxide 33 %
From the analyses shown in the table and graph, the Kosovo Fly ash has high lime content (33%), which under the
specification of American Standard ASTM C618 this is greater than 20% by mass and is classified as calcareous fly ashClass C. This lime content makes the Kosovo fly both pozzolanic and cementitious, and presents hydraulic properties [17].
7.2.2. Free calcium oxide 6.49 %
This is determined in conformity by the method prescribed by European Standard SIST EN 451-1[11], as stipulated
in EN 197-1:2000, cl. 3.1[18]. The test result for Kosovo Fly ash is 6.49 % by mass. Here the test result shows a fluctuation
of the result from the standard SIST EN 450-1 cl.5.2.requirement value of ≤1.0%. This implies that fly ash shall be tested for
conformity to the requirements for soundness in 5.3.3 of the standard [11].
7.2.3. Reactive calcium oxide 24.62 %
This is determined conform EN 197-1:200, Cl. 3.1, which limits this not to exceed 10% by mass. This is greater
than the standard requirement. This also implies that the fly ash should be tested for conformity, to the requirements for
soundness in 5.3.3.
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In our case the fly ash is Class C, i.e. calcareous fly ash, and the sum of silica, alumina and ferric oxide is almost
50%, the content of reactive calcium oxide should no be expected to be less than 10% [19].
7.3. Total content of Silica (SiO2), Alumina (Al2O3) and Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 46.53%
The sum of these oxides expressed as percentage by mass of fly ash has been determined conform SIST EN 196-2
cl.13.6, SIST EN 196-2 cl.13.11 and SIST EN 196-2 cl. 13.10 respectively. The requirement of SIST EN 450-1 cl.5.2 for
the sum of all above three constituents of Fly ash is to be greater than 75%. But, in accordance with ASTM C618, for Class
C fly ash, this sum shall be equal or greater than 50% by mass. This indicates that ASTM C618 for the content of three
oxides requires the value of 70% for Class F of Fly ash. According to ASTM C618, Kosovo Fly ash is almost compatible
with the standard’s requirements. The Indian Standard, Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS), IS: 3812 part-1 2003 requires this
value to be 50% too.
7.4. Reactive silicon dioxide 26.30%
Reactive silica is the key parameter for determining the pozzolanic ability of fly ash. This is the property that flies
ash tends to react with available calcium hydroxide to form hydration products with binding properties [20].
According to EN 450-1+A1:2007, and the new revised EN 450-1: New, the content of reactive silica as described in
SIST EN 197-1 cl. 3.2 must no be lees than 25 % by mass. The content of reactive silica of Kosovo Fly ash (26.30 %) is in
compliance with this standard.
7.5. Alkalis content Na2O-0.74%, K2O-0.61%, Na2O equivalent -1.14%
The present alkalis in fly ash (concrete) react with free silica of the aggregate and the result is the formation of
alkali silica gel with properties of capturing the water and causing local expansion of concrete. This expansion causes the
deterioration-cracking of concrete.
The alkalis content has been determined conform SIST EN 196-2 cl. 17 and calculated as Na2O (equivalent). The
requirement of SIST EN 450-1 cl.5.2 is less than 5%, and Kosovo fly ash is absolutely compatible with EN 4501:2005+A1:2007.
7.6. Magnesium oxide 5.93%
The content of MgO has been determined in accordance with SIST EN 196-2 cl. 13.13 and the requirement of SIST
EN 450-1 cl.5.2 is ≤4.0%. The Kosovo fly ash has a slight higher content of MgO, i.e. a little fluctuation from the European
standard requirement. This excessive content of magnesium oxide may have some deleterious effect; can cause expansion of
concrete. But for Class C fly ash this value is almost within the limits. In some countries this limit is up to 5% [21]. The
testing method of ASTM C151-74 for detecting unsoundness caused by CaO and MgO, shows that the expansion of concrete
affected by the presence of these two oxides is smaller than the actual expansion that can occur under field conditions [22].
7.7. Sulfur Trioxide (SO3) 9.98%
The requirement SIST EN 450-1 cl.5.2 for SO3 in fly ash is less than 3%, which represents a high fluctuation. But,
ASTM C 618 for both Class C and F limits this to 5% maximum. It is known that fly ash inhibits the ASR, and the content
of SO3 is known to be one of the factors of this inhibition. So, care must be taken for this value when fly ash with this
content of SO3 is used in concrete production as hydraulic material or blended cement [23].
7.8. Soluble phosphate (P2O5) 0.00%
The requirement of SIST EN 450-1 cl.5.2 for soluble phosphorous pentoxide in fly ash is 100 mg/kg, and Kosovo
fly ash is fully compatible with European Standard.
The text of EN 450-1: New reads:
“The content of total phosphate (P2O5) shall be determined in accordance with EN 196-2 and shall not be grater
than 5.0% by mass. Fly ash obtained from combustion of pulverized coal only shall be deemed to satisfy this requirement”.
Although there is no known effect of phosphate in concrete performance, it is stated that fly ash may contain up to 5% by
mass of P2O5 [24].
7.9. Chloride (expressed as Cl-) 0.019%
The content of chloride has been determined in accordance with SIST EN 196-2 cl. 14 and the obtained value of
0.019 % is lower than 0.10 % by mass, which in fact is the requirement of SIST EN 450-1 cl.5.2. Thus Kosovo fly ash with
this content of chlorides is suitable for use in cement-concrete industry.
VII.
CONCLUSIONS
Kosovo electrical energy is basically generated by TPP. This process produces a huge quantity of unprocessed
waste-fly ash which has a very deleterious impact in environment especially in the central Kosovo where the TPPs are
situated. The fly ash, since the beginning of TPP operation has been not utilized at all. Thus, due to its huge quantity
produced every year it represents not only a waste that should be stockpiled it also represents an industrial pollutant of
environment that must be considered seriously.
By this study, through the chemical analyzes this waste-fly ash can be turned to be a construction-industrial product
either as direct substituent of cement in concrete industry or as admixture in concrete. The basics of Kosovo Fly ash, its
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chemical and mineralogical composition generally prove to be suitable for utilization in concrete industry. The composition
of Kosovo Fly ash in many aspects is compatible with two basic standards referred in this paper: European Standard EN 4501 and American Standard ASTM C 618 for use of fly ash in concrete.
The percentage by mass of three oxides SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 according to standards classify Kosovo fly ash in the
category of high lime content, which in terms of classification belongs to Class C fly ash. This class C fly ash is calcareous
fly ash. The carbon content expressed as LOI, is one of the most important factor for the utilization of fly ash in concrete
industry since the carbon content of fly ash affects many properties of concrete, and Kosovo fly ash meets the chemical
requirements of standards regarding the LOI, i.e. carbon content.
The content of CaO, MgO and SO3 represent some fluctuations from standards requirements. This excessive content
of these three components may have some undesired effects in concrete-unsoundness. By considering this and testing the
concrete for soundness, concrete produced with a specific percentage of fly ash as cement substituent, can make fly ash
utilizable as construction material. The alkalis content of Kosovo fly ash is in complete accordance with the standards
requirements showing that Kosovo fly ash represents no threat to possible alkali silica reaction that could cause cracking of
concrete, i.e. unsoundness of concrete. Also, the chloride content that can affect the PH of concrete is in full accordance
with requirements of standards that depict requirements of utilization of fly ash in cement-concrete industry.
This in-depth chemical analyze, compared to the requirements of standards, prove that Kosovo Fly ash
could not be a threatening waste to Kosovo environment, but it can be very useful for utilization as cement substituent in
certain percentage for producing concrete, or as concrete admixture. Finally, the Kosovo fly ash with these chemical
properties can be used as cement substituent in concrete production industry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the managers of laboratory IPE ProIng, Prishtina, Kosovo for their support.
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