SlideShare une entreprise Scribd logo
1  sur  7
Télécharger pour lire hors ligne
IOSR Journal of Engineering (IOSRJEN) www.iosrjen.org
ISSN (e): 2250-3021, ISSN (p): 2278-8719
Vol. 05, Issue 09 (September. 2015), ||V2|| PP 10-16
International organization of Scientific Research 10 | P a g e
Development Of Sandcrete Block Using Cassava Waste Water As
An Admixture
E.O. Aiyewalehinmi
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Federal University of Technology, Akure
Abstract: - Sandcrete blocks produced commercially in Akure have failed to meet the minimum requirement of
Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS 2000; 87: 2000) 2.5N/mm2
to 3.45N/mm2
. Researchers have attributed this to
soil, mix ratio, curing, and control. The purpose of the study is to use cassava waste water as an admixture to
improve the quality and the compressive strength of Sandcrete blocks produced in Akure. A total of 60
sandcrete blocks size 450mm X 150mm X 225mm were produced using an admixture of 5%, 10%, 15% and
20% of Cassava waste water with 0% control, and cured for 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. The tests performed include:
sieve analysis, Moisture content, Specific Gravity, Water absorption and Compressive Strength. All tests were
performed to ascertain if cassava produced sandcrete blocks conform with (NIS 87: 2000, NIS: 2000)
recommendations. The results obtained indicate that 20% admixture satisfies NIS requirements (3.30 N/mm2
).
Keyword: Sandcrete block, sieve analysis, water absorption specific gravity compressive strength
I. INTRODUCTION
The use of sandcrete blocks has gained popularity in Nigeria including Ondo State. They are widely
used as walling units or partition, often as a load bearing walls. Investors are moving away from the idea of
molding blocks on sites due to rising cost of labour. As a result building investors consider buying directly from
the block industries. In Ondo State, the quality of sandcrete blocks manufactured varies, due to the method of
Production employed by individual block industry. The quality of sandcrete blocks produced generally in
Nigeria has reduced due to demand and lack of control by government agencies. The problem of poor block
quality emerged because of the recent increasing building collapsing in Ondo State and other parts of the
country. Dov. (1991) described sandcrete blocks as precast masonry units assembled and bounded by
cementitious materials to form wall which can be either load bearing wall, enclosed wall or back up wall.
According to BS 6073 (Specification for Precast Concrete Masonry Unit Part 1), three types of blocks are
displayed and recognized and they are: solid, hollow and cellular. They are molded or produced in various sizes.
Commonly used sizes are (150mm X 225mm X 450mm, 225mm X 225mm X 450mm) for load bearing and
non-load bearing structures with a wide range of thickness from 60mm to 250mm (Hodge 1971). The load
bearing walls are those walls that can support the entire structure and transmit the load to ground surface (NIS
87:2000). According to NIS 87:2000; sandcrete blocks pose intrinsic low compressive strength, indicating that
they are susceptive to any natural disaster such as earth quakes or seismic activities. Previous studies have also
indicated that sandcrete blocks are produced in various standards and some are below the requirement standards
for the construction of the buildings. The deficiency found is that sandcrete has no standard engineering
definition. The engineering definition of sandcrete is to suit the purpose of use. Sandcrete blocks are rough in
physical appearance; due to the nature and origin of pure morphological definition. However, there is a general
engineering materials standard definition such as sand, cement and water. In addition, the application of
Geotechnical methods such as sieve analysis, silt/clay content and bulk density appeared to have consolidated
engineering definition. The time mixing sandcrete with cement and also the time lapse between mixing
compaction appear to have direct impact on the strength. Increase in strength with age and curing temperature,
also seems to contribute to stabilization of sandcrete. Neville, (2000) identified that the compressive strength of
a sandcrete materials increases cement contents with limit rate. The type of sand materials used, such as
fineness, density, relative density and sharpness seems to have direct influence on easy mixing with cement.
Ezeji (1997) indicates that the relatives’ proportions and number of components considerably affect the mixing
rate with cement. Similarly, Andram (2004) showed that commercially sandcrete blocks produced exhibit
compressive strength far below standard recommendation for construction. He went further to indicate that the
maximum compressive strength of commercially produced sandcrete blocks was within range of 0.5-
0.97N/mm2
as against miximum recommended standards of 2.5 -3.45 N/mm 2
. The purpose of this study is to
determine the compressive strength of sandcrete blocks made of cassava waste water as an admixture and to
verify whether it satisfies NIS, NIBRRI and BS requirements, and also to develop a sustainable construction and
building material using locally available material that is cheap and avoidable across all classes of the society.
Development Of Sandcrete Block Using Cassava Waste Water As An Admixture
International organization of Scientific Research 11 | P a g e
1.1 CASSAVA WATER
Cassava is a perennial woody shrub with an edible root, which grows in tropical and subtropical areas of the
world. Cassava originated from tropical America and was first introduced into Africa in the Congo basin by the
Portuguese around 1558. Today, it is a dietary staple in much of tropical Africa. Cassava contains 2 cyanogenic
glycosides, linamarin (80% of total glycosides) and lotaustralin (20%). A cell-wall enzyme liberates hydrogen
cyanide (HCN), which is lethal to animals. Hydrogen cyanide concentrations depend on cultivar, environmental
conditions, plant age, number of harvest (for the foliage) and on the plant component that is being considered.
There is a continuous gradient of HCN content between varieties which are usually divided into two groups
(.Peroni 2007)
 Bitter varieties with roots containing 0.02-0.03% HCN (DM basis) and leaves containing up to 0.2%
HCN (fresh basis) (Murugesrawi et al., 2006). These have to be processed before being used as feed.
 Sweet varieties with roots containing less than 0.01% HCN (DM basis) and leaves 0.1% HCN (DM
basis) (Murugesrawi et al., 2006). These can be fed raw. Most commercial varieties belong to this group.
Bitter varieties have often longer and thicker roots than the sweet varieties, but there is no simple and safe
method to assess HCN content. However, HCN can be relatively easily removed from cassava by-products.
Different processes are effective in reducing cyanogenic glycoside including sun-drying, ensiling, and soaking +
sun-drying. All these methods have yielded satisfactory results (Salami, 2003; Tewe, 1992). Well-processed
cassava peels have generally acceptable levels, below 50 mg/kg (Osei,1989; Nwokoro, 2005b). However, mass
HCN poisoning is intensively managed in Nigerian pig farm, where more than half of the herd died within a few
hours after consuming boiled and overly ripe cassava peels from a bitter variety, was reported. Treating the
surviving pigs with antibiotics and palm oil saved some of them (Sackey, 2002). The purpose of this
investigation is to identify if distilled water cassava waste water could be used as an admixture to increase the
quality and compressive strength of sandcrete blocks produced in Nigeria specifically Akure.
Plate 1.0 Typical peeled cassava
1.1.2. Analysis of hydrocyanic acid
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN), sometimes called prussic acid, is an inorganic compound with the chemical
formula HCN. It is a colorless, extremely poisonous liquid that boils slightly above room temperature, at 25.6
°C (78.1 °F). HCN is produced on an industrial scale and is a highly valuable precursor to many chemical
compounds ranging from polymers to pharmaceuticals. Hydrogen cyanide is a linear molecule, with a triple
bond between carbon and nitrogen. A minor tautomer of HCN is HNC, hydrogen isocyanide.
Hydrogen cyanide is weakly acidic with a pKa of 9.2. It partially ionizes in water solution to give the cyanide
anion, CN–. A solution of hydrogen cyanide in water, represented as HCN, is called
HYDROCYANIC ACID. The salts of the cyanide anion are known as cyanides.
1.1.3 Cassava product for animal and hunman consumption
Cassava is a perishable commodity with a shelf life of less than 3 days after harvest. Processing
provides a means of producing shelf stable products (thereby reducing losses), adding value at a local rural level
and reducing the bulk to be marketed (Phillips et al., 2005). As urban population expand, the demand for more
convenience and shelf-stable foods increases. Some cassava foods, such as Garri, tapioca, and attieke, are highly
prized by urban populations, and these have managed to retain their markets. Imported food products are
important urban foods but there is still a high demand for traditional foods, although they are often considered
less acceptable because of concerns of quality and safety (Sanni et al., 2007). In Africa, cassava is currently
Development Of Sandcrete Block Using Cassava Waste Water As An Admixture
International organization of Scientific Research 12 | P a g e
utilized for two main purposes: human food and industrial usage. Estimates for the percentage of cassava used
for industrial utilization range from 5 to 16% while the rest used directly for human consumption. Most of
cassava’s industrial utilization is for animal feed. About 10% of its industrial demand consists of high quality
cassava flour used in biscuits and other confectioneries, dextrin, pre-gelled starch for adhesives, and starch for
pharmaceuticals and seasonings.
1.1.4 Fermentation of Cassava
In industry, as well as other areas, the uses of fermentation progressed rapidly after Pasteur's
discoveries. Between 1900 and 1930, ethyl alcohol and butyl alcohol were the most important industrial
fermentations in the world. But by the 1960s, chemical synthesis of alcohols and other solvents were less
expensive and interest in fermentations waned. However, Plant starch, cellulose from agricultural waste, and
waste from cheese manufacture are abundant and renewable sources of fermentable carbohydrates. These
materials, not utilized they are buried in waste disposal site or treated with waste water.
Cassava being the sole source of hydrogen cyanide which dissolves in solution to produce hydrocyanic
acid is fermented .The roots were peeled, washed and immersed in water in a clean plastic container and shred
and put in a muslin bag and submerged in water in a clean plastic container. The temperature of both containers
was maintained constantly at of 30oC
. The fermentation process of the cassava grated cassava tubers was
observed. The fresh, peeled tubers were suspended in water and allowed to ferment for 96hours by the natural
micro flora.
After successful fermentation, the cassava waste water containing hydrocyanic acid was collected and carried to
the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Concrete Laboratory the Federal University Akure
where 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% cassava waste water was use as admixture to replace distilled water for the
production of sandcrete blocks.
Plate 2.0 The Process of extracting the cassava waste water.
II. STRENGTH AND USAGE OF SANDCRETE BLOCKS
The present Sandcrete blocks commercially produced are unsuitable for load-bearing columns and
they can only be used for walling or for foundations if no suitable alternative is available. As material for walls,
its strength is less than that of fired clay bricks, but the material is considerably cheaper than fired clay brick.
Sandcrete block is the main building material for walling of single-storey buildings (such as houses and schools)
in countries like Ghana and Nigeria. Measured compressive strengths of commercially available sandcrete
blocks in Nigeria building and construction market fall between 0.5 and 1 N/mm2
, which is well below the 2.5
N/mm2
legally required for minimum load bearing structure.
III. RESEARCH APPROACH
3.1 SANDCRETE BLOCK PRODUCTION
In this study sandcrete blocks are produced using distil water, cement, sand and cassava waste water as
an admixture (5%, 10%, 15% and 20%). The Sandcrete blocks were cast using approved moulds. A total of 12
sandcrete block samples were cast using each proportion (5%, 10%, 15% and 20%) of cassava waste water. A
total of 60 sandcrete blocks were cast including control using 100% pure distilled water used vibrating machine.
All sandcrete blocks cast are hollow blocks size 150 x 225 x 450 mm. Sieve analysis test was carried out on the
soil samples to ascertain their suitability for the block making in accordance to BS 1377. Tests were conducted
on water absorption, gravity, penetration, soundness and compressive strength in accordance to BS 3921 and BS
2028.
Development Of Sandcrete Block Using Cassava Waste Water As An Admixture
International organization of Scientific Research 13 | P a g e
2.4.2 Mixing
The mixing was done mechanically so as to get a very good proportional mix of the constituent materials for
Sandcrete blocks production. All the materials used for the production are cement, fine aggregate, and cassava
waste water and distil water. For control samples 100% Distil water was used for the mixed.
2.4.3 Curing
Proper curing methods were used to ensure the blocks attain self strength and they were observed for 7, 14, 21
and 28 days.
3.2.3.2 Water Absorption
The absorption rate is defined as the weight of water absorbed when the unit is partially immersed for 24hours
in water as indicated in BS3921.
A =
𝒘𝒆𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔−𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎 (1)
In this consideration, each sample of Sandcrete blocks was weighed in dried conditions and the readings were
recorded, each of these blocks was fully immersed in water for a period of 24 hours to make sure that they were
fully submerged in the water. After 24 hours, the wet block samples were removed and weighed. The difference
between the dry and wet were taken, and then calculated, using the above equation.
3.2.1.4 Determination of Existing Moisture Content
The moisture content of the soil samples was determined used BS 1377(1991) oven dry method. The moisture
content of the soil was calculated as a percentage of its dry weight using the following equation:
M =
W2−W3
W3−W1
x 100 % (2)
IV. ANALYSIS OF TESTS RESULTS
4.1. Specific gravity test
The application of specific gravity was applied, the values obtained are used in the calculation below to
determine the specific gravity of fine-grained soil. This result obtained is within block range or limit of NIS and
BS..
Specific gravity of soil particles
Gs1 =
M2−M1
M4−M1 –(M3−M2 )
409−269
579−269 –(664−409 )
=
140
55
= 2.55
4.2 Sieve Analysis results
The result sieve analysis of the soil samples is the indicated in the figure 4.1 above. The results show is
fine grain sand with more than 90 percent passed through 2.36mm about 19.40 percent pass through 75µm. The
soil is well graded and it is good for the production of sandcrete blocks (Cc =15).
Figure 4.1 Particle size distribution (PSD) of Sample used
0.001
BS SIEVES :
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
CLAY
COARSE
0.002
0.06
COARSE
2
SILT
FINEMEDIUM FINE
SAND
MEDIUM FINE
GRAVEL
MEDIUMCOARSE
60
COBBLE
STONE
BOULDER
600
200
150
100
65
35
10
8
6
3
PercentageFiner(%)
Particle size in mm
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
Development Of Sandcrete Block Using Cassava Waste Water As An Admixture
International organization of Scientific Research 14 | P a g e
4.2.1 Silt/Clay test
Silt clay content test result obtained was 9.33% . the result is within the silt clay context limit.
4.2.2 Moisture Content
The tests result obtained from the average moisture content was 8.19% which is below NIS maximum
requirement 12%.
4.3 Water Absorption Rate Day 28
Figure 4.2 Average Water Absorption Rate Day 28
Figure 4.2 above shows the results obtained from the tests of water absorption rate conducted on
sandcrete block. As can be seen from the figure the absorption rate varies from 0% control 5%, 10%, 15% and
20% admixtuere. The values are in the figure 4.2 above 0% attained 5%, 5% admixture attained 4.4%, 10% =
4%, 15% = 3.8% and 20% attained 3.5% r All values obtained fell below the maximum NIS recommendation.
However, 20% admixture retains water more than both Control and other admixture samples. The water present
in mortar would be kept longer than the rest samples.
4.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
The compressive strength of the samples obtained is shown in the figures 4.3a and 4.3b below, day 7,
day 14, day 21, and day 28. Test results indicate that the unit compressive strength for the control samples,
0%, and admixture 5%, 10% and 15%) fall below the recommendation line of NIS and BS for day (7, 14, 21
and 28). For 0% the Compressive Strength values are shown in bracket (0.61, 0.76, 0.99 and 1.03)N/mm2
,
while the admixture, 5%, 10% and 15% are also shown in the brackets (0,65, 0.80, 0.88 and 0.99) N/mm2
),
(0.72, 0.84, 0.96 and 1.15)N/mm2
, and (0.92, 1.80, 2.11 and 2.41) N/mm2
The values obtained fall below
Recommendations. Whereas 20% cassava waste water as an admixture attained day 7, 14, 21, and 28 are shown
in the following values in bracket (0.88, 2.51, 2.72 and 3.30) N/mm2
day 28 satisfies the NIS and BS
requirements. Figures 4.3a to 4.3b show the results and the values of 0%which is the control and the mixtures
5%, 10%, 15% and 20%.
Figure 5.1a Compressive strength obtained 28days
0% 5% 10% 15% 20%
5
4.4
4 3.8
3.5
1 2 3 4 5
Average water absorption day 28
0 0% 5% 10% 15% 20%
1.03 0.99 1.15
2.41
3.3
1 2 3 4 5 6
Compressive Strength 28 days
Development Of Sandcrete Block Using Cassava Waste Water As An Admixture
International organization of Scientific Research 15 | P a g e
Figure 5.1b Compressive strength obtained day 28
V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The test results obtained from analysis showed that the sandy soil components mixed with cement,
water and admixture with Cassava waste water is suitable for the production of the sandcrete blocks and also
good for construction of a building according to NIS 87: 2004 and NIBBR 2006. The findings show that the
compressive strength sandcrete blocks admixed with 20% cassava waste water produced at the Federal
university of Technology, Akure, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Concrete Laboratory
satisfy the requirement of NIS 2004, NIBBRI 2006 and BS 3920 Standard for both Loading and non loading
structure. It was observed that the control 100% distilled water 5%, 10% and15% admixture have failed to meet
the requirements of NIS, NIBBRI and BS standard. All the 60 sandcrete blocks samples produced and tested
have attained day 28 and highest compressive strength.
VI. RECOMMENDATION
Majority of sandcrete blocks commercially produced in Nigeria have failed to meet the requirement
standard set down by NIS, NIBBRI and BS. This suggests that there is a need for improvement in this area.
More research, more studies are required to be able to develop new alternative sustainable local material to
replace old material at low costs. Good Government policies to support and encourage effective education and
research on proper management of wastes, safe disposal and recycling. The Authors have suggested that HCN
should produced in large quantity be made available in large Urban cities for the production of cassava
sandcrete blocks.
REFERENCES
[1]. Andam, K. (2004): Bricks, Blocks and the Future Administrative Capital of Ghana,
[2]. http://www.knust.edu.gh/administrative/vcspeeches/Ghana%20ACADEMY%20F%20ART%AND%20S
CIENCE.PDF
[3]. American Society for Testing and Materials (1978). Specifications for pozzolanas.
[4]. ASTM International, USA, ASTM C618.
[5]. American Society for Testing and Materials (2004). Standard test method for
[6]. steady-state heat flux measurements and thermal transmission properties by
[7]. means of the guarded-hot-plate apparatus. ASTM International, USA. ASTM
[8]. C177.
[9]. British Standards Institution (1971). Ordinary and rapid-hardening Portland
[10]. Cement. London. BS, 12: 2.
[11]. British Standards Institution (1990). Methods of testing for soils for Civil
[12]. Engineering purposes. London. pp. 1377.
[13]. British Standards Institution (1997). Specifications for pulverized fuel ash for use
[14]. with Portland Cement in Concrete. London, BS 3892: I.
[15]. British Standards Institution. (1968), Precast Concrete Blocks. BS2028, 1364: BSI,
London, England.
0% 5% 10% 15% 20%
1.03 0.99
1.15
2.41
3.3
1 2 3 4 5
Compressive Strength 28 days
Development Of Sandcrete Block Using Cassava Waste Water As An Admixture
International organization of Scientific Research 16 | P a g e
[16]. British Standards Institution. (1978) Specification for Portland Cement (Ordinary
[17]. and Rapid Hardening).
[18]. BS 12:1978. BSI, London, England British Standards Institution. (1981). Precast
[19]. Concrete BS 6073: Part 2: 1981. BSI. London, England.
[20]. Dov. K. (1991): Design and construction failures, McGraw-Hill Inc. USA.
[21]. Ezeji, K. (1993) Building Construction Vol. 1: Fancy Publications Limited, Idumota, Lagos
[22]. Hodge, J.C (1971) Brick work, 3rd Ed .Edward Arnold, London, England.
[23]. Nvelle, A. M.(2000), Properties aggregates, Pearson Education, Asia, London England
[24]. Nigerian Building and Road Research Institute (NIBBRI) 2006 Standard for Lateric bricks for
[25]. Construction.
[26]. NIS 2000, NIS 87: 2000. Nigerian industrial Standard for Sancrete Blocks; Standard Organization of
Nigeria Lagos, (2005).
[27]. Nwokoro (2005) Trop. Anim. Health prod; 37(6): 495-501.
[28]. Osei (1989) Anim Fed Sci: Technol. 24 (3-4): 247-252
[29]. Peroni (2007), Genetic Resources and crop evolution, 54 (6): 1333-134 9.
[30]. Philips T, Taylor, D.S Sanni, L. and Akoroda (2005). A cassava Industrial Revolution in Nigeria and the
potential for a new industrial crop. $3pp. IFAD/FAO Rome 2004
[31]. Sackey, (2002) Ag vet International, 3(1): 4
[32]. Salami (2003) International of poultry Science 2(2): 112-116
[33]. Sanni, L. Alenkhe, B, Edosio, R. patino, M and Dixon A. (2007): Technology Transfer in developing
countries: capitalizing on equipment development. Journal of food, Agriculture & Environment
5(2) (2007) :88-91
[34]. Muruagesrawi E.N and Adewale, A.F. (2006) Loss of Hydrcyanic acid and its derivative during sundry of
cassava. In tropical Root Crops Research Strategies for the 1980s, Ed Terry E.R, Oduro K.A & Caveness ,
F. IDRC, Ottawa Canada Pp. 149-151.
[35]. Tewe, Machin, D and Nyvold, S (1992), Roots, Tubers, plantain and bananas in
[36]. animal Feeding Animal proceedings of the FAO Expert Consultation held in
[37]. CIAT, Cali, Colombia 21-25, January 1991; FAO Animal Production and
[38]. Health paper-95

Contenu connexe

Tendances

IRJET - A Review on Feasibility of Geopolymer Sea Sand Concrete in Interlocki...
IRJET - A Review on Feasibility of Geopolymer Sea Sand Concrete in Interlocki...IRJET - A Review on Feasibility of Geopolymer Sea Sand Concrete in Interlocki...
IRJET - A Review on Feasibility of Geopolymer Sea Sand Concrete in Interlocki...IRJET Journal
 
India
IndiaIndia
IndiaFAO
 
IRJET- Comparative Evaluation of Bentonite Soil with Ordinary Clay for Contro...
IRJET- Comparative Evaluation of Bentonite Soil with Ordinary Clay for Contro...IRJET- Comparative Evaluation of Bentonite Soil with Ordinary Clay for Contro...
IRJET- Comparative Evaluation of Bentonite Soil with Ordinary Clay for Contro...IRJET Journal
 
A Study on Strength of Reinforced Flyash with Randomly Distributed Fibers
A Study on Strength of Reinforced Flyash with Randomly Distributed FibersA Study on Strength of Reinforced Flyash with Randomly Distributed Fibers
A Study on Strength of Reinforced Flyash with Randomly Distributed FibersIJERD Editor
 
Pumice Products and LEED Certification
Pumice Products and LEED CertificationPumice Products and LEED Certification
Pumice Products and LEED CertificationHess Pumice Products
 
IRJET- Experimental Investigation for Replacement of Cement by using Proposic...
IRJET- Experimental Investigation for Replacement of Cement by using Proposic...IRJET- Experimental Investigation for Replacement of Cement by using Proposic...
IRJET- Experimental Investigation for Replacement of Cement by using Proposic...IRJET Journal
 
Use of construction renovation and demolition waste in partial replacement of...
Use of construction renovation and demolition waste in partial replacement of...Use of construction renovation and demolition waste in partial replacement of...
Use of construction renovation and demolition waste in partial replacement of...eSAT Journals
 
Demolished waste as coarse aggregate
Demolished waste as coarse aggregateDemolished waste as coarse aggregate
Demolished waste as coarse aggregateKishan Thakkar
 
IRJET- Partial Replacement of Cement with Cenosphere as Pozzolanic Material i...
IRJET- Partial Replacement of Cement with Cenosphere as Pozzolanic Material i...IRJET- Partial Replacement of Cement with Cenosphere as Pozzolanic Material i...
IRJET- Partial Replacement of Cement with Cenosphere as Pozzolanic Material i...IRJET Journal
 

Tendances (15)

IRJET - A Review on Feasibility of Geopolymer Sea Sand Concrete in Interlocki...
IRJET - A Review on Feasibility of Geopolymer Sea Sand Concrete in Interlocki...IRJET - A Review on Feasibility of Geopolymer Sea Sand Concrete in Interlocki...
IRJET - A Review on Feasibility of Geopolymer Sea Sand Concrete in Interlocki...
 
modeling of spherical silver
modeling of spherical silvermodeling of spherical silver
modeling of spherical silver
 
Strength and durability assessment of concrete substructure in organic and hy...
Strength and durability assessment of concrete substructure in organic and hy...Strength and durability assessment of concrete substructure in organic and hy...
Strength and durability assessment of concrete substructure in organic and hy...
 
India
IndiaIndia
India
 
Ameh
AmehAmeh
Ameh
 
IRJET- Comparative Evaluation of Bentonite Soil with Ordinary Clay for Contro...
IRJET- Comparative Evaluation of Bentonite Soil with Ordinary Clay for Contro...IRJET- Comparative Evaluation of Bentonite Soil with Ordinary Clay for Contro...
IRJET- Comparative Evaluation of Bentonite Soil with Ordinary Clay for Contro...
 
A Study on Strength of Reinforced Flyash with Randomly Distributed Fibers
A Study on Strength of Reinforced Flyash with Randomly Distributed FibersA Study on Strength of Reinforced Flyash with Randomly Distributed Fibers
A Study on Strength of Reinforced Flyash with Randomly Distributed Fibers
 
Pumice Products and LEED Certification
Pumice Products and LEED CertificationPumice Products and LEED Certification
Pumice Products and LEED Certification
 
IRJET- Experimental Investigation for Replacement of Cement by using Proposic...
IRJET- Experimental Investigation for Replacement of Cement by using Proposic...IRJET- Experimental Investigation for Replacement of Cement by using Proposic...
IRJET- Experimental Investigation for Replacement of Cement by using Proposic...
 
Use of construction renovation and demolition waste in partial replacement of...
Use of construction renovation and demolition waste in partial replacement of...Use of construction renovation and demolition waste in partial replacement of...
Use of construction renovation and demolition waste in partial replacement of...
 
Demolished waste as coarse aggregate
Demolished waste as coarse aggregateDemolished waste as coarse aggregate
Demolished waste as coarse aggregate
 
20320140503040
2032014050304020320140503040
20320140503040
 
IRJET- Partial Replacement of Cement with Cenosphere as Pozzolanic Material i...
IRJET- Partial Replacement of Cement with Cenosphere as Pozzolanic Material i...IRJET- Partial Replacement of Cement with Cenosphere as Pozzolanic Material i...
IRJET- Partial Replacement of Cement with Cenosphere as Pozzolanic Material i...
 
20320130406018 2
20320130406018 220320130406018 2
20320130406018 2
 
Ca24516522
Ca24516522Ca24516522
Ca24516522
 

Similaire à B05921016

Experimental Investigation of Sheanut Shells Ash as Partial Replacement of Ce...
Experimental Investigation of Sheanut Shells Ash as Partial Replacement of Ce...Experimental Investigation of Sheanut Shells Ash as Partial Replacement of Ce...
Experimental Investigation of Sheanut Shells Ash as Partial Replacement of Ce...researchinventy
 
Study_of_properties_of_geo_polymer_eco_b.pptx
Study_of_properties_of_geo_polymer_eco_b.pptxStudy_of_properties_of_geo_polymer_eco_b.pptx
Study_of_properties_of_geo_polymer_eco_b.pptxkanda34
 
Agricultural potential of biosolids generated from dewatering of faecal sludg...
Agricultural potential of biosolids generated from dewatering of faecal sludg...Agricultural potential of biosolids generated from dewatering of faecal sludg...
Agricultural potential of biosolids generated from dewatering of faecal sludg...Alexander Decker
 
Characterization of Compressive Strength of Concrete Blended with Sugarcane B...
Characterization of Compressive Strength of Concrete Blended with Sugarcane B...Characterization of Compressive Strength of Concrete Blended with Sugarcane B...
Characterization of Compressive Strength of Concrete Blended with Sugarcane B...paperpublications3
 
IRJET- Experimental Analysis of Durability of Pervious Concrete by using ...
IRJET-  	  Experimental Analysis of Durability of Pervious Concrete by using ...IRJET-  	  Experimental Analysis of Durability of Pervious Concrete by using ...
IRJET- Experimental Analysis of Durability of Pervious Concrete by using ...IRJET Journal
 
Africa; A Simplified Cost-Effective Biosand Filter (BSFZ) For Removal Of Che...
Africa;  A Simplified Cost-Effective Biosand Filter (BSFZ) For Removal Of Che...Africa;  A Simplified Cost-Effective Biosand Filter (BSFZ) For Removal Of Che...
Africa; A Simplified Cost-Effective Biosand Filter (BSFZ) For Removal Of Che...D7Z
 
Partially Replacement of Clay by S.T.P. Sludge in Brick Manufacturing
Partially Replacement of Clay by S.T.P. Sludge in Brick ManufacturingPartially Replacement of Clay by S.T.P. Sludge in Brick Manufacturing
Partially Replacement of Clay by S.T.P. Sludge in Brick ManufacturingAM Publications
 
Mechanical Properties of Sustainable Adobe Bricks Stabilized With Recycled Su...
Mechanical Properties of Sustainable Adobe Bricks Stabilized With Recycled Su...Mechanical Properties of Sustainable Adobe Bricks Stabilized With Recycled Su...
Mechanical Properties of Sustainable Adobe Bricks Stabilized With Recycled Su...IJERA Editor
 
Exploratory study on the use of crushed cockle shell as partial sand replacem...
Exploratory study on the use of crushed cockle shell as partial sand replacem...Exploratory study on the use of crushed cockle shell as partial sand replacem...
Exploratory study on the use of crushed cockle shell as partial sand replacem...IJRES Journal
 
Potential use of iron ore tailings in sandcrete block making
Potential use of iron ore tailings in sandcrete block makingPotential use of iron ore tailings in sandcrete block making
Potential use of iron ore tailings in sandcrete block makingeSAT Journals
 
Study on Compressed Stabilized Earth Block
Study on Compressed Stabilized Earth BlockStudy on Compressed Stabilized Earth Block
Study on Compressed Stabilized Earth BlockIRJET Journal
 
1 s2.0-s1878535215001100-main
1 s2.0-s1878535215001100-main1 s2.0-s1878535215001100-main
1 s2.0-s1878535215001100-mainLindaBeeest
 
Improvement of the Index and Compaction Characteristics of Black Cotton Soil ...
Improvement of the Index and Compaction Characteristics of Black Cotton Soil ...Improvement of the Index and Compaction Characteristics of Black Cotton Soil ...
Improvement of the Index and Compaction Characteristics of Black Cotton Soil ...Dr. Amarjeet Singh
 
IRJET- A Review on Flexural Behaviour of RC Beam with Partial Replacement of ...
IRJET- A Review on Flexural Behaviour of RC Beam with Partial Replacement of ...IRJET- A Review on Flexural Behaviour of RC Beam with Partial Replacement of ...
IRJET- A Review on Flexural Behaviour of RC Beam with Partial Replacement of ...IRJET Journal
 
Effect of Alternative Materials on Properties of Expansive Soil for Construct...
Effect of Alternative Materials on Properties of Expansive Soil for Construct...Effect of Alternative Materials on Properties of Expansive Soil for Construct...
Effect of Alternative Materials on Properties of Expansive Soil for Construct...ijtsrd
 
Strength Improvement of Mud Houses Through Stabilization of the Lateritic Mat...
Strength Improvement of Mud Houses Through Stabilization of the Lateritic Mat...Strength Improvement of Mud Houses Through Stabilization of the Lateritic Mat...
Strength Improvement of Mud Houses Through Stabilization of the Lateritic Mat...theijes
 
D03401022028
D03401022028D03401022028
D03401022028theijes
 
A STUDY ON IMPLEMENTATION OF COCONUT SHELL AS A COARSE AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE ...
A STUDY ON IMPLEMENTATION OF COCONUT SHELL AS A COARSE AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE ...A STUDY ON IMPLEMENTATION OF COCONUT SHELL AS A COARSE AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE ...
A STUDY ON IMPLEMENTATION OF COCONUT SHELL AS A COARSE AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE ...IRJET Journal
 

Similaire à B05921016 (20)

Experimental Investigation of Sheanut Shells Ash as Partial Replacement of Ce...
Experimental Investigation of Sheanut Shells Ash as Partial Replacement of Ce...Experimental Investigation of Sheanut Shells Ash as Partial Replacement of Ce...
Experimental Investigation of Sheanut Shells Ash as Partial Replacement of Ce...
 
Study_of_properties_of_geo_polymer_eco_b.pptx
Study_of_properties_of_geo_polymer_eco_b.pptxStudy_of_properties_of_geo_polymer_eco_b.pptx
Study_of_properties_of_geo_polymer_eco_b.pptx
 
Agricultural potential of biosolids generated from dewatering of faecal sludg...
Agricultural potential of biosolids generated from dewatering of faecal sludg...Agricultural potential of biosolids generated from dewatering of faecal sludg...
Agricultural potential of biosolids generated from dewatering of faecal sludg...
 
20320140506004 2
20320140506004 220320140506004 2
20320140506004 2
 
Characterization of Compressive Strength of Concrete Blended with Sugarcane B...
Characterization of Compressive Strength of Concrete Blended with Sugarcane B...Characterization of Compressive Strength of Concrete Blended with Sugarcane B...
Characterization of Compressive Strength of Concrete Blended with Sugarcane B...
 
IRJET- Experimental Analysis of Durability of Pervious Concrete by using ...
IRJET-  	  Experimental Analysis of Durability of Pervious Concrete by using ...IRJET-  	  Experimental Analysis of Durability of Pervious Concrete by using ...
IRJET- Experimental Analysis of Durability of Pervious Concrete by using ...
 
Africa; A Simplified Cost-Effective Biosand Filter (BSFZ) For Removal Of Che...
Africa;  A Simplified Cost-Effective Biosand Filter (BSFZ) For Removal Of Che...Africa;  A Simplified Cost-Effective Biosand Filter (BSFZ) For Removal Of Che...
Africa; A Simplified Cost-Effective Biosand Filter (BSFZ) For Removal Of Che...
 
Partially Replacement of Clay by S.T.P. Sludge in Brick Manufacturing
Partially Replacement of Clay by S.T.P. Sludge in Brick ManufacturingPartially Replacement of Clay by S.T.P. Sludge in Brick Manufacturing
Partially Replacement of Clay by S.T.P. Sludge in Brick Manufacturing
 
Mechanical Properties of Sustainable Adobe Bricks Stabilized With Recycled Su...
Mechanical Properties of Sustainable Adobe Bricks Stabilized With Recycled Su...Mechanical Properties of Sustainable Adobe Bricks Stabilized With Recycled Su...
Mechanical Properties of Sustainable Adobe Bricks Stabilized With Recycled Su...
 
Exploratory study on the use of crushed cockle shell as partial sand replacem...
Exploratory study on the use of crushed cockle shell as partial sand replacem...Exploratory study on the use of crushed cockle shell as partial sand replacem...
Exploratory study on the use of crushed cockle shell as partial sand replacem...
 
Potential use of iron ore tailings in sandcrete block making
Potential use of iron ore tailings in sandcrete block makingPotential use of iron ore tailings in sandcrete block making
Potential use of iron ore tailings in sandcrete block making
 
B03310408
B03310408B03310408
B03310408
 
Study on Compressed Stabilized Earth Block
Study on Compressed Stabilized Earth BlockStudy on Compressed Stabilized Earth Block
Study on Compressed Stabilized Earth Block
 
1 s2.0-s1878535215001100-main
1 s2.0-s1878535215001100-main1 s2.0-s1878535215001100-main
1 s2.0-s1878535215001100-main
 
Improvement of the Index and Compaction Characteristics of Black Cotton Soil ...
Improvement of the Index and Compaction Characteristics of Black Cotton Soil ...Improvement of the Index and Compaction Characteristics of Black Cotton Soil ...
Improvement of the Index and Compaction Characteristics of Black Cotton Soil ...
 
IRJET- A Review on Flexural Behaviour of RC Beam with Partial Replacement of ...
IRJET- A Review on Flexural Behaviour of RC Beam with Partial Replacement of ...IRJET- A Review on Flexural Behaviour of RC Beam with Partial Replacement of ...
IRJET- A Review on Flexural Behaviour of RC Beam with Partial Replacement of ...
 
Effect of Alternative Materials on Properties of Expansive Soil for Construct...
Effect of Alternative Materials on Properties of Expansive Soil for Construct...Effect of Alternative Materials on Properties of Expansive Soil for Construct...
Effect of Alternative Materials on Properties of Expansive Soil for Construct...
 
Strength Improvement of Mud Houses Through Stabilization of the Lateritic Mat...
Strength Improvement of Mud Houses Through Stabilization of the Lateritic Mat...Strength Improvement of Mud Houses Through Stabilization of the Lateritic Mat...
Strength Improvement of Mud Houses Through Stabilization of the Lateritic Mat...
 
D03401022028
D03401022028D03401022028
D03401022028
 
A STUDY ON IMPLEMENTATION OF COCONUT SHELL AS A COARSE AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE ...
A STUDY ON IMPLEMENTATION OF COCONUT SHELL AS A COARSE AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE ...A STUDY ON IMPLEMENTATION OF COCONUT SHELL AS A COARSE AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE ...
A STUDY ON IMPLEMENTATION OF COCONUT SHELL AS A COARSE AGGREGATE IN CONCRETE ...
 

Plus de IOSR-JEN

Plus de IOSR-JEN (20)

C05921721
C05921721C05921721
C05921721
 
A05920109
A05920109A05920109
A05920109
 
J05915457
J05915457J05915457
J05915457
 
I05914153
I05914153I05914153
I05914153
 
H05913540
H05913540H05913540
H05913540
 
G05913234
G05913234G05913234
G05913234
 
F05912731
F05912731F05912731
F05912731
 
E05912226
E05912226E05912226
E05912226
 
D05911621
D05911621D05911621
D05911621
 
C05911315
C05911315C05911315
C05911315
 
B05910712
B05910712B05910712
B05910712
 
A05910106
A05910106A05910106
A05910106
 
B05840510
B05840510B05840510
B05840510
 
I05844759
I05844759I05844759
I05844759
 
H05844346
H05844346H05844346
H05844346
 
G05843942
G05843942G05843942
G05843942
 
F05843238
F05843238F05843238
F05843238
 
E05842831
E05842831E05842831
E05842831
 
D05842227
D05842227D05842227
D05842227
 
C05841121
C05841121C05841121
C05841121
 

Dernier

Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...Will Schroeder
 
Computer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and Hazards
Computer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and HazardsComputer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and Hazards
Computer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and HazardsSeth Reyes
 
Designing A Time bound resource download URL
Designing A Time bound resource download URLDesigning A Time bound resource download URL
Designing A Time bound resource download URLRuncy Oommen
 
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...Aggregage
 
How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?
How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?
How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?IES VE
 
Introduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptx
Introduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptxIntroduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptx
Introduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptxMatsuo Lab
 
Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )
Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )
Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )Brian Pichman
 
Building AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptx
Building AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptxBuilding AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptx
Building AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptxUdaiappa Ramachandran
 
Artificial Intelligence & SEO Trends for 2024
Artificial Intelligence & SEO Trends for 2024Artificial Intelligence & SEO Trends for 2024
Artificial Intelligence & SEO Trends for 2024D Cloud Solutions
 
NIST Cybersecurity Framework (CSF) 2.0 Workshop
NIST Cybersecurity Framework (CSF) 2.0 WorkshopNIST Cybersecurity Framework (CSF) 2.0 Workshop
NIST Cybersecurity Framework (CSF) 2.0 WorkshopBachir Benyammi
 
AI You Can Trust - Ensuring Success with Data Integrity Webinar
AI You Can Trust - Ensuring Success with Data Integrity WebinarAI You Can Trust - Ensuring Success with Data Integrity Webinar
AI You Can Trust - Ensuring Success with Data Integrity WebinarPrecisely
 
UiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation Developers
UiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation DevelopersUiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation Developers
UiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation DevelopersUiPathCommunity
 
Videogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdf
Videogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdfVideogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdf
Videogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdfinfogdgmi
 
COMPUTER 10 Lesson 8 - Building a Website
COMPUTER 10 Lesson 8 - Building a WebsiteCOMPUTER 10 Lesson 8 - Building a Website
COMPUTER 10 Lesson 8 - Building a Websitedgelyza
 
UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 8
UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 8UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 8
UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 8DianaGray10
 
Bird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystem
Bird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystemBird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystem
Bird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystemAsko Soukka
 
Cybersecurity Workshop #1.pptx
Cybersecurity Workshop #1.pptxCybersecurity Workshop #1.pptx
Cybersecurity Workshop #1.pptxGDSC PJATK
 
Anypoint Code Builder , Google Pub sub connector and MuleSoft RPA
Anypoint Code Builder , Google Pub sub connector and MuleSoft RPAAnypoint Code Builder , Google Pub sub connector and MuleSoft RPA
Anypoint Code Builder , Google Pub sub connector and MuleSoft RPAshyamraj55
 
IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019
IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019
IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019IES VE
 

Dernier (20)

Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
Apres-Cyber - The Data Dilemma: Bridging Offensive Operations and Machine Lea...
 
20230104 - machine vision
20230104 - machine vision20230104 - machine vision
20230104 - machine vision
 
Computer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and Hazards
Computer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and HazardsComputer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and Hazards
Computer 10: Lesson 10 - Online Crimes and Hazards
 
Designing A Time bound resource download URL
Designing A Time bound resource download URLDesigning A Time bound resource download URL
Designing A Time bound resource download URL
 
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
The Data Metaverse: Unpacking the Roles, Use Cases, and Tech Trends in Data a...
 
How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?
How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?
How Accurate are Carbon Emissions Projections?
 
Introduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptx
Introduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptxIntroduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptx
Introduction to Matsuo Laboratory (ENG).pptx
 
Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )
Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )
Building Your Own AI Instance (TBLC AI )
 
Building AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptx
Building AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptxBuilding AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptx
Building AI-Driven Apps Using Semantic Kernel.pptx
 
Artificial Intelligence & SEO Trends for 2024
Artificial Intelligence & SEO Trends for 2024Artificial Intelligence & SEO Trends for 2024
Artificial Intelligence & SEO Trends for 2024
 
NIST Cybersecurity Framework (CSF) 2.0 Workshop
NIST Cybersecurity Framework (CSF) 2.0 WorkshopNIST Cybersecurity Framework (CSF) 2.0 Workshop
NIST Cybersecurity Framework (CSF) 2.0 Workshop
 
AI You Can Trust - Ensuring Success with Data Integrity Webinar
AI You Can Trust - Ensuring Success with Data Integrity WebinarAI You Can Trust - Ensuring Success with Data Integrity Webinar
AI You Can Trust - Ensuring Success with Data Integrity Webinar
 
UiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation Developers
UiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation DevelopersUiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation Developers
UiPath Community: AI for UiPath Automation Developers
 
Videogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdf
Videogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdfVideogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdf
Videogame localization & technology_ how to enhance the power of translation.pdf
 
COMPUTER 10 Lesson 8 - Building a Website
COMPUTER 10 Lesson 8 - Building a WebsiteCOMPUTER 10 Lesson 8 - Building a Website
COMPUTER 10 Lesson 8 - Building a Website
 
UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 8
UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 8UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 8
UiPath Studio Web workshop series - Day 8
 
Bird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystem
Bird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystemBird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystem
Bird eye's view on Camunda open source ecosystem
 
Cybersecurity Workshop #1.pptx
Cybersecurity Workshop #1.pptxCybersecurity Workshop #1.pptx
Cybersecurity Workshop #1.pptx
 
Anypoint Code Builder , Google Pub sub connector and MuleSoft RPA
Anypoint Code Builder , Google Pub sub connector and MuleSoft RPAAnypoint Code Builder , Google Pub sub connector and MuleSoft RPA
Anypoint Code Builder , Google Pub sub connector and MuleSoft RPA
 
IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019
IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019
IESVE Software for Florida Code Compliance Using ASHRAE 90.1-2019
 

B05921016

  • 1. IOSR Journal of Engineering (IOSRJEN) www.iosrjen.org ISSN (e): 2250-3021, ISSN (p): 2278-8719 Vol. 05, Issue 09 (September. 2015), ||V2|| PP 10-16 International organization of Scientific Research 10 | P a g e Development Of Sandcrete Block Using Cassava Waste Water As An Admixture E.O. Aiyewalehinmi Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Federal University of Technology, Akure Abstract: - Sandcrete blocks produced commercially in Akure have failed to meet the minimum requirement of Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS 2000; 87: 2000) 2.5N/mm2 to 3.45N/mm2 . Researchers have attributed this to soil, mix ratio, curing, and control. The purpose of the study is to use cassava waste water as an admixture to improve the quality and the compressive strength of Sandcrete blocks produced in Akure. A total of 60 sandcrete blocks size 450mm X 150mm X 225mm were produced using an admixture of 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of Cassava waste water with 0% control, and cured for 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. The tests performed include: sieve analysis, Moisture content, Specific Gravity, Water absorption and Compressive Strength. All tests were performed to ascertain if cassava produced sandcrete blocks conform with (NIS 87: 2000, NIS: 2000) recommendations. The results obtained indicate that 20% admixture satisfies NIS requirements (3.30 N/mm2 ). Keyword: Sandcrete block, sieve analysis, water absorption specific gravity compressive strength I. INTRODUCTION The use of sandcrete blocks has gained popularity in Nigeria including Ondo State. They are widely used as walling units or partition, often as a load bearing walls. Investors are moving away from the idea of molding blocks on sites due to rising cost of labour. As a result building investors consider buying directly from the block industries. In Ondo State, the quality of sandcrete blocks manufactured varies, due to the method of Production employed by individual block industry. The quality of sandcrete blocks produced generally in Nigeria has reduced due to demand and lack of control by government agencies. The problem of poor block quality emerged because of the recent increasing building collapsing in Ondo State and other parts of the country. Dov. (1991) described sandcrete blocks as precast masonry units assembled and bounded by cementitious materials to form wall which can be either load bearing wall, enclosed wall or back up wall. According to BS 6073 (Specification for Precast Concrete Masonry Unit Part 1), three types of blocks are displayed and recognized and they are: solid, hollow and cellular. They are molded or produced in various sizes. Commonly used sizes are (150mm X 225mm X 450mm, 225mm X 225mm X 450mm) for load bearing and non-load bearing structures with a wide range of thickness from 60mm to 250mm (Hodge 1971). The load bearing walls are those walls that can support the entire structure and transmit the load to ground surface (NIS 87:2000). According to NIS 87:2000; sandcrete blocks pose intrinsic low compressive strength, indicating that they are susceptive to any natural disaster such as earth quakes or seismic activities. Previous studies have also indicated that sandcrete blocks are produced in various standards and some are below the requirement standards for the construction of the buildings. The deficiency found is that sandcrete has no standard engineering definition. The engineering definition of sandcrete is to suit the purpose of use. Sandcrete blocks are rough in physical appearance; due to the nature and origin of pure morphological definition. However, there is a general engineering materials standard definition such as sand, cement and water. In addition, the application of Geotechnical methods such as sieve analysis, silt/clay content and bulk density appeared to have consolidated engineering definition. The time mixing sandcrete with cement and also the time lapse between mixing compaction appear to have direct impact on the strength. Increase in strength with age and curing temperature, also seems to contribute to stabilization of sandcrete. Neville, (2000) identified that the compressive strength of a sandcrete materials increases cement contents with limit rate. The type of sand materials used, such as fineness, density, relative density and sharpness seems to have direct influence on easy mixing with cement. Ezeji (1997) indicates that the relatives’ proportions and number of components considerably affect the mixing rate with cement. Similarly, Andram (2004) showed that commercially sandcrete blocks produced exhibit compressive strength far below standard recommendation for construction. He went further to indicate that the maximum compressive strength of commercially produced sandcrete blocks was within range of 0.5- 0.97N/mm2 as against miximum recommended standards of 2.5 -3.45 N/mm 2 . The purpose of this study is to determine the compressive strength of sandcrete blocks made of cassava waste water as an admixture and to verify whether it satisfies NIS, NIBRRI and BS requirements, and also to develop a sustainable construction and building material using locally available material that is cheap and avoidable across all classes of the society.
  • 2. Development Of Sandcrete Block Using Cassava Waste Water As An Admixture International organization of Scientific Research 11 | P a g e 1.1 CASSAVA WATER Cassava is a perennial woody shrub with an edible root, which grows in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Cassava originated from tropical America and was first introduced into Africa in the Congo basin by the Portuguese around 1558. Today, it is a dietary staple in much of tropical Africa. Cassava contains 2 cyanogenic glycosides, linamarin (80% of total glycosides) and lotaustralin (20%). A cell-wall enzyme liberates hydrogen cyanide (HCN), which is lethal to animals. Hydrogen cyanide concentrations depend on cultivar, environmental conditions, plant age, number of harvest (for the foliage) and on the plant component that is being considered. There is a continuous gradient of HCN content between varieties which are usually divided into two groups (.Peroni 2007)  Bitter varieties with roots containing 0.02-0.03% HCN (DM basis) and leaves containing up to 0.2% HCN (fresh basis) (Murugesrawi et al., 2006). These have to be processed before being used as feed.  Sweet varieties with roots containing less than 0.01% HCN (DM basis) and leaves 0.1% HCN (DM basis) (Murugesrawi et al., 2006). These can be fed raw. Most commercial varieties belong to this group. Bitter varieties have often longer and thicker roots than the sweet varieties, but there is no simple and safe method to assess HCN content. However, HCN can be relatively easily removed from cassava by-products. Different processes are effective in reducing cyanogenic glycoside including sun-drying, ensiling, and soaking + sun-drying. All these methods have yielded satisfactory results (Salami, 2003; Tewe, 1992). Well-processed cassava peels have generally acceptable levels, below 50 mg/kg (Osei,1989; Nwokoro, 2005b). However, mass HCN poisoning is intensively managed in Nigerian pig farm, where more than half of the herd died within a few hours after consuming boiled and overly ripe cassava peels from a bitter variety, was reported. Treating the surviving pigs with antibiotics and palm oil saved some of them (Sackey, 2002). The purpose of this investigation is to identify if distilled water cassava waste water could be used as an admixture to increase the quality and compressive strength of sandcrete blocks produced in Nigeria specifically Akure. Plate 1.0 Typical peeled cassava 1.1.2. Analysis of hydrocyanic acid Hydrogen cyanide (HCN), sometimes called prussic acid, is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula HCN. It is a colorless, extremely poisonous liquid that boils slightly above room temperature, at 25.6 °C (78.1 °F). HCN is produced on an industrial scale and is a highly valuable precursor to many chemical compounds ranging from polymers to pharmaceuticals. Hydrogen cyanide is a linear molecule, with a triple bond between carbon and nitrogen. A minor tautomer of HCN is HNC, hydrogen isocyanide. Hydrogen cyanide is weakly acidic with a pKa of 9.2. It partially ionizes in water solution to give the cyanide anion, CN–. A solution of hydrogen cyanide in water, represented as HCN, is called HYDROCYANIC ACID. The salts of the cyanide anion are known as cyanides. 1.1.3 Cassava product for animal and hunman consumption Cassava is a perishable commodity with a shelf life of less than 3 days after harvest. Processing provides a means of producing shelf stable products (thereby reducing losses), adding value at a local rural level and reducing the bulk to be marketed (Phillips et al., 2005). As urban population expand, the demand for more convenience and shelf-stable foods increases. Some cassava foods, such as Garri, tapioca, and attieke, are highly prized by urban populations, and these have managed to retain their markets. Imported food products are important urban foods but there is still a high demand for traditional foods, although they are often considered less acceptable because of concerns of quality and safety (Sanni et al., 2007). In Africa, cassava is currently
  • 3. Development Of Sandcrete Block Using Cassava Waste Water As An Admixture International organization of Scientific Research 12 | P a g e utilized for two main purposes: human food and industrial usage. Estimates for the percentage of cassava used for industrial utilization range from 5 to 16% while the rest used directly for human consumption. Most of cassava’s industrial utilization is for animal feed. About 10% of its industrial demand consists of high quality cassava flour used in biscuits and other confectioneries, dextrin, pre-gelled starch for adhesives, and starch for pharmaceuticals and seasonings. 1.1.4 Fermentation of Cassava In industry, as well as other areas, the uses of fermentation progressed rapidly after Pasteur's discoveries. Between 1900 and 1930, ethyl alcohol and butyl alcohol were the most important industrial fermentations in the world. But by the 1960s, chemical synthesis of alcohols and other solvents were less expensive and interest in fermentations waned. However, Plant starch, cellulose from agricultural waste, and waste from cheese manufacture are abundant and renewable sources of fermentable carbohydrates. These materials, not utilized they are buried in waste disposal site or treated with waste water. Cassava being the sole source of hydrogen cyanide which dissolves in solution to produce hydrocyanic acid is fermented .The roots were peeled, washed and immersed in water in a clean plastic container and shred and put in a muslin bag and submerged in water in a clean plastic container. The temperature of both containers was maintained constantly at of 30oC . The fermentation process of the cassava grated cassava tubers was observed. The fresh, peeled tubers were suspended in water and allowed to ferment for 96hours by the natural micro flora. After successful fermentation, the cassava waste water containing hydrocyanic acid was collected and carried to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Concrete Laboratory the Federal University Akure where 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% cassava waste water was use as admixture to replace distilled water for the production of sandcrete blocks. Plate 2.0 The Process of extracting the cassava waste water. II. STRENGTH AND USAGE OF SANDCRETE BLOCKS The present Sandcrete blocks commercially produced are unsuitable for load-bearing columns and they can only be used for walling or for foundations if no suitable alternative is available. As material for walls, its strength is less than that of fired clay bricks, but the material is considerably cheaper than fired clay brick. Sandcrete block is the main building material for walling of single-storey buildings (such as houses and schools) in countries like Ghana and Nigeria. Measured compressive strengths of commercially available sandcrete blocks in Nigeria building and construction market fall between 0.5 and 1 N/mm2 , which is well below the 2.5 N/mm2 legally required for minimum load bearing structure. III. RESEARCH APPROACH 3.1 SANDCRETE BLOCK PRODUCTION In this study sandcrete blocks are produced using distil water, cement, sand and cassava waste water as an admixture (5%, 10%, 15% and 20%). The Sandcrete blocks were cast using approved moulds. A total of 12 sandcrete block samples were cast using each proportion (5%, 10%, 15% and 20%) of cassava waste water. A total of 60 sandcrete blocks were cast including control using 100% pure distilled water used vibrating machine. All sandcrete blocks cast are hollow blocks size 150 x 225 x 450 mm. Sieve analysis test was carried out on the soil samples to ascertain their suitability for the block making in accordance to BS 1377. Tests were conducted on water absorption, gravity, penetration, soundness and compressive strength in accordance to BS 3921 and BS 2028.
  • 4. Development Of Sandcrete Block Using Cassava Waste Water As An Admixture International organization of Scientific Research 13 | P a g e 2.4.2 Mixing The mixing was done mechanically so as to get a very good proportional mix of the constituent materials for Sandcrete blocks production. All the materials used for the production are cement, fine aggregate, and cassava waste water and distil water. For control samples 100% Distil water was used for the mixed. 2.4.3 Curing Proper curing methods were used to ensure the blocks attain self strength and they were observed for 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. 3.2.3.2 Water Absorption The absorption rate is defined as the weight of water absorbed when the unit is partially immersed for 24hours in water as indicated in BS3921. A = 𝒘𝒆𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔−𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 (1) In this consideration, each sample of Sandcrete blocks was weighed in dried conditions and the readings were recorded, each of these blocks was fully immersed in water for a period of 24 hours to make sure that they were fully submerged in the water. After 24 hours, the wet block samples were removed and weighed. The difference between the dry and wet were taken, and then calculated, using the above equation. 3.2.1.4 Determination of Existing Moisture Content The moisture content of the soil samples was determined used BS 1377(1991) oven dry method. The moisture content of the soil was calculated as a percentage of its dry weight using the following equation: M = W2−W3 W3−W1 x 100 % (2) IV. ANALYSIS OF TESTS RESULTS 4.1. Specific gravity test The application of specific gravity was applied, the values obtained are used in the calculation below to determine the specific gravity of fine-grained soil. This result obtained is within block range or limit of NIS and BS.. Specific gravity of soil particles Gs1 = M2−M1 M4−M1 –(M3−M2 ) 409−269 579−269 –(664−409 ) = 140 55 = 2.55 4.2 Sieve Analysis results The result sieve analysis of the soil samples is the indicated in the figure 4.1 above. The results show is fine grain sand with more than 90 percent passed through 2.36mm about 19.40 percent pass through 75µm. The soil is well graded and it is good for the production of sandcrete blocks (Cc =15). Figure 4.1 Particle size distribution (PSD) of Sample used 0.001 BS SIEVES : 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 CLAY COARSE 0.002 0.06 COARSE 2 SILT FINEMEDIUM FINE SAND MEDIUM FINE GRAVEL MEDIUMCOARSE 60 COBBLE STONE BOULDER 600 200 150 100 65 35 10 8 6 3 PercentageFiner(%) Particle size in mm PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
  • 5. Development Of Sandcrete Block Using Cassava Waste Water As An Admixture International organization of Scientific Research 14 | P a g e 4.2.1 Silt/Clay test Silt clay content test result obtained was 9.33% . the result is within the silt clay context limit. 4.2.2 Moisture Content The tests result obtained from the average moisture content was 8.19% which is below NIS maximum requirement 12%. 4.3 Water Absorption Rate Day 28 Figure 4.2 Average Water Absorption Rate Day 28 Figure 4.2 above shows the results obtained from the tests of water absorption rate conducted on sandcrete block. As can be seen from the figure the absorption rate varies from 0% control 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% admixtuere. The values are in the figure 4.2 above 0% attained 5%, 5% admixture attained 4.4%, 10% = 4%, 15% = 3.8% and 20% attained 3.5% r All values obtained fell below the maximum NIS recommendation. However, 20% admixture retains water more than both Control and other admixture samples. The water present in mortar would be kept longer than the rest samples. 4.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST The compressive strength of the samples obtained is shown in the figures 4.3a and 4.3b below, day 7, day 14, day 21, and day 28. Test results indicate that the unit compressive strength for the control samples, 0%, and admixture 5%, 10% and 15%) fall below the recommendation line of NIS and BS for day (7, 14, 21 and 28). For 0% the Compressive Strength values are shown in bracket (0.61, 0.76, 0.99 and 1.03)N/mm2 , while the admixture, 5%, 10% and 15% are also shown in the brackets (0,65, 0.80, 0.88 and 0.99) N/mm2 ), (0.72, 0.84, 0.96 and 1.15)N/mm2 , and (0.92, 1.80, 2.11 and 2.41) N/mm2 The values obtained fall below Recommendations. Whereas 20% cassava waste water as an admixture attained day 7, 14, 21, and 28 are shown in the following values in bracket (0.88, 2.51, 2.72 and 3.30) N/mm2 day 28 satisfies the NIS and BS requirements. Figures 4.3a to 4.3b show the results and the values of 0%which is the control and the mixtures 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%. Figure 5.1a Compressive strength obtained 28days 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 5 4.4 4 3.8 3.5 1 2 3 4 5 Average water absorption day 28 0 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 1.03 0.99 1.15 2.41 3.3 1 2 3 4 5 6 Compressive Strength 28 days
  • 6. Development Of Sandcrete Block Using Cassava Waste Water As An Admixture International organization of Scientific Research 15 | P a g e Figure 5.1b Compressive strength obtained day 28 V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The test results obtained from analysis showed that the sandy soil components mixed with cement, water and admixture with Cassava waste water is suitable for the production of the sandcrete blocks and also good for construction of a building according to NIS 87: 2004 and NIBBR 2006. The findings show that the compressive strength sandcrete blocks admixed with 20% cassava waste water produced at the Federal university of Technology, Akure, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Concrete Laboratory satisfy the requirement of NIS 2004, NIBBRI 2006 and BS 3920 Standard for both Loading and non loading structure. It was observed that the control 100% distilled water 5%, 10% and15% admixture have failed to meet the requirements of NIS, NIBBRI and BS standard. All the 60 sandcrete blocks samples produced and tested have attained day 28 and highest compressive strength. VI. RECOMMENDATION Majority of sandcrete blocks commercially produced in Nigeria have failed to meet the requirement standard set down by NIS, NIBBRI and BS. This suggests that there is a need for improvement in this area. More research, more studies are required to be able to develop new alternative sustainable local material to replace old material at low costs. Good Government policies to support and encourage effective education and research on proper management of wastes, safe disposal and recycling. The Authors have suggested that HCN should produced in large quantity be made available in large Urban cities for the production of cassava sandcrete blocks. REFERENCES [1]. Andam, K. (2004): Bricks, Blocks and the Future Administrative Capital of Ghana, [2]. http://www.knust.edu.gh/administrative/vcspeeches/Ghana%20ACADEMY%20F%20ART%AND%20S CIENCE.PDF [3]. American Society for Testing and Materials (1978). Specifications for pozzolanas. [4]. ASTM International, USA, ASTM C618. [5]. American Society for Testing and Materials (2004). Standard test method for [6]. steady-state heat flux measurements and thermal transmission properties by [7]. means of the guarded-hot-plate apparatus. ASTM International, USA. ASTM [8]. C177. [9]. British Standards Institution (1971). Ordinary and rapid-hardening Portland [10]. Cement. London. BS, 12: 2. [11]. British Standards Institution (1990). Methods of testing for soils for Civil [12]. Engineering purposes. London. pp. 1377. [13]. British Standards Institution (1997). Specifications for pulverized fuel ash for use [14]. with Portland Cement in Concrete. London, BS 3892: I. [15]. British Standards Institution. (1968), Precast Concrete Blocks. BS2028, 1364: BSI, London, England. 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 1.03 0.99 1.15 2.41 3.3 1 2 3 4 5 Compressive Strength 28 days
  • 7. Development Of Sandcrete Block Using Cassava Waste Water As An Admixture International organization of Scientific Research 16 | P a g e [16]. British Standards Institution. (1978) Specification for Portland Cement (Ordinary [17]. and Rapid Hardening). [18]. BS 12:1978. BSI, London, England British Standards Institution. (1981). Precast [19]. Concrete BS 6073: Part 2: 1981. BSI. London, England. [20]. Dov. K. (1991): Design and construction failures, McGraw-Hill Inc. USA. [21]. Ezeji, K. (1993) Building Construction Vol. 1: Fancy Publications Limited, Idumota, Lagos [22]. Hodge, J.C (1971) Brick work, 3rd Ed .Edward Arnold, London, England. [23]. Nvelle, A. M.(2000), Properties aggregates, Pearson Education, Asia, London England [24]. Nigerian Building and Road Research Institute (NIBBRI) 2006 Standard for Lateric bricks for [25]. Construction. [26]. NIS 2000, NIS 87: 2000. Nigerian industrial Standard for Sancrete Blocks; Standard Organization of Nigeria Lagos, (2005). [27]. Nwokoro (2005) Trop. Anim. Health prod; 37(6): 495-501. [28]. Osei (1989) Anim Fed Sci: Technol. 24 (3-4): 247-252 [29]. Peroni (2007), Genetic Resources and crop evolution, 54 (6): 1333-134 9. [30]. Philips T, Taylor, D.S Sanni, L. and Akoroda (2005). A cassava Industrial Revolution in Nigeria and the potential for a new industrial crop. $3pp. IFAD/FAO Rome 2004 [31]. Sackey, (2002) Ag vet International, 3(1): 4 [32]. Salami (2003) International of poultry Science 2(2): 112-116 [33]. Sanni, L. Alenkhe, B, Edosio, R. patino, M and Dixon A. (2007): Technology Transfer in developing countries: capitalizing on equipment development. Journal of food, Agriculture & Environment 5(2) (2007) :88-91 [34]. Muruagesrawi E.N and Adewale, A.F. (2006) Loss of Hydrcyanic acid and its derivative during sundry of cassava. In tropical Root Crops Research Strategies for the 1980s, Ed Terry E.R, Oduro K.A & Caveness , F. IDRC, Ottawa Canada Pp. 149-151. [35]. Tewe, Machin, D and Nyvold, S (1992), Roots, Tubers, plantain and bananas in [36]. animal Feeding Animal proceedings of the FAO Expert Consultation held in [37]. CIAT, Cali, Colombia 21-25, January 1991; FAO Animal Production and [38]. Health paper-95