1. P12219007 Jade Stevens
A Critical Discussion of the Theoretical Explanations of Sexual
Offending.
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of BA (Hons) in
Criminology and Criminal Justice.
Jade Stevens
P12219007
May 2015

2. P12219007 Jade Stevens
Acknowledgements
I firstly owe a massive thank you to my dissertation supervisor Lucy Baldwin, for her
outstanding support, guidance and valuable knowledge around the theoretical
explanations of sexual offending.
I would however without doubt like to dedicate my dissertation to my mother and
father. They have taught me to never give up and have acted as inspirational
individuals whom I look up to, because of them I know never to give up on my
dreams. They have been continuous support throughout my three years at university
and have provided me with both finical and emotional support and for this I am
eternally grateful. The mass of effort I have put in within these three years at De
Montfort University will be sincerely worthwhile if they, at graduation are as half as
proud of me as I am of them.

3. P12219007 Jade Stevens
Abstract
It is well known through the media that paedophiles face the stigma and stereotypes
of being labeled such malicious names. What is not taken into consideration is why
such individuals display such malignant behaviours
This dissertation focuses on the theoretical explanations of sexual offending in order
to give an account and understanding of why paedophiles are attracted to children.
The research approach used within this dissertation is that of a literature based
review, focusing on existing literature of sexual offending behaviour. The evident
research provided a number of key findings, firstly that sexual offending behaviour
stems from early childhood experiences, this is something which all of the theorists
have mentioned and accounted for. Secondly, it has been found that male sexual
offending theories are not applicable and cannot be applied to female sexual
offenders. There is a clear difference between the two, this is something which
needs to be addressed in the future. Finally, it was found that the sexual offender
treatment programmes are of a success, as they focus on cognitive behavioural
therapy aiming to diminish the individuals cognitive distortions. It has however been
found and recommend that the theories of sexual offending need to account for
cultural differences as this is factor is considerably important within today’s diverse
society.

4. P12219007 Jade Stevens
Contents Page
Description Page Number
Introduction 1
Methodology 3
Ethics 5
Chapter 1 - Finkelhor’s Precondition Model 7
Chapter 2 - Marshall and Barbaree’s Integrated Theory 12
Chapter 3 - Ward and Siegert's Pathway Model 17
Chapter 4 - Female Sexual Offenders 21
Chapter 5 - Assessment and Treatment 26
Conclusion 33
References 36

5. 1
Introduction
“For 50 years Paedophile's have made a mockery of the elaborate policies put in
place to protect our children.” (The Paedophile Next Door, 2014) Over time the
nature of Paedophile's have been influenced by the media, meaning they are directly
associated with terms like ‘evil,’ ‘monster,’ ‘devil,’ or ‘vicious.’ The news of the world
demonstrates this with a headline of ‘For these evil perverts there must be no hiding
place.’ (Editorial, 2000, p.6) However, such headlines are unjustifiable quotes, these
are stereotypical terms used to define a Paedophile, what the media does not focus
on is that of the theoretical explanations of sexual offending. As Cardinal Wilfrid
Napier (2013) explains Paedophila should be conveyed as a psychological illness
not a criminal condition. There is a need for treatment and support within todays
society in order to protect Paedophile’s and ensure that they do not offend.
This dissertation will have a main focus of male sex offenders and will explore the
theoretical explantations that determines why they are attracted to children in such
sexual ways. It will look at explanations and theories such as Finkelhor (1984) and
the pre condition model explaining why Paedophile's are motivated to sexually abuse
and are sexual aroused by children, also focusing on the overcoming of internal and
external inhibitors and how this effects the behaviour of a Paedophile. In relation to
Finkelhor’s multifunctional theory a discussion on Marshall and Barbaree’s (1990)
integrated theory will also be present throughout the dissertation. The main focus of
this theory being vulnerability, considering how this is developed throughout a
Paedophile’s life and the struggle that the individual has during adolescence, being
unable to control emotions and maintain relationships and the suffering of social

6. 2
ostracism. Concluding all of this information and concentrating on how this therefore
develops into an act of sexual offending. Ward and Siegert’s (2002) pathway model
also plays a vital part in explaining the sexual behaviour of Paedophiles, a
consideration of each pathway and how it relates to sexual violence will be
discussed throughout. An insight into the psychological mechanisms of child abuse
including intimacy and social skill deficits, sexual scripts, emotional dysregulation
and cognitive distortions will also be included.
There will be a slight focus on female sexual offenders within the dissertation. It will
be examined to see whether or not there is any significant difference between female
and male sexual offending, and if so what these differences are. It will target the fact
of how a lot of females have usually experienced sexual abuse and trauma during
their childhood which is what can determine them to commit such acts. (Mathews et
al, 1989) Also including how the feminism theory has made a valid contribution to the
dealing of sexual abuse for females including the assessment and treatment
process.
Finally, focusing on the assessment and treatment of male offenders and whether or
not it is effective and how it can be improved. It will look in detail at the risk
assessment of sexual addiction. Additionally it will review the interventions involved
within sexual offending focusing on the ‘Good Lives’ model and the use of the sexual
offender treatment programme (SOTP), theories will be linked to each assessment
and intervention method.

7. 3
Methodology
As Dawson (2002) explains there are two types of background research, primary and
secondary, both of which are extremely important factors when producing a
dissertation. Primary research, is research that is based on original data for example,
questionnaire responses, interviews and observations. The results from such
activities are then divided into statical and qualitative research. Secondary research,
is the type of research which will be used within this dissertation, this type of
research focuses on secondary sources of which researchers have already
produced within their own articles and books. Secondary research can be subdivided
into two foundations, firstly library research; this is usually research which is
conducted within the grounds of a school or university’s library. Secondary a
literature review; this focuses on the literature that is already present (Brown &
Rodgers, 2002), which is then critiqued to find gaps within the research.
Recommendations are therefore made in hope to close the gaps in order to produce
more structured and reliable research. Secondary research will be the most suited
type of research due to the nature of this dissertation and it’s ethical reasoning, this
will be discussed further in the ethics section below.
Qualitative research will therefore be used throughout this dissertation, this type of
research is “expressed in words describing attitudes, feelings, opinions, ideas,
customs and beliefs” (Greetham, 2014: 193). Although, it cannot be reduced down to
averages or percentages it does offer a rich insight into human behaviour which aids
understanding of cultures, societies and individuals themselves (Ibid, 2014). This
information is extremely relevant to this dissertation as the theoretical explanations

8. 4
of sexual offending need to be expressed more so within society so that it is correctly
understood.
To gain the relevant information needed in order to support and give reliable
evidence within this dissertation, many sources were used. To start with a book
named ‘Theories of Sexual Offending’ (Ward et al, 2006) was studied, this gave a
general overview of the different theoretical perspectives and theorists which could
be focused on throughout. To then expand on this search engines such as Google
Scholar and Academic Search Premier (EBSCO) were used, firstly researching
board terms such as ‘theoretical explanations of sexual offending’ and ‘’female
sexual offenders’ and then narrowing it down to terms which focused directly upon
the chosen theorists such as ‘Finkelhor’s Precondition Model,’ ‘Ward and Siegert’s
Pathway Model,’ ‘Sandler & Freeman, 2007’ and so forth. This gave strong and
reliable sources which were of a high enough standard to be used within the
dissertation.
There is scope to do one to one interviews with sexual offenders to find their means
and explanations of offending however this could cause both harm to the participant
and the researcher due to the nature of the subject. Deep questions would have to
be asked in order to receive valued information relevant for this dissertation, this
could cause distress to the participant as they may have to re-live an experience
which causes them pain and upset. It could also cause distress to the researcher as
they may have to witness and listen to such traumatic evidence something in which
would not pass the ethical guidelines at this level.

9. 5
Ethics
As social research is described by Bryman (2012) as a type of research that focuses
on the concepts and theoretical inspirations of social sciences. Such research is
motivated by changes in society and how things today develop throughly, this is
something that social research strives to illuminate. Another factor which can
influence such research is a gap within the literature that is already published, this
therefore allows a researcher to fill in the gap. A literature review focuses on existing
literature, which is then analysed, critiqued and assessed how significant their work
is against other relevant literature, this can include both positive and negative
aspects.
When scripting a literature review it is important to understand the ethical
considerations. Ethics are based on certain principles which we use to form
decisions on what is and what is not acceptable within practice. Research
participators have both legal and moral rights and it is important that these are not
violated whilst the research is being throughly conducted. The way in which this can
be complied with is following the Research Ethics Framework 2006 produced by the
Economic and Social Research Council which recognises the diversity issues of
social sciences. There are six core principles which are expected to be complied
with. (Smith et al, 2009) As this literature review has a main focus on paedophila and
sexual offending, it would not be ethically correct nor would it adhere to the six core
principles to for example interview an offender, as it could result in harm to the
offender, as sexual abuse is such a sensitive subject it would not be appropriate to
ask the offender to reiterate their side of the story as it could cause them great

10. 6
discomfort and distress. It could also put the researcher at great distress and
discomfort as they will have to listen to what the offender has to say. Another reason
as to why conducting quantitative and qualitative research within the subject of
sexual offending would not be appropriate is that of personal opinion, many
individuals would have strong views on the subject which would therefore influence
the results when conducting such research resulting in the literature being invalid
and of a poor quality.
As this is a literature review all of the above has already been taken into
consideration by the researchers, which have produced quality literature therefore is
it not necessary to put the victims, offenders and the researcher at continuous risk of
harm and distress.

11. 7
Chapter 1 - Finkelhor’s Precondition Model
Finkelhor’s Precondition Model with regard to child sexual abuse is one of the most
well known and commonly cited theories (Morrison et al, 1994). Finkelhor proposed
that child molestation is a complicated phenomena and is motivated by several
different factors (Finkelhor, 1984). The Precondition Model is known to be unique as
Finkelhor himself has built on previous literature and linked this within his own
theory, the four factors which Finkelhor constructed have all previously accounted for
sexually abusive behaviour (Ward et al, 2006).
The first precondition which Finkelhor proposes is the motivation to sexually abuse.
This is distinguished by three motives, emotional congruence, sexual arousal and
blockage. Emotional congruence concerns how the emotional needs of the
perpetrator is met by a child. As Ward et al (2006) explains that the term
“congruence implies some degree of psychological vulnerability that contributes to
the man’s expectation that children are more likely to respond optimally to his needs”
(Ibid et al, 2006: 22). Sexual offenders chose to relate to children because they are
believed to be on the same emotional level and are able to respond to the offenders
child-like preoccupations (Hammer & Glueck, 1957). Another idea which relates to
emotional congruence is that pedophiles are not just emotionally immature, but also
have a low sense of self-efficiency and esteem with regard to their social
relationships. Therefore relating to children allows that offender to adapt a sense of
power, respect and omnipotent (Loss & Glancy, 1983).

12. 8
The second motivate distinguished is sexual arousal. Finkelhor explains that the
deviant sexual arousal towards children can be related back to the offenders
childhood. Finkelhor speculates that being exposed to sexual abuse involving
children in the form of pornography at such a young age can enhance the
development of such feelings. This is supported by Wenet et al (1981) who suggests
that witnessing sexual experiences during early childhood can condition such
patterns of arousal. The conditioning can occur through a process projected by
McGuire et al (1965) which explains that early experiences of arousal can develop
into a fantasy. This fantasy is then repeated through masturbatory repetitions which
increases the arousal. Finkelhor did not explain how this impacted the developing
child however as Ward et al (2006) adds “obvious consequences include the
acquisition of conditioned sexual responses to stimuli associated with children”
(Ward et al, 2006: 22). It was also established that some sexual offenders have a
specific arousal preference for children but it is not clear if all child molesters have
such presence especially focusing on incest offenders. A study conducted by Abel et
al (1981) shows that incest offenders after listening to 42 played audiotapes, still
developed significant erections to the paedophilic cues similar to object paedophiles.
The final motivate involved within the first precondition is blockage. Finkelhor (1984)
explains that during stressful or unusual situations male offenders are unable to
meet their emotional or sexual needs by the means of another adult, they therefore
turn to children (Ward et al 2006). It is proposed that there are several causes which
can enhance blockage; psychological paradigms, family dynamic perspectives and
psychodynamic approaches. These involve aspects of castration anxiety,
unassertiveness, lack of social skills and timidity (Storr, 1965; Russell, 1984). Family

13. 9
dynamic perspectives usually involves the breaking down of a martial relationship,
something in which the father finds impelling, this therefore equates in the father
seeking emotional and sexual gratification from the son or daughter (Guttmacher &
Weihofen, 1951). It is supported that male offenders do struggle with sexually
relating to females, this was supported by Hammer and Glueck (1957) who
discovered that fear of heterosexual contact was a common finding within their study
which focused on 200 sex offenders. What is not clear is how blockage combined
with the other factors mentioned above creates individuals who are predisposed into
taking sexual interest and interaction with children.
The simple idea of being motivated to sexually abuse a child on its own is somewhat
highly unlikely. Other factors must impel on such an idea, thus forth bringing the
second prediction; overcoming internal inhibitors. Internal psychological factors that
diminish an offenders mental capacity and control to have sexual interaction with
children include severe stress, senility, psychosis, impulse disorder and alcohol
(Beech & Ward, 2004). Finkelhor (1984) illustrates that these internal factors cue a
disengagement, which effects the offenders self-regulatory mechanisms and makes
it a lot more difficult for the offender to resist sexual interest and desire towards
children.
In addition to the internal factors are external factors, which is the third precondition
which must be overcome in order to explain sexual desire towards children.
Finkelhor (1984) demonstrates that an offender must overcome external obstacles,
this is usually done by the offender in such a way of animosity. The offender usually
goes about this in an extremely smart way by systematically planning and grooming

14. 10
either the victim or their family, creating strong relationships. The goal here is to gain
trust and respect within the family so that they trust the offender with their child, this
therefore facilitates easier access. Finkelhor (1984) also discuss’s that an offence
can occur immediately and does not have to follow a grooming process. This is due
to a number of conditions that make it easier for the offender for example emotionally
distant parents, poor supervision and socially isolated families.
Finally, the fourth precondition which must be overcome is the resistance of the
child. Finkelhor (1984) explains that this can be done through a number of strategies
including; the use of gifts, the encouragement of emotional dependence, explicating
pornography on the child and using the use of force and violence upon the child.
Emotionally insecure children are those that pose a threat of being sexually exploited
as they are unaware of the nature of sexual abuse. All four of the preconditions
combined gives an account for what a sexual offender must overcome before they
offend.
Finkelhor’s Precondition Model provides a clear framework representing men who
have sexually abused children specifically focusing on female children. This has led
to clinical innovations and treatment goals including; working on intimacy issues,
targeting sexual arousal and strengthening emotional skills, these treatment methods
will be critically discussed further on (Ward & Siegert, 2002).
In relation to Finkelhor’s Precondition Model, Ward, Hudson, and Marshall and
Siegert (1995) explained that the chosen style of attachment can deter what type of
offence a sexual offender will commit, including their target for example a child or an

15. 11
adult and the way in which they enforce the offence for example through grooming or
force. Ward et al (1995) particularly focused on offenders who had a preoccupied
style suggesting that the offender would molest a child which they had groomed, for
over a long period of time. Ward et al (1995) added that preoccupied sexual
offenders would molester children as they would potentially pose no threat to them.
Supporting Finkelhor’s Precondition model, this theory relates to the forth
precondition whereby the offender must overcome the resistance of the child by
either grooming them or using force. It is also noted that due to the offender not
being able to hold relationships with the same or opposite sex adult, they relate more
so to a child as they do not see them as a threat.
However, Ward and Siegert articulate that the model focuses on proximal factors to
a high degree and pays insufficient attention to distal variables for example early
development. It is also argued that Finkelhor fails to explain why non-sexual issues
such as blockage and emotional congruence results in sexual behaviour (Thaker &
Ward, 2012). Marshall and Barbaree’s (1990) integrated theory explains distal
variables, focusing stressful factors which are experienced throughout childhood.

16. 12
Chapter 2 - Marshall and Barbaree’s Integrated Theory
Marshall and Barbaree's (1990) integrated theory focuses upon the etiology factors
of sexual offending and how this leads to persistence. Marshall and Barbaree
express their concern with regard to the other theories of sexual offending as they
state that many researches take a narrow perspective focusing on biological,
psychological or sociological factors. They have therefore incorporated such diverse
processes which must be seen as functionally interdependent, before it can be
related to a legitimate understanding of sexual offending.
According to Marshall and Barbaree (1990) the sexual abuse of children occurs as a
consequence of various interacting proximal and distal factors. It is thought that
individuals who experience developmental adverse events such as sexual and
physical abuse, poor parenting and inconsistent discipline early on in their lives are
likely to fail when controlling their relationships with regard to aggression and sex,
this results in poor self-regulation and social skills from a young age (Laws &
O’Donohue, 2008). Evidence to support this idea suggests that the adverse
developmental experiences mentioned above compromise the ability of the individual
in which they therefore develop negative attitudes towards relationships with other
adults of the same and different sex (Ward & Hudson, 1998). Marshall and Barbaree
(1990) also noted that abusive and difficult experiences early on, result in the failure
of understanding social controls which detriment sex and aggression, it could even
be found that these two aspects are interrelated and the sexual offender later on in
life struggles to discriminate between aggressive and sexual inclinations impulses.

17. 13
The integrated theory demonstrates that due to the stressful factors experienced as
a young children, adolescence is somewhat of a disturbing period within an
individuals life. This is due to the individual being unable to form and maintain
relationships with others, of both the same sex and opposite sex (Ward et al, 2006).
According to Bowlby (1969) the attachment between a child and the primary
caregiver reflects on the child’s behaviour. Positive attachments provide the child
with confidence, self worth and emotional security. However, what can be related to
Marshall and Barbaree’s theory here, are the factors that follow on from negative
attachments. As Lamb et al (1985) explains, physical maltreatment from primary
caregivers often resulted in children becoming avoidant of relationships with others.
These children were therefore seen to have poor relationship skills within their adult
life (Feeney & Noller, 1990).
Marshall and Barbaree (1990) propose that puberty is defined as a critical period in
which sexual scripts, attitudes and interests are developed. The individual discovers
powerful sexual urges however, is unable to exhibit these thoughts appropriately and
learns to meet their emotional and sexual needs in an undesirable way (Ward et al,
2006). As Steinberg and Sliverberg (1986) note the frustration and anger developed
by a male during puberty as a result of not being able to develop relationships is then
transferred to whatever source is available in order to achieve a degree of
satisfaction. Marshall and Barbaree would consider here that the available source
would be that of a child as the offender would easily be able to relate to them.

18. 14
Marshall and Barbaree’s theory presents impressive aspects, the idea that the
postulation of casual mechanisms has enabled the generation phenomena providing
an account for the sexual abuse of children is somewhat superior. For example,
attachment style, maladaptive beliefs and self-regulatory deficits (Ward, 2002). The
impact of such mechanisms combined with one another gives the theory a degree of
specificity something which is absent from Finkelhor’s Precondition Model (1984).
The theory has also contributed to treatment innovations, Marshall (1999) has
explored the intimacy deficits presented in sexual offenders, this work has aided
treatment innovations to used therapeutic strategies for example, cognitive
behaviour therapy which is used by the sexual offending treatment programme
(SOTP) to enhance the offenders intimacy skills (Beech et al, 1998). SOTP is known
to be successful, in the year 2009/10 the government targeted for 78% of sex
offender treatment programmes to successfully be completed, the actual result from
this year shown that 77% of those eligible to accredit the treatment programme
successfully completed it (NOMS, 2011).
The theory also aims to explain and include each different type of sexual offending.
However, the clinical development linked with the different types of sexual offending
shows some extent of overlapping. There are significant differences shown between
the different types of offenders and also between the offenders that have committed
the same classification of offences (Ward, 2002). Knight and Prentky (1990)
developed an empirical taxonomy based on rapists from the work of Cohen et al
(1969). It is proposed that there are several different types of rapists, raging from
opportunistic which show high or low social competency to vindictive which show
moderate to low social competency. Each type of rapist posses different motivates

19. 15
for example the desire of control and punishment or just simply wanting sexual
intercourse. Knight and Prentky addressed the same issues with real to sexual
offenders and their typology towards children, it was concluded sexual offenders
show similar heterogeneity to rapists (Knight and Prentky, 1990).
Also, according to Marshall and Barbaree sexual violations occur because the
individual fails to prevent deviant impulses and desires. This is something that is
influenced by the offenders developmental history explaining that they are unable to
deal with the physical and biological challenges presented throughout puberty
(Ward, 2002). However, recent empirical research indicates that only a small
percentage of sex offenders present significant issues with self-regulation (Hudson
et al,1999), the problem is more focused upon offenders being ill equipped with
regard to their choice of life goals. The theory therefore implements too much
emphasis on disinhibitor’s and not enough on the beliefs or values of the offenders
life goals (Ward, 2002).
Finally, the theory states that sexual offenders are renown for confusing agrees and
sexual drives, a confusion which is directly related to their offending behaviour. ‘The
basis of this confusion is hypothesised to reside in the identity of the underlying
physiological mechanisms and the fact that sex steroids are thought to activate
sexual and aggressive behaviour.’ (Ibid, 2002: 221). Kolb and Whinsaw (1995)
explain that the amygdala, which is the part of the brain that enables an individual to
feel emotions and is linked to both fear and pleasure responses (Science daily,
2015), has been associated with a number of emotional responses (Strongman,
1996). It is therefore criticised that Marshall and Barbaree cannot honestly state that

20. 16
sex and aggression is directly linked with neural substrates due to the structure of
the brain absorbing a wide range of distinct responses and drives and also there is a
strong need to include the other abiding factors presented with sexual offending
behaviour.

21. 17
Chapter 3 - Ward and Siegert’s Pathways Model
The concept of the knitting theory bought about Ward and Siegert’s Pathway model
(Kalmar and Stemberg,1988), Ward and Siegert have suggested that there are
numerous pathways which can lead to the sexual abuse of a child. Each pathway
involves development influences including, an opportunity to community an offence
and a set of core dysfunctional mechanisms. The pathways considered which play a
role in maintaining and influencing offending behaviour are, emotional regulation,
sexual scripts, intimacy and social deficits, antisocial cognition. (Ward and Siegert
2002).
The first pathway involves emotional regulation difficulties. These difficulties can be
influenced by anger management, impulsivity, emotional modulation and
dysfunctional coping strategies for example the use of sex. Sexual offenders often
find themselves turning to children in order to cope during stressful periods. The
second pathway is influenced by sexual script dysfunction. Sexual offenders that fit
within this pathway are described as hypothesised into holding sexual scripts which
confused sex with intimacy, this results into a preference of needing casual sex. The
third pathway is focused around intimacy and social deficit skills. Sexual offenders
are characterised by this pathway as they are seen to substitute children for adults.
This is an aspect that has been mentioned in many theories including Finkelhor and
Marshall and Barbaree, this indicts that sexual offenders are able to easily relate a
lot more to children due to the rejection of adults which is bought about by their poor
relationship and social skills. The fourth pathway considers how antisocial
cognitions effect sexual offenders. It is thought that sexual offenders attitudes and

22. 18
beliefs supports and justifies their offending, resulting in them believing they are
doing no wrong (Ibid, 2002). This pathway requires the offender to be highly
antisocial and unable to understand the norms and values within society. The final
pathway which involves all four of the pathways mentioned above predicts that
sexual offenders show difficulties when presenting their choice of sexual partner and
often prefer to pursue children to fulfil their sexual needs (Gannon, Terriere &
Leader, 2012). Sexual offenders following this pathway hold inappropriate sexual
scripts with regard to children. It is found that they will hold certain antisocial
conditions which support child molestation and will feel that they are unable to
establish and maintain relationships which those that are viewed to be more
threatening, meaning adults (Ibid, 2012).
The Pathways model has been able to identify and incorporate the use of Fineklhor
and Marshall and Barbaree’s theory. Ward and Siegert’s theory has arguably
developed more of a parsimonious explanation which gives an insight into the
different issues and goals which motivate different sexual offenders. It also focuses
closely upon Marshall and Barbaree’s beliefs that intimacy deficits are directly
associated to attachment style, something in which Ward and Siegert have related to
the different found in sexual offending behaviour (Ward & Siegert, 2002).
Another core feature of Ward and Siegert's pathway model is that every sexual
offence links to the four pathways within some degree, this is evidenced by Ward
and Siegert themselves.

23. 19
“A sexually deviant offender always offends within an interpersonal context (even
with a stranger), experiences certain emotional responses or diminished feeling (i.e.,
involves the emotional system), thinks about the offence in certain ways (cognitive
distortions of various types) and experiences some degree of sexual arousal (even if
he fantasies that the child is an adult).”
(Ward & Siegert, 2002: 345)
Despite the theory aiming to give a more in-depth approach with regard to the
behaviour of sexual offenders, the theory has accreted a considerable amount of
weaknesses. Firstly, the theory does not explain how the four sets of casual facts
initially interact with one another. Evidence form Pennington (2002) suggests that a
more theoretical way of doing this is by dividing the functions into three
neuropsychological systems which involve a motivational system, an action selection
and a perception and memory system. Each system is therefore associated with
different brain systems and specific types of psychopathology (Ward et al, 2006).
Secondly the theory does not show clarity due to the idea of dysfunctional
mechanisms recruiting those that are able to function normally which is proposed to
generate inappropriate sexual actions. Ward et al (2006) suggest that this results in
a degree of incoherence.
It also needs to be noted that all of the above theories fail to appreciate the different
cultures within today’s society. A behaviour that may be considered acceptable
within one culture may be seen as unacceptable within another, within today’s
diverse society it is important that this factor is considered when proposing the
theoretical explanations of sexual offending (Belcher, 2008). Many theories related to

24. 20
sexual offending focus on socially created concepts, as Burke (2005) explains that
no behaviour is criminal or deviant, this is only something that is considered when
other theorists label the offence. Although it could be said that it is in people’s
biological makeup to want the need for sexual intercourse resulting in sexual
behaviour being classed as a norm, from a realist perspective within todays society
what is not a norm is the need for sexual intercourse with a child and this is
unconsidered an unnatural and serious problem which should be treated (Belcher,
2008).

25. 21
Chapter 4 - Female Sexual Offenders
Theories regarding the sexual offending of females is in its infancy, there is so much
more of a focus upon male sexual offending than female (Marshall & Laws, 2003).
Criminology neglects the aspect that some females have a nature of criminality and
thus forth has led to the explanation that male and female offenders share the same
behaviours (Lilly et al, 1995).
An approach used to explain female sexual offending is typically applying the use of
male theories to explain female behaviour. Akers and Sellers (2004) explain that
when men commit crime it is a way of them showing their masculinity, therefore
when a female commits a crime they are perceived to be acting like males and are
too, embracing a masculine identity (Miller, 2002). In relation to sexual offending as
discussed above there are certain characteristics which men exhibit for example; the
need of power, domination and strength (Allgeier & Lamping, 1998). It is therefore
thought that women also posses such characteristics especially focusing on the
need for control and domination, this is something that can also too an extent, be
relevant for a female (Anderson, 1998).
A recent study conducted by Schnitzel-Murphy, Harris, Knight and Milburn (2009)
proposed that although both women and men engaged in sexual coercion, it was
found that the models that were developed for male offenders did not sufficiently
predict the same behaviours in female offenders. Although there are some certain
experiences which may manifest into similar behaviours between male and female

26. 22
sexual offenders, it is concluded that sexual coercion in men was discovered through
sociosexuality and sexual dominance whereas for female offenders there was more
of a focus on sexual compulsivity (Ibid, 2009). It is therefore inappropriate to explain
a women’s offending behaviour using the same terms which describes the actions of
male offenders. Men and women are predominantly different, warranting the need of
a unique explanation for their each of their behaviours (Gannon & Cortoni, 2010).
There are certain typologies which have been constructed, these give an account for
women’s sexual behaviour. Focusing here on the typologies which relate entirely to
women who abuse young children and adolescent boys, it is found that women who
abuse young children are more formally known as predisposed offenders (Matthews
et al, 1989). These type of women act alone and usually focus upon molesting their
own children. Matthews et al (1989) explains that these offenders are most likely to
have experienced abuse as a child and may also have a long history of sexual abuse
throughout their life span. It is also found that the offenders relationships with other
adults is often unhealthy (Cortoni, 2009) and they may also suffer from low self-
esteem and distorted thinking (Matthews et al, 1989). These ideas which have been
suggested are not something of a new phenomena, as discussed above, Finkelhor,
Marshall and Barbaree and Ward and Siegert all distinguish that many sexual
offenders have experienced a wealth of abuse within their childhood and are unable
to maintain stable relationships with adults. This therefore contradicts what Gannon
and Cortoni (2010) expressed about the being of unique explanations because
although female and male offenders are uniquely different with regard to this
typology, they are both expressing the same early onset experiences which result in
sexual offending behaviour. Even though the behaviour may be expressed in

27. 23
different ways, the early on set experiences manifest in the same result which is
sexual offending behaviour.
Women who molester adolescent boys are typically identified as teachers/lovers
(Matthews et al). It is found that these type of offenders do not see the abusive
behaviour as a criminal offence and believe that the victim is willing to partake
(Atkinson, 1996; Hunter & Matthews, 1997). This typology has a focus on power as
this is something the perpetrator achieves through their role in the victims life or their
age (Sarrel & Masters 1982). Clinical research indicates that these type of women
are less likely to have experienced abuse as a child (Saradijan, 1996). However
within their childhood they will have suffered from emotional abuse and may not
have had a father figure to form a strong relationship with (Atkinson, 1996; Hunter &
Matthews, 1997 & Cortoni, 2009). Presenting the idea that sexual abuse can stem
from the lack of not having a father figure is not something that has been identified
before in any other theory discussed above. This explains why these type of females
offenders have such an ideology with adolescent men, due to not having a father
figure growing up they become dependent on forming relationships with men during
their adult (Gannon et al, 2008). However, due to their lack of self-esteem they are
unable to form relationships with men of their own age which explains why they
focus on adolescent boys.
Ward and Hudson (1998) suggested combining existing theoretical perspectives of
male sexual offending, producing three levels of multifactorial theories which can
account for female sexual offending. Feminist criminologists focuses level one on the
experiences of powerlessness, patriarchy powerlessness and victimisation

28. 24
powerlessness. Patriarchy powerlessness examines how a women is predominantly
responsible for raising a family (White & Haines, 1996), depending on the individual
this is an experience that can be emotionally and physically demanding as well as
isolating (Wolfers, 1993). The absence of the partner allows the female the
opportunity to gain control. This is supported by Saradijan’s (1996) sample, as it
shown that women who had been in sexual contact with children had expressed a
sense of power which they claimed to have felt during the offence.
A focus on early childhood is a factor which is continually bought up with regard to
the theories behind sexual offending. Early victimisation is likely to constitute as the
strongest explanation behind female sexual offending. Women who have
experienced a traumatic upbringing are more likely to become involved in drug and
alcohol abuse and also sex-related offences. (Chesney-Lind, 1989). This is therefore
something that becomes a norm to the female, her learnt behaviours from her
childhood are substantial and still present in her adulthood life, something which
results in sexual offending behaviour. The theories presented within level two and
three also demonstrate factors involving childhood victimisation and cognitive
distortions something which is expressed as a learnt behaviour and finally the
background and pathways to offending (Gannon & Cortoni, 2010). These factors all
revolve around or are the result of early victimisation.
However, these theories are limited as it is noted that everyones experiences differ.
It is therefore apparent to remind others that not all women who have been abused
within their childhood go on to sexually abuse children (Ford, 2006). Secondly it is
hard to account for female sexual offenders due to the lack of evidence, relationships

29. 25
between female offenders and adolescent boys are most likely to go unreported.
This is due to adolescent boys not being able to identify that the relationship is
abusive as females tend not to use force unlike male sexual offenders. (Widom,
1997). It is also perceived by society that males should be able to cope in situations
like this as they are predetermined to be emotionally stronger than females
(Shumba, 2004). Male victims also view their situation as unique primarily because it
is not something that it usually within the public eye, thus forth they do not disclose
the information due to fear of shame and disbelief (Elliot, 1993; Hetherton, 1999). It
is also found that gender plays an important aspect with regard to how sexual abuse
allegations are dealt with by professionals within the criminal justice system, it is
noted that Bunting (2005) found within her study that professionals failed to accept
that women are able to initiate abuse and play the lead role.
It is therefore found that early victimisation is the strongest explanation behind
sexual offending and has been used by many criminologists in order to try and
provide an account for the behaviour of female sexual offenders. This is still an
aspect of criminology which needs to be further researched in order to provide more
evidence and literature which will distinguish the clear differences between female
and male sexual offending and the differences within their behaviours. However,
feminist approaches do fail to ignore psychological variables for example, the need
to understand cultural and social factors something which has been recognised with
the above theories (Ward et al, 2006).

30. 26
Chapter 5 - Assessment and Treatment
The assessment and treatment of sexual offenders is an important aspect in
supporting the theories which explain sexual offending behaviour. If it was not for the
publication of theories it would have been considerably harder to propose
assessment and treatment interventions that work.
Assessing the risk factors proposed by sexual offenders is one of the most important
factors, as this can explain their sexual interests and will also determine whether or
not they are likely to offending again in the future (Cortoni, 2009). It is found that risk
factors such as the degree of forced used within the offence and the cause of injury
to the victim is something that is not related to sexual recidivism (Hanson &
Bussiére, 1998). It is therefore questioned as to what actually needs to be
considered as a risk, the individual’s characteristics is something that is highly
focused upon and whether or not the individuals characteristics will increase or
decrease their motivation to sexually offend (Cortoni, 2009).
There are two types of risk factors which have been presented; static and dynamic.
Static risk factors focus upon the demonstration of anti-social traits and personality
factors these are aspects that have a strong correlation with recidivism (Quinsey et
al, 2006). Hanson and Morton-Bourgon (2005) confirmed from their findings that
violent and general recidivism presented in sexual offenders was related to anti-
social traits and personality factors. They presented the idea that the risk
assessment of sexual offenders must take into account the offenders history
(Cortoni, 2009).

31. 27
A limitation of static factors is that they are of a non-changeable nature, whilst the
assessment tools used, Sexual Offender Risk Appraisal Guide (Quinesy et al, 2006)
and the Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offence (Hanson,1997) are able to
provide a clear link between risk factors and the probability of re-offending (Hanson
& Thorton, 1999). It does not consider how the factors presented impact on the
management of sexual offenders. Dynamic factors therefore demonstrate the
importance of risk management and improve the accuracy of risk indicators (Hanson
& Harris, 1998). Dynamic risk factors stem from the work of three theorists; Beecher,
Fisher and Beckett (1999), Thorton (2002) and Hanson and Harris (2000). Each
theorists pointed out the aspect that sexual offenders experience problems when
trying to maintain relationship with adults thus forth relate to children instead. It is
also considered that sexual offenders have low-self esteem and poor-self
management, they are unable to cope with negative situations and feel more at ease
when they are around children as they pose no threat.
An example of a dynamic factor is substance misuse. Substance misuse acts as a
disinhibitor, as Fagan (1990) argues intoxication has a significant impact on the
functioning and cognitive abilities of an individual. For example depending on the
extent of the substance misuse individuals my fail to perceive social cues and may
under estimate the cultural and social meanings displayed by others. In relation to
Finkelhor’s Precondition Theory (1984) the use of substance misuse is known to
make individuals feel depressed, isolated and develop low self-esteem. Finkelhor
explains that during these situations male sexual offenders are unable to meet their
emotional or sexual needs by the means of another adult, they therefore turn to

32. 28
children (Ward et al 2006). Relating back to Fagan (1990) as mentioned before an
individual with a substance misuse problem is unable to understand the concept of
social cues and the cultural and social meanings of others, in some situations this
can result in the use of violence. Finkelhor (1984) would therefore state that a sexual
offender would use the use of force and violence upon the child so they can meet
their emotional and sexual needs.
It has however been noted that static and dynamic risk factors are something that is
only applicable to adult male sexual offenders. It has been found that developing risk
assessment measures of male offenders to female offenders is not something that is
ethically valid. It is suggested that using assessment methods that are specifically for
women will provide a better predictor of risk (Blanchette & Brown, 2006). It is
considered that risk assessment for female sexual offenders must focus upon other
forms of child maltreatment as most female sexual offenders propose risk of
presenting other abuse towards children not just that of physical and emotional
(Ford, 2006).
The treatment available for sexual offenders is also an important factor to consider.
The Good Lives Model (GLM) educates offenders with the knowledge and skills
needed in order for them to live a pleasant life within society and the environment
that they will be released into (Ward et al, 2006). The GLM is based upon the
principles of positive psychology and articulates the theoretical assumptions and
uses them within practice for example Finkelhor’s theory suggest that sexual
offenders are unable to create healthy lifestyles with other adults. The GLM model
therefore focus on identifying the sexual offenders primary goods which involves

33. 29
leisure activities, relationships, friendships and happiness. As Ward et al (2007)
suggests ‘offenders want better lives not simply the promise of less harmful ones’
Ward et al, 2007: 106). It is found the sexual offenders become invested in the GLM
treatment problem as it aims to assists them to leading a pleasant life whereby they
have healthy relationships and are able to deal with stressful situations.
However, the GLM does not take into account the theory of etiology, what actually
causes sexual offending. The etiological assumptions presented within this theory
have been vaguely specified and are not clearly linked to an explanatory and
comprehensive theory (Ward & Gannon, 2005). Marshall & Barbaree (1990) express
the importance of etiology factors within sexual offending, without taking these
factors into account sexual offending cannot be understood resulting in this
treatment model not working. However the GLM recognised this issue and
incorporated the integrated theory of sexual offending, this resulted in a more
powerful treatment model which shown strong etiological components involving
biological, psychological or sociological factors.
It was also found that the GLM proposed many detailed suggestions with regard to
the assessment of sexual offending, mainly stating that there needed to be more of a
focus on “human goods and their pursuit” (Ibid, 2005: 80) it did not however make
any comprehensive recommendations for the treatment of sexual offending, this
therefore made it extremely hard for GLM to be operationalised by practitioners
within every day practice (Opcit, 2005).

34. 30
The ‘what works’ approach of criminology has also widely influenced the treatment of
sexual offending (McGuire, 1995). It has been noted that treatment for sexual
offenders can only work if it is followed by rigorous principles that are in relation with
treatment efficacy (Martinson, 1974). The what works approach is able to provide a
clear framework, something in which practitioners can use which maximises the
response within the criminal justice field. Treatment should focus on the
criminogenic needs of high-risk offenders ensuring that they are matched to the
correct treatment type (Ward et al, 2006).
However, this approach does blanket high-risk offenders which takes away the focus
on low-risk offenders whom in which can still considerably cause a lot of harm if they
are left untreated. An idea which support low-risk offenders is that of shaming,
integrating shaming schemes could benefit both the protection of the children within
a community and also the offender from committing any other vigilant attacks. This
scheme involves both the community and the offender and is not appropriate for
high-risk offenders. It is perceived to work on low to medium risk offenders due to the
fear of what society would do to them if they were caught re-offending (McAlinden,
2005). It is also considered that the heavy application of what works has lead to a
manualised approach (Ward et al, 2006). This therefore means that there is no room
for movement if any other issues arise which are not complied within the approach.
The ‘what works’ approach is closely followed by the SOTP. The primary purpose of
SOTP is to ‘increase the offender’s motivation to avoid re-offending and to develop
the self-management skills necessary to achieve this’ through cognitive behavioural
therapy. (Beech et al, 1998: 5). This strategy is supported by Finkelhor (2009) who

35. 31
suggests the use of law enforcement measures which concentrates on intensive
management will be highly effective for those offenders who are likely to re-offend.
However focusing on internet sex offenders, research often suggests that online
sexual abusers are purely confined to abusing over the internet for example the use
of pornographic images and never go onto abuse offline. (Child Exploitation and
Online Protection Centre, 2013). The Government however focuses strategically on
the internet being a gateway to the abuse of children because it is used by so many
within today’s society. Bandura and Adams (1977) explain that the desensitisation
approach assumes that anxiety causes defensive behaviour. In this case
desensitising pictures on the internet would cause anxiety and further arousal for
sexual offenders, which would cause as Bandura and Adams (1977) state defensive
behaviour.
Treatment programmes that support internet offenders are currently an adaptation of
the sexual offences treatment programme, this does not provide sufficient enough
work on the issues presented with the internet. The i-SOTP model was developed
on the basis of combining the Sexual Offender Treatment Programme, the Model of
Problematic Internet Use and the Good Lives Model (Middleton, 2008). i-SOTP only
focuses solely on the offenders attitudes and behaviours and due to practitioners
and theorists not understanding how technology fully impacts sex offenders it is
difficult to create any effective treatment programme (Aiken et al, 2011).
However, Finkelhor (2009) applied a school-based intervention which teaches
children how to identify dangerous situations, break off any unwanted interaction and
summon help, which is an important factor within todays society and the use of

36. 32
internet. It was found that children who were exposed to the intervention were able to
identify their actions in order to protect themselves and would be aware that the
situation was not their fault. However, due to the intervention encouraging children to
disclose abuse..
“..it may create additional disclosures from children who have been exposed to the
programs in contrast to non exposed children. Thus, exposed children may tell about
more even when they experience less. This can give the misleading impression of no
effect or even greater victimisation among children who have been exposed to
prevention programs.”
(Finkelhor, 2007: 642)
Although this is seen as a considerable issue, as Finkelhor (2006) explains that law
enforcements should be used within practices today, by enhancing this intervention
within schools, it will make children more aware of the issues presented when using
the internet. Children will understand what to do in order to prevent coming into
contact with internet sex offenders and will also have the confidence to inform an
appropriate adult.

37. 33
Conclusion
To conclude it is clear to see that the theoretical literature has added great value to
means of sexual offending. It has offered a precise indication to why sexual
offending occurs. Finkelhor’s Precondition theory has been extremely influential
resulting in the work of other theorists like Marshall and Barbaree and Ward and
Siegert. Although each theory demonstrates different ideas to a degree they are all
highly linked and have many similarities.
All three of the theories discussed throughout show a particular interest in the
importance of childhood with regard to sexual offending. Theoretically the basis of
sexual offending is stemmed from early childhood whereby the child is known to
have experienced emotional and physical abuse, it has been found that such
negative experiences influence adulthood relationships, this is aspect is something
which the individual cannot foresee or maintain, resulting in the interest of children.
Linking in the factor of cognitive distortions is also something that all three theorists
have proposed. They all believe that sexual offending occurs because of this factor,
the interest of forming relationships with children along with cognitive distortions
which are presented during puberty, for example as Steinberg and Sliverberg (1986)
note the frustration and anger developed by a male during puberty as a result of not
being able to develop relationships is then transferred to whatever source is
available in order to achieve a degree of satisfaction.

38. 34
However, a noted error that all three theorists fail to mention is the implications of
cultural and societal norms, something of which is an extreme importance within
today’s communities. A behaviour that may be considered acceptable within one
culture may be seen as unacceptable within another (Belcher, 2008). In future
literature this is something that would definitely acquire great strength.
It has also been found that female theories of sexual offending are considerably
different from those of the male gender. Although, it was proposed that male theories
of sexual offending can be applied to female, a study conducted by Schnitzel-
Murphy, Harris, Knight and Milburn (2009) proposed that although both women and
men engaged in sexual coercion, it was found that the models that were developed
for male offenders did not sufficiently predict the same behaviours in female
offenders. Nevertheless what can be applied to female sexual offending is the
assumption regarding early childhood abuse. It is therefore shown that although
sexual offending can occur from the negative experiences within early childhood, the
behaviours shown by male and female sexual offenders are significantly different.
The theoretical discussion of sexual offending has backed many treatment
interventions, once which seems significantly successful is that of cognitive
behavioural therapy. There is a close correlation between the negative aspects of
early childhood experiences and cognitive behavioural therapy. The focus is to
change the distorted way in which the sexual offender thinks something which has
been shown to be successful. As mentioned above SOTP is known to be one of the
most successful programmes, in the year 2009/10 the government targeted for 78%

39. 35
of sex offender treatment programmes to successfully be completed, the actual
result from this year shown that 77% of those eligible to accredit the treatment
programme successfully completed it (NOMS, 2011).
A factor which would have made this piece of research stronger, is the ability to have
accessed both male and female prisons. This would have added an account of
detail, which would have either been able to support the theories discussed
throughout, or add recommendations to the theories suggesting that they need to
focus on other aspects, something which is not known due to the level of the
research and the ethical concern. Although, the dissertation does give a critical
account the theories of sexual offending and also the assessment and treatment for
those in need.

40. 36
References
Abel, G.G., Becker, J.V., Murphy, W. D. (1981) Identifying dangerous child
molesters. In Stuart, R. B. (Ed) Violent Behaviour. New York: Brunner/Mazel
Aiken, M., Moran, M., & Berry, M. J. (2011). Child abuse material and the Internet:
Cyberpsychology of online child related sex offending. In 29th meeting of the
INTERPOL Specialist Group on Crimes against Children, Lyons, France, September
(pp. 5-7).
Akers, R. L. & Sellars, C. S. (2004) Criminological theories: Introduction,
evaluation and application. 4th Ed. California: Roxbury Publishing Company.
Allgeier, E. R. & Lamping, J. C. (1998) Theories, politics and sexual coercion. In
Anderson, P. B & Struckman-Johnson, C. (Eds) Sexually aggressive women:
Current perspectives and controversies. New York: The Guildford Press
Anderson, P. B. (1998) Women’s motives for sexual initiation and aggression. In
Anderson, P. B & Struckman-Johnson, C. (Eds) Sexually aggressive women:
Current perspectives and controversies. New York: The Guildford Press
Atkinson, J. L. (1996) Female sexual offenders: A literature review. Forum on
Corrections Research. 8 (2) pp. 39-42

41. 37
Bandura, A., & Adams, N. E. (1977). Analysis of self-efficacy theory of behavioural
change. Cognitive therapy and research, 1 (4), pp. 287-310.
Beech, A., Beckett, R. C., & Fisher, D. (1998). STEP 3: An evaluation of the prison
sex offender treatment programme. London: Home Office.
Beech, A. R., & Ward, T. (2004). The integration of etiology and risk in sexual
offenders: A theoretical framework. Aggression and Violent Behaviour, 10 (1), pp.
31-63.
Belcher, L. (2008) A Critical Evaluation of the Sex Offender Treatment Programmes
used in Prisons. [WWW] Available from:
http://www.internetjournalofcriminology.com/Belcher%20-
%20A%20Critical%20Evaluation%20of%20Sex%20Offender%20Treatment%20Prog
rammes%20used%20in%20Prisons.pdf [Accessed: 15/03/2015]
Bowlby, J (1969) Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1, Attachment. New York: Basic Books
Brown, J, D. & Rodgers, T, S. (2002) Doing Second Language Research. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Bunting, L. (2005). Females who sexually offend against children: Responses of the
child protection and criminal justice systems. London: NSPCC.

42. 38
Cardinal Wilfrid Napier. (2013) 'Paedophilia is illness'. [ONLINE] Available at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-21810692. [Accessed 10 December 14].
Chesney-Lind, M. (1989) Girls, crime and women’s place: Toward a feminist model
of female delinquency. Crime and Delinquency, 35 (1), pp. 5-29.
Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (2013) Threat Assessment of
Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse. [WWW] Available from:
http://ceop.police.uk/Documents/ceopdocs/CEOP_TACSEA2013_240613%20FINAL
.pdf [Accessed: 05/03/15]
Cohen, M. L., Seghom, T. K. and Calmas, W. (1969). Sociometric study of sex
offenders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 74 pp. 249-255.
Cortoni, F. (2009) Violence and women offenders. In Barker, J. (Ed) Women and
the criminal justice system: A Canadian perspective. Toronto: Edmond Montgomery.
Dawson, C. (2002) Practical Research Methods - A User-friendly Guide to Mastering
Research Techniques and Projects. Oxford: How To Books Ltd.
Editoral (2000) Help hunt for Sarah. News of the World, 16th July. P, 6.
Elliott, M. (1993). What survivors tell us: An overview. In M. Elliott (Ed.), Female
sexual abuse of children. New York: The Guilford Press.

43. 39
Feeney, J. A. & Noller, P. (1990) Attachment style as a predictor of adult romantic
relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 58 (2), pp. 281-291
Finkelhor, D. (1984) Child Sexual Abuse: New Theory and Research. New York:
Free Press
Finkelhor, D. (2007). Prevention of sexual abuse through educational programs
directed toward children. Paediatrics, 120 (3), pp. 640-645
Finkelhor, D. (2009) The Prevention of Childhood Sexual Abuse [WWW] Available
from: http://www.unh.edu/ccrc/pdf/CV192.pdf [Accessed: 26/03/15]
Ford, H. (2006). Women who sexually abuse children. Chichester: Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Theresa Gannon , Rebecca Terriere & Tirza Leader (2012) Ward and Siegert's
Pathways Model of child sexual offending: a cluster analysis evaluation. Psychology,
Crime & Law, 18, (2), pp. 129-153.
Gannon, T. A. & Cortoni, F (2010) (Eds) Female sexual offenders: Theory,
Assessment and Treatment. Chichester; Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Gannon, T. A. & Rose, M. R. (2008) Female child sexual offenders: Towards
integrating theory and practice. Aggression and Violent Behaviour. 13 (6), pp. 442-
461

44. 40
Gannon, T., Terriere, R., & Leader, T. (2012). Ward and Siegert's Pathways Model
of child sexual offending: a cluster analysis evaluation. Psychology, Crime & Law, 18
(2), pp.129-153.
Greetham, B. (2014) How to Write Your Undergraduate Dissertation. 2nd ed.
Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan
Guttmacher M, Weihofen, H. (1951) Sex Offenses: The Problem, Causes And
Prevention. New York, Norton.
Hammer, R. F. & Glueck, B.C. (1957) Jr: Psychodynamic patterns in sex offenders:
A four-factor theory. Psychiatr Q, 31 (2), pp. 325-345.
Hetherton, J. (1999). The idealisation of women: Its role in the minimisation of child
sexual abuse by females. Child Abuse and Neglect, 23 (2), pp. 161−174.
Hudson, S. M., Ward, T. & McCormack (1999). Offence pathways in sexual
offenders. Joumal of Interpersonal Violence.14, pp. 779-798.
Hunter, J. A. & Matthews, R. (1997) Sexual deviance in females. In Laws, R. D &
O’Donodhue, W. (Eds) Sexual deviance: Theory, assessment and treatment. New
York: The Guildford Press
Kalmar, D. A. & Sternberg, R. J. (1998) Theory knitting: an integrative approach to
theory development. Philosophical Psychology, 1 (2), pp. 153-170

45. 41
Knight, R. A. and Prentky, R. A. (1990).Classifying sexual offenders:The
development and corroboration of taxonomic models. In Marshall, W, L., Laws, D.
R. & Barbaree, H. E. (Eds.), Handbook of sexual assault: Issues, theories and
treatment of the offender. New York: Plenum.
Kolb, B. and Whisaw, I. Q. (1995). Fundamentals of human neuropsychology, 4th
ed, New York: W. H. Freeman & Co.
Lamb, M, E., Gaensbauter, T. J., Malkin, C. M. & Schultuz, L. A. (1985) The
effects of child maltreatment on security of infant-adult attachment. Infant Behaviour
and Development. 8 (1), pp.35-45
Laws, D. R., & O'Donohue, W. T. (2008). (Eds.). Sexual deviance: Theory,
assessment, and treatment. Guilford Press.
Lilly, J. R., Cullen, F. T. & Ball, R. A. (1995) Criminological theory: Context and
consequences. 2nd Ed. Newbury Park: Sage.
Loss, P. & Glancy, E. (1983) Men who sexually abuse their children. Med Aspect
Hum Sex 17 pp. 323-329,
Marshall, W. L. (1999). Current status of North American assessment and treatment
programs for sexual offenders. Journal of lnterpersonal Violence,14, pp. 221-239.

46. 42
Marshall, W. L., & Barbaree, H. E. (1990). An integrated theory of the etiology of
sexual offending. United States: Springer.
Marshall, W. L. & Laws, D. (2003) A brief history of behavioural and cognitive
behaviours approaches to sexual offenders: Part 2. The Modern era. Sexual abuse:
A Journal of Research and Treatment, 15 (2), pp. 93-120
Matthews, R., Matthews, J. A. & Speltz, K. (1989) Female sexual offenders: An
exploratory study. Orwell: Safer Society Press.
McAlinden, A. M. (2005). The use of ‘shame’ with sexual offenders. British Journal
of Criminology, 45 (3), pp. 373-394.
McGuire, R. J., Carlisle, J. M. & Young, B.G. (1965) Sexual deviations and
conditioned behaviour: a hypothesis. Behaviour, Research & Therapy, 2 pp. 185-
190,
Middleton, D. (2008). From Research to Practice: The Development of the Internet
Sex Offender Treatment Programme (i-SOTP). Irish Probation Journal, 5 , pp. 49-65.
Miller, J. (2002) One of the guys: Girls, gangs and gender. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Morrison, T., Erooga, M & Beckett, R. C. (1994) Sexual Offending Agaisnt
Children: Assessment and Treatment of Male Abusers. London: Routledge

47. 43
NOMS (2011) National Offender Management Service Annual Report 2009/10:
Management Information Addendum. London: Ministry of Justice.
Pennington, B. F. (2002) The development of psychopathology: Nature and nurture.
New York: Guilford Press
Russell, D. E. H. (1984) Sexual Exploitation: Rape, Child Sexual Abuse, Sexual
Harassment. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.
Saradijan, J. (1996) Women who sexually abuse children: From research to clinical
practice. Chichester: Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Sarrel, P. M. & Masters, W. H. (1982) Sexual molestation of men by women.
Archives of Sexual Behaviour. 11 (2), pp. 117-131
Schnitzel-Murphy, E. A., Harris, D. A., Knight, R. A. & Milburn, M. A. (2009) Sexual
coercion in men and women: Similar behaviours, different predictors. Archives of
Sexual Behaviour. 38 (6) pp. 974-986.
Science Daily (2015) Amygdala [WWW] Available from:
http://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/amygdala.htm [Accessed: 15/03/2015]
Shumba, A. (2004). Male sexual abuse by female and male perpetrators in
Zimbabwean schools. Child Abuse Review, 13 (5) pp. 353−359.

48. 44
Smith, K., Todd, M & Waldman, J. (2009) Doing Your Undergraduate Social
Science Dissertation. Oxon: Routledge
Steinberg, L. & Sliverberg, S. B. (1986) The vicissitudes of autonomy in early
adolescence. Child Development. 57 pp. 841-851
Strongman, K. T. (1996). The psychology of emotion: Theories of emotion in
perspective, 4th ed. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
Storr, A. (1965) Sexual Deviation. London: Heineman,
Thakker, J., & Ward, T. (2012). An integrated theory of sexual reoffending.
Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 19 (2), pp. 236-248.
The Paedophile Next Door. (2014). The Paedophile Next Door. [Online Video]. 25
November. Available from: http://www.channel4.com/programmes/the-paedophile-
next-door. [Accessed: 08 December 2014].
Ward, T. (2002) Marshall and barbaree's integrated theory of child sexual abuse: A
Critique. Psychology, Crime & Law, 8 (3), pp. 209-228
Ward, T & Gannon, T, A. (2005) Rehabilitation, etiology, and self-regulation: The
comprehensive good lives model of treatment for sexual offenders. Aggression and
Violent Behaviour, 11, pp. 77–94

49. 45
Ward, T & Hudson, S. (1998) The construction and development of theory in the
sexual offending area: A metatheoretical framework. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of
Research and Treatment. 10 (8), pp. 47-63
Ward, T., Hudson, S.M., Marshall, W.L., & Siegert, R. (1995). Attachment style
and intimacy deficits in sex offenders: A theoretical framework. Sexual Abuse: A
Journal of Research and Treatment, 7, pp. 317–335.
Ward, T., Mann, R. E., & Gannon, T. A. (2007).The good lives model of offender
rehabilitation: Clinical implications. Aggression and Violent Behaviour, 12 (1), pp. 87-
107
Ward, T & Siegert, R. J. (2002) Toward a comprehensive theory of child sexual
abuse: A theory knitting perspective. Psychology, Crime & Law, 8 (4), pp. 319-351
Wenet, F. A., Clark, T. R. & Hunner, R. J. (1981) Perspectives on the juvenile sex
offender, in Exploring the Relationship Between Child Abuse and Delinquency. New
York: Allanheld, Osmun & Co.
Widom, C. S. (1997). Child abuse, neglect, and witnessing violence. In Stoff, D. M.,
Breiling, J. & Maser, J. D. (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behaviour. NY: Wiley.
White, R. & Haines, F. (1996) Crime and criminology: An introduction. Melbourne:
Oxford University Press.

50. 46
Wolfers, O. (1993) The paradox of women who sexually abuse children. In Elliot, M.
(Ed) Female sexual abuse of children: The ultimate taboo. London: Wiley & Sons
Ltd.