Effective Teachers An Investigation from The Perspectives of .docxSALU18
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Effective Teachers: An Investigation from The Perspectives of Elementary School Students
Jludith F. E-vans
Manhattan C'ollege
Abstract
The topic of effective teachers is of significance to the fiei'd of teacher education as well as to the entire
education community While an abundance of research oi this subject identifies findings from adult
viewpoints, this qualitative study uses ethnographic interviews with fijth grade studen7ts to eramine the
characteristics of effective teachersfrom the perspectives qf children, the consumers in education.
Categories of characteristics and themes Jbund in the descriptive data of transcripts reveal the way
children define effective teachers and identify their skills, knowledge, and dispositions. Implications
fir the goals and content of teacher education programs are discu.ssed. Based on findings from this study,
the author argues in support of including the voices of children in the research arena. The article concludes
that in an age of technolog,y, elementary school students ietain a humanistic vision of teaching and learning.
Introduction
The goal of teacher education is to prepare effective teachers who are able to facilitate learning for all students. The
various aspects of becoming an effective teacher are topics intro(duced in the Elementary Education Program at Manhattan
College in Riverdale, NY, when students first begin their teacher preparation. This subject is revisited throughout the
program as understandings are modified as a result of course worlk and field experiences.
Manhattan College, a small LaSallian Catholic liberal arts college, is located in the heart of Community School
District 10, the largest of New York City's 32 school districts. This is a diverse, multicultural district serving 41,000 students,
from 108 countries in 44 schools (Community. 1999-2000). The Program has a commitment to prepare effective teachers
able to work in urban multicultural environments in the 21st Century. Many of our students have come from Catholic schools
and some seek teaching positions in Catholic schools after graduation. However, in recent years. most of the students have
pursued jobs in both urban and suburban public schools. District I 0 and neighboring suburban communities are the contexts
in which students in the Manhattan College Elementary Education Program receive their teacher preparation.
Conceptual Frame/Rationiale for the Study
Teacher effectiveness has become a standard for teacher preparation (Saphier & Gower, 1987; Wonig & Wong, 1998;
Myers & Myers, 1995), a basis for staff development (Danielson, 1996), and a guideline for teacher evaluation (Flores, 1999).
tn fact, the topic has been of such interest to the education community since the middle of the twentieth century that there has
been an abundance of research on teacher effectiveness from different perspectives.
Researchers have studied teacher behaviors in relation to student achievement. They have found that students
a ...
Effective Teachers An Investigation from The Perspectives of .docxSALU18
Â
Effective Teachers: An Investigation from The Perspectives of Elementary School Students
Jludith F. E-vans
Manhattan C'ollege
Abstract
The topic of effective teachers is of significance to the fiei'd of teacher education as well as to the entire
education community While an abundance of research oi this subject identifies findings from adult
viewpoints, this qualitative study uses ethnographic interviews with fijth grade studen7ts to eramine the
characteristics of effective teachersfrom the perspectives qf children, the consumers in education.
Categories of characteristics and themes Jbund in the descriptive data of transcripts reveal the way
children define effective teachers and identify their skills, knowledge, and dispositions. Implications
fir the goals and content of teacher education programs are discu.ssed. Based on findings from this study,
the author argues in support of including the voices of children in the research arena. The article concludes
that in an age of technolog,y, elementary school students ietain a humanistic vision of teaching and learning.
Introduction
The goal of teacher education is to prepare effective teachers who are able to facilitate learning for all students. The
various aspects of becoming an effective teacher are topics intro(duced in the Elementary Education Program at Manhattan
College in Riverdale, NY, when students first begin their teacher preparation. This subject is revisited throughout the
program as understandings are modified as a result of course worlk and field experiences.
Manhattan College, a small LaSallian Catholic liberal arts college, is located in the heart of Community School
District 10, the largest of New York City's 32 school districts. This is a diverse, multicultural district serving 41,000 students,
from 108 countries in 44 schools (Community. 1999-2000). The Program has a commitment to prepare effective teachers
able to work in urban multicultural environments in the 21st Century. Many of our students have come from Catholic schools
and some seek teaching positions in Catholic schools after graduation. However, in recent years. most of the students have
pursued jobs in both urban and suburban public schools. District I 0 and neighboring suburban communities are the contexts
in which students in the Manhattan College Elementary Education Program receive their teacher preparation.
Conceptual Frame/Rationiale for the Study
Teacher effectiveness has become a standard for teacher preparation (Saphier & Gower, 1987; Wonig & Wong, 1998;
Myers & Myers, 1995), a basis for staff development (Danielson, 1996), and a guideline for teacher evaluation (Flores, 1999).
tn fact, the topic has been of such interest to the education community since the middle of the twentieth century that there has
been an abundance of research on teacher effectiveness from different perspectives.
Researchers have studied teacher behaviors in relation to student achievement. They have found that students
a ...
please based on the first section of the paper and edit this sec.docxcherry686017
Â
please based on the first section of the paper and edit this second section to fit the influence of the paper. here is the criteria that the paper will be graded
Section intro
Topic sentences
Evidence
Transitions (in and within paragraph)
So whats
Surface Features
Grammar
Spelling
Commas
Word use
APA
so, please feel free to add to the second section from the references or add what you see is appropriate to add even from different articles.
First section:
A democratic education means an education free from any discrimination based on class, physical fitness, mental fitness, and race. Danforth (2001) explored the extent to which Deweyan perspective on democracy has been adopted in matters of special education. He explored several cases where this democratic perspective has been used to make decisions. The result of this conclusion is that the Deweyan perspective on democracy has influenced so many decisions that have been made concerning special needs education. This study explores the Deweyan perspective in relation to special education. This study shows how much democracy has been adopted in special education. On other hand, Stone et al (2016) analyzed Deweyâs philosophy and the part it plays in special education. Deweyâs philosophy encourages inclusivity which is a very important factor in special education. Inclusivity in children with special needs makes them feel appreciated as members of the larger community. This study outlines the aspects of equality and democracy in education. In this literature this study shows that disability is how we define it in order to achieve democracy in education, and how democracy in special education can be achieved.
When discussing the educational system, researchers seek justice within the schools as a part of representing the democratic values in education. In this study, Minton and Sullivan (2013) aimed at exploring the system of justice in schools to determine how much transformational leadership was applied especially in regard to students with special needs. With a sample of respondents from 26 schools and through surveys and interviewing methods, they embarked on their research. The result of this research was that the adoption of transformative leadership depended on the behavior and nature of the leaders in the school. This study is addressed in this paper because it shows to what extent transformative leadership has included students with special needs. This paper could represent the roots of how we reform the educational system in Saudi Arabia, and trying to connect this study to shape the educational vision 2030 of Saudi Arabia.
In Einarsdittir et al (2015) study they explored how the Nordic policies concerning early childhood education supported the creation of important values such as democracy, caring, and competence in children. According to Einarsdittir et al (2015) it is through education that children learn values to assist them in life. The policies in Nordic ECECs shape values .
Quest in education January 2019 ISSN: 0048-6434VIBHUTI PATEL
Â
We request authors to send their original research-based articles and book reviews on issues concerning education. As Quest in Education publishes peer-reviewed articles, the authors should be ready to wait for seeing their article in print.
Cosee manuscript for national journal on teacher learningWilliam Kritsonis
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Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Established 1982). Dr. Kritsonis earned his PhD from The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; M.Ed., Seattle Pacific University; Seattle, Washington; BA Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. He was also named as the Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies at Central Washington University.
What is good teaching? Who is a good teacher? The search for the answers to these questions has become for teacher education a search for an educational Holy Grail. While appearing to be deceptively simple and seductively straightforward, these questions have instigated an enduring and ever-multiplying research tradition as well as a many sided international conversation involving practitioners, theorists, social scientists, teacher educators and faculty developers at all levels, administrators, and students.
Source: https://ebookschoice.com/the-search-for-an-educational-holy-grail/
The Mismatch between EAP Teachersâ Beliefs and Classroom Practices toward For...AJHSSR Journal
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ABSTRACT: Beliefs are formed through personal experiences and the interactions that individuals are involved in daily life (Hsieh, 2002). These beliefs can be transformed into attitudes, which in turn affect intentions, and decisions are formed through the intentions that lead to the action (Bauch,1984). The match or mismatch between instructorsâ beliefs and practices, between instructorsâ cognitions and their authentic practices in the classroom are two main fields of the teaching process (Clark & Peterson, 1986). However, teachers may not always apply what they believe in the classroom. This study aims to reveal the discrepancy between what they believe theoretically and what they do in the classroom. To this end, three instruments were used in this study: (1) classroom observations, (2) semi-structured interviews, and (3) a questionnaire. The
please based on the first section of the paper and edit this sec.docxcherry686017
Â
please based on the first section of the paper and edit this second section to fit the influence of the paper. here is the criteria that the paper will be graded
Section intro
Topic sentences
Evidence
Transitions (in and within paragraph)
So whats
Surface Features
Grammar
Spelling
Commas
Word use
APA
so, please feel free to add to the second section from the references or add what you see is appropriate to add even from different articles.
First section:
A democratic education means an education free from any discrimination based on class, physical fitness, mental fitness, and race. Danforth (2001) explored the extent to which Deweyan perspective on democracy has been adopted in matters of special education. He explored several cases where this democratic perspective has been used to make decisions. The result of this conclusion is that the Deweyan perspective on democracy has influenced so many decisions that have been made concerning special needs education. This study explores the Deweyan perspective in relation to special education. This study shows how much democracy has been adopted in special education. On other hand, Stone et al (2016) analyzed Deweyâs philosophy and the part it plays in special education. Deweyâs philosophy encourages inclusivity which is a very important factor in special education. Inclusivity in children with special needs makes them feel appreciated as members of the larger community. This study outlines the aspects of equality and democracy in education. In this literature this study shows that disability is how we define it in order to achieve democracy in education, and how democracy in special education can be achieved.
When discussing the educational system, researchers seek justice within the schools as a part of representing the democratic values in education. In this study, Minton and Sullivan (2013) aimed at exploring the system of justice in schools to determine how much transformational leadership was applied especially in regard to students with special needs. With a sample of respondents from 26 schools and through surveys and interviewing methods, they embarked on their research. The result of this research was that the adoption of transformative leadership depended on the behavior and nature of the leaders in the school. This study is addressed in this paper because it shows to what extent transformative leadership has included students with special needs. This paper could represent the roots of how we reform the educational system in Saudi Arabia, and trying to connect this study to shape the educational vision 2030 of Saudi Arabia.
In Einarsdittir et al (2015) study they explored how the Nordic policies concerning early childhood education supported the creation of important values such as democracy, caring, and competence in children. According to Einarsdittir et al (2015) it is through education that children learn values to assist them in life. The policies in Nordic ECECs shape values .
Quest in education January 2019 ISSN: 0048-6434VIBHUTI PATEL
Â
We request authors to send their original research-based articles and book reviews on issues concerning education. As Quest in Education publishes peer-reviewed articles, the authors should be ready to wait for seeing their article in print.
Cosee manuscript for national journal on teacher learningWilliam Kritsonis
Â
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD - Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Established 1982). Dr. Kritsonis earned his PhD from The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; M.Ed., Seattle Pacific University; Seattle, Washington; BA Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. He was also named as the Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies at Central Washington University.
What is good teaching? Who is a good teacher? The search for the answers to these questions has become for teacher education a search for an educational Holy Grail. While appearing to be deceptively simple and seductively straightforward, these questions have instigated an enduring and ever-multiplying research tradition as well as a many sided international conversation involving practitioners, theorists, social scientists, teacher educators and faculty developers at all levels, administrators, and students.
Source: https://ebookschoice.com/the-search-for-an-educational-holy-grail/
The Mismatch between EAP Teachersâ Beliefs and Classroom Practices toward For...AJHSSR Journal
Â
ABSTRACT: Beliefs are formed through personal experiences and the interactions that individuals are involved in daily life (Hsieh, 2002). These beliefs can be transformed into attitudes, which in turn affect intentions, and decisions are formed through the intentions that lead to the action (Bauch,1984). The match or mismatch between instructorsâ beliefs and practices, between instructorsâ cognitions and their authentic practices in the classroom are two main fields of the teaching process (Clark & Peterson, 1986). However, teachers may not always apply what they believe in the classroom. This study aims to reveal the discrepancy between what they believe theoretically and what they do in the classroom. To this end, three instruments were used in this study: (1) classroom observations, (2) semi-structured interviews, and (3) a questionnaire. The
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
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Francesca Gottschalk from the OECDâs Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
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Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
⢠The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
⢠The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate âany matterâ at âany timeâ under House Rule X.
⢠The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
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Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
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Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
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Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
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Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
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Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
MASS MEDIA STUDIES-835-CLASS XI Resource Material.pdf
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A Critical Analysis Of Philosophies Of Education And INTASC Standards In Teacher Preparation
1. International Journal of Critical Pedagogy, Vol 3 (2) (2010) pp 36-46
Š2010 International Journal of Critical Pedagogy
A Critical Analysis of Philosophies of
Education and INTASC Standards in
Teacher Preparation
by
Glenda Moss & Cheu-jey Lee
The establishment of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards in
1987 and the Interstate New Teachers Assessment and Support Consortium (IN-
TASC) in 1992 called for the development of performance-based assessment for
teacher certiication. This paralleled the development of curriculum standards and
standardized achievement testing in K-12 educational settings. It has been our
experience as teacher educators that these developments have resulted in many
teachers adopting the perspective that standards control what and how they teach.
Some teachers and pre-service teachers in our classes have expressed that these
educational policies force teachers to adopt an essentialist perspective, which re-
sults in a renewed emphasis on reading, writing, and arithmetic (Bagley, 1934,
1938). As teacher educators, we are concerned because these practices exclude
the possibility of a more constructivist perspective offered by progressivismâ
one that is grounded in John Deweyâs (1916) democratic theories, and in Paulo
Freireâs (2003) critical literacy theory, which we believe promote a more inclusive
educational experience. Instead, pre-service teachers resist our practices to intro-
duce them to critical literacy theory and request more practical teaching strategies
that prepare children from success on standardized tests.
Mossâs (2007, in press) work indicates oneâs educational philosophy, and not
external standards, determines how a teacher teaches. In an attempt to verify this
notion, we have provided pre-service teachers with a forum to critically examine
2. Education and INTASC Standards in Teacher Preparation ⢠37
the INTASC standards by applying what they had learned about essentialism, per-
ennialism, progressivism, and critical theory. Our goal was to have students real-
ize that critical pedagogy is a viable philosophical stance that can guide them in
their professional decision-making concerning curriculum and instruction, even
in the face of essentialist state and national legislations, such as No Child Left
Behind (NCLB).
Critical Inquiry in Teaching and Research
Although we are not social activists in the Marxist sense that McLaren promotes,
we have both been inspired by critical theory (Carspecken, 1996). Glenda, a white
female, came to this theory by way of her thirteen years of middle school teaching
practice with African American students in a Title 1 school: She would encourage
her middle school students to critique the Texas state language arts test for the ways
it privileged conventional English dialects and marginalized her studentsâ African
American dialects, as was evidenced by the answers that âsounded rightâ to students
of each dialect. Her students grew in understanding of their culture and language
and gained skills to choose the dialectical answers that would produce a success-
ful achievement score. Only later, when she read critical texts during her doctoral
program, was Glenda able to connect what she had been doing with her students
to critical pedagogy (Moss, 2004). As Glenda pursued her studies, she saw a gap
between university scholars and multicultural education classes (Moss, 2001), and
what classroom teachers do in practice, and began to ask how she could translate
critical pedagogy in preparing teachers for practice in middle and high schools.
Cheu-jey joined the teacher education faculty in the fall 2007 and began to
teach one section of the critical reading in the content areas class. Glenda asked
him to review her syllabus with his critical theoretical perspective and knowledge
from his recent doctoral studies in literacy (Lee, 2009) to engage with her in inter-
subjective dialogue. This drew Cheu-jey and Glenda into a collaborative teaching
and research partnership that focuses on critical pedagogical development in the
program.
As teacher educators interested in preparing teachers to address the complex
issues presented by a multicultural society as a form of critical pedagogy, it is
important for us to continuously ask how to move our teacher education practices,
such as portfolio assessment, to a level of critical self-relection (Breault, 2003;
Freire, 2003; Moss, 2003) that frees pre-service teachers from tacit assumptions
that may stile their ability to build multicultural learning communities in their
classrooms. Portfolio assessment promotes relection on learning experiences (An-
derson & DeMuelle, 1998; Camp, 1998; Moss, 2003; Murphy, 1998), but without
critiquing the INTASC standards (1992) and oneâs philosophy of teaching that re-
lection may reproduce traditional teaching practices and the status quo in society.
This raises the critical question for teacher educators as to how we can pre-
pare pre-service teachers with other philosophical education options and the skills
3. 38 ⢠International Journal of Critical Pedagogy
to actualize critical pedagogy if that is the action they want to take as profes-
sional teachers. We constantly ask if our curriculum and instruction results in the
development of pedagogy toward the goal of preparing pre-service teachers to
become âmore caring, humane, and functional citizens in a global, multicultural,
democratic societyâ (School of Education, 1996, p. 3), which is one part of the
mission of the program in which we teach.
Contextualizing the Study
At all levels of American education, there is a tension between critical theoretical
frameworks and what appears to us as an essentialist interpretation of national and
state accreditation systems: In P-12 schools, administrators often rely on the re-
sults of their Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) assessment to gauge their schoolâs
success. Consequently, many teachers decide that they should âteach to the testâ
through essentialistic practices.
Pre-service teachers in our program are introduced to four theories in their
educational foundations course during their irst block of education classes: es-
sentialism, perennialism, progressivism, and critical theory.
Essentialism
Essentialism, according to Bagley (1934, 1938), calls for a renewed emphasis on
reading, writing, and arithmetic. Advocates of essentialism believe that schools
should equip students with the basic academic skills to survive in society. Teach-
ers are supposed to transmit knowledge to students who usually play a passive
role in the process of learning. Standardized testing is seen by essentialists as
an ideal benchmark for assessing students and holding teachers accountable for
student achievement.
Perennialism
Like essentialism, perennialism places a great emphasis on the roles teachers
play in teaching and learning. Perennialists argue that teachers are more know-
ledgeable than students who are incompletely formed human beings. Therefore,
teachers should assume the authority and command in the classroom. In addi-
tion, Hutchins (1936), a strong advocate of perennialism, argued that â[e]duca-
tion implies teaching. Teaching implies knowledge. Knowledge is truth. Truth is
everywhere the same. Hence, education should be everywhere the sameâ (p. 66).
Consequently, all students are supposed to pursue the same curriculum regardless
of individual differences.
Progressivism
Progressivism, in direct contrast to essentialism and perennialism, advocates a
student-centered education. It is based on John Deweyâs (1916) theory of educa-
tion, which explores the relationship between democracy and education. Dewey
4. Education and INTASC Standards in Teacher Preparation ⢠39
believed that democracy is a way of life. In a democratic society, people should
work cooperatively to solve the problems and schools are responsible for equip-
ping students with the problem-solving ability. Progressivists argue that schools
are miniature societies and should focus on real-life problems students face in
school or will face in the future. Therefore, education should revolve around au-
thentic activity in a social setting and cater to student needs.
Critical Theory
Parallel with progressivism, critical theory puts students in the center of educa-
tion. Critical theorists even take a step further and argue that our society, includ-
ing the educational system, is brimming with oppressions and injustices. Critical
theoristsâ educational agenda includes not only helping students acquire know-
ledge, but also making them aware of power and politics. As a result, educa-
tion is supposed to empower the marginalized and transform social inequalities
(McLaren, 1997). We hold a critical theory philosophy and hope educators act
as social activists and change agents that have an impact both on their students
and society as a whole. We are conscious that this is a political perspective that
is counter to the politics of de-skilling teachers through standardization (Apple,
1988; Apple & Teitelbaum, 1986).
The following semester, we engaged the same pre-service teachers in critical
reading classes. In these classes, we observe that many students feel a sense of
entrapment: On the one hand, after reading Savage Inequalities (Kozol, 1991)
and short readings about critical theory, they are inspired to teach for social jus-
tice. On the other hand, they are very conscious of the pressure of standardized
testing and think they have to be essentialists to get and keep a job since their
studentsâ achievement scores are the measure of their effectiveness as educators.
Consequently, many think that their hands are tied. We believe it is imperative that
we address this issue and imagine with our students another perspectiveâa praxis
that includes becoming critical pedagogues who relect on curriculum standards,
multicultural issues, diverse learning styles, and the politics of high-stakes testing
and tracking in schools.
Students are then given an introductory course to explain how portfolios
work and how they are assessed. As they begin preparing their teaching port-
folios, many students believe that they should be standardized (Moss, 2003). They
start by writing a philosophy of education statement. In it, students are required to
explain the four major philosophies and explain how each informs their personal
philosophy. The pre-service teachers then designed units of study, taught lessons
in a ield experience, and reexamined the philosophies to determine which one
best framed their beginning practice. As a inal experience in the Critical Reading
in the Content Areas class, the students were divided into four different groupsâ
Essentialist, Perennialist, Progressivist, and Social Reconstructivist. Each group
examined all ten INTASC standards (which are listed in Appendix A) through
their assigned philosophical lens. The students charted their discussions on large
5. 40 ⢠International Journal of Critical Pedagogy
tablets of paper and presented their analyses to the whole class. We then analyzed
their discussion narratives from a classroom learning activity.
Our thinking was that if a teacherâs philosophical perspective does not mat-
ter and it is external standards that drive a personâs teaching practices, then this
would result in a consistent view on standards across the four groupsâ perspec-
tives. However, if a personâs philosophical perspective does matter and does in
fact drive what one does in their practice, different philosophical orientations
would lead to different interpretations of each INTASC standard, most of the stan-
dards, or some of the standards.
Analysis of Pre-service Teachersâ Narratives
To date, a total of 62 pre-services teachers have participated in the study: 31 pre-
service teachers in the fall 2007, nine in the spring 2008, and 22 in the fall 2008.
Appendix A summarizes our analysis of the narratives collected from these three
semesters. It is not dificult to see that the interpretations of each standard are dif-
ferent across all four different philosophical perspectives. For example, the irst
(INTASC, 1992) standard is concerned with subject knowledge: It states that âthe
pre-service teacher should understand the central concepts, tools of inquiry and
structures of the discipline(s) he or she teaches, and can create learning experi-
ences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for studentsâ (p. 14).
Simply put, the irst standard is concerned with subject knowledge. The groups
that used an essentialist perspective believed that a teacherâs subject knowledge
would be demonstrated if they taught the core curriculum that is mandated by
their state for K-12 schools. The students using a perennialist approach believed
that if a teacher taught classics such as Shakespeare, then they are demonstrating
core subject knowledge. The progressivist group interpreted a teacherâs subject
knowledge as knowledge that is informed by multiple perspectives, including
those of their students. Finally, the critical theory group argued that subject know-
ledge goes well beyond our traditional view. In fact, the four groups differ at least
slightly on their interpretations of all ten INTASC standards. Consequently, our
analysis shows that the philosophy which pre-service teachers believe does have
an impact on how they perceive and enact educational standards.
However, through our narrative analysis, we also observed that the critical
theory groupsâ interpretations are more closely aligned with the progressivist
groupsâ interpretations than with the essentialist and perennialist groupsâ inter-
pretations. Take the second standard, which is concerned with a teacherâs under-
standing of human development, as an example: According to those using a critic-
al theory lens, a teacher should view studentsâ culture as important. Similarly, the
progressivist group stated that a teacher should acknowledge that there is indi-
vidual variation in the way that students approach learning and a teacherâs focus
should be on their studentsâ strengths. In contrast, the essentialist and perennialist
groups had much more traditional views of studentsâ development that emphasize
6. Education and INTASC Standards in Teacher Preparation ⢠41
the importance of teachers getting through their prepared material and lesson plan
at the cost of studentsâ learning needs. Some teachers reported that their Districts
told them what page(s) they must cover each day in preparation for a standardized
test. This pattern further conirmed that a teacherâs philosophical perspective does
affect how they perceive and use standards.
Critical Incident
Across the four groups from the three semesters that are part of this study, the
pre-service teachersânarrative analyses of the INTASC standards were consistent,
except for the two students who used the progressivist lens during the spring 2007
semester. This pair stood out from the two other progressivist groups because they
challenged us to consider the complexity of adopting a philosophical lens that is
not aligned with oneâs own perspective. Glenda perceived that Sam (pseudonym),
one of the two pre-service teachers in question, came to her Critical Reading
Class with an essentialist perspective and over a half of a century of life experi-
ence aligned with essentialism, yet Sam chose to analyze the INTASC standards
through a progressivist lens with a partner. Sam tended to dominate the other
pre-service teacher during the activity, skewing the results towards Samâs per-
spective. Despite the progressivist lens that they were supposed to employ for the
assignment, their analysis showed relections of Samâs essentialist perspective.
This was particularly evident in their interpretations of standard three, Adapting
Instruction, and standard four, Instructional Strategies.
Their narrative analyses for these two standards consisted of six words:
âPresent topic using variety of strategies.â It is clear that Sam lifted those words
directly from standard four, which states: âThe pre-service teacher understands
and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage studentsâ development
of critical thinking, problem solving, and performance skillsâ (INTASC, 1992,
p. 20). Their analysis of INTASC standard ive, Motivation and Learning En-
vironment was also disjointed. This standard states: âThe pre-service teacher
uses an understanding of individual and group motivation and behavior to create
a learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active en-
gagement in learning, and self-motivationâ (INTASC, 1992, p. 22) The pairâs
interpretation was âUse group competition in a positive way.â Samâs partner did
not disagree. Interestingly, the term âcompetitionâ never appears in the extended
text concerning this standard. We believe that its inclusion perhaps reveals their
essentialist interpretation of âindividual and group motivation and behavior,â
which is part of the INTASC Standard Five principle. In this case, we judge that
they imposed their essentialist perspective not only on the INTASC standard, but
on progressivist philosophy as well. This is consistent with our critical analysis
that standards themselves do not drive what teachers believe, but teachersâ philo-
sophical perspectives drive their teaching actions in relationship to curriculum
and instruction.
7. 42 ⢠International Journal of Critical Pedagogy
Lessons Learned and Implications for Practice
We constantly encourage pre-service teachers to become scholar-practitioners,
examining their instructional strategies and studentsâ responses for evidence of
critical learning. We stress the importance of using the knowledge they gain to in-
form lesson plans. We expect the same scholarly practice of ourselves and present
the lessons we have learned from examining pre-service teachersâ responses to
critical texts and learning activities.
Standards Are Not Dictates that Control Teaching Practices
In the wake of NCLB, too often classroom teachers give up their imagination and
creative thinking capacity for routines that lead to memorization, formulaic writ-
ing, and computations. Such practice may be driven by an essentialist perspective.
There is evidence that an essentialist philosophy would view the core subject mat-
ter to be that which K-12 students will be tested on standardized tests. A more pro-
gressive philosophy would allow for multiple perspectives, use prior knowledge,
and engage students in generating knowledge. Critical teachers would engage stu-
dents to question the core content and examine how the core content advantages
some and disadvantages others. The narrative analyses suggest that teachers who
rationalize essentialist approaches to teaching are viewing through an essentialist
lens and using standardized testing to justify such practices.
Curriculum and Instruction Inluence Pre-service Teachersâ
Perspectives on Teaching
The pre-service teachersâ narrative analyses of the standards show that reading
works such as Kozolâs (1991) Savage Inequalities, Nietoâs (1999) The Light
In Their Eyes, and Ladson-Billingsâs (1995) The Dreamkeepers, help them to
develop a beginning understanding of what a critical lens might look like. We
struggle with how to engage pre-service teachers to gain this critical understand-
ing without doing it in an essentialist way. We believe that if pre-service teachers
only read literature from an essentialist or perennialist perspective, they will never
entertain critical pedagogy. Although we know that it takes more than reading
critical texts to develop critical pedagogy, exposure to critical pedagogy literacy
is an effective beginning point. Pre-service teachers can then view the same core
curriculum standards and imagine new possibilities that work to actualize democ-
racy, respect of others, and an ethic of care in community life.
Critical Analytical Skills Are Important in Developing Teachers as
Active Learners and Participants in Educational Reform
The pre-service teachersâ narrative analyses further show the importance of de-
veloping pre-service teachersâ scholarly skills, building their capacity to use
8. Education and INTASC Standards in Teacher Preparation ⢠43
scholarship to inform their teaching practices, collect and analyze narratives from
their students to determine the impact of their instructional practices on learning,
and relectively plan subsequent teaching to build student capacity to inquire and
develop their own theories.
This study models the scholar-practitioner teacher leadership ideal in that it
bridges theory and practice through an intersubjective scholarship of pre-service
teachers and teacher educators learning from educational history and from each
other in the preparation of becoming cultural workers (Freire, 2005) to shape the
future of educational history. Today is history, and education is political; there-
fore, the foundation of American education is a study of the political forces that
inluence and shape educational practices. This project opens the door to allow
pre-service teachers to actively participate in the politics of education, becoming
conscious of the ways their teaching identities are shaped by educational poli-
cies, practices and curriculum, and the ways they can act to shape the system and
society.
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10. Education and INTASC Standards in Teacher Preparation ⢠45
Appendix A: Critique of INTASC standards through the lenses of
four major educational theories.
INTASC
Standards
Essentialism Perennialism Progressivism Critical Theory
Knowledge of
Subject
Core subject
matter that
K-12 students
will be tested
on
Shakespeare ev-
ery year in high
school, cur-
riculum passes
on dominant
culture
Multiple per-
spectives, use
prior knowl-
edge, engag-
ing students
in generating
knowledge
Knowledge
goes beyond
traditional
Human Devel-
opment
Develop
through tradi-
tional ideas
Students are
empty buckets,
teacher is
authority and
dispenses
knowledge
Individual vari-
ation in each
area, develop-
ment, focus
on studentsâ
strengths
Student culture
is important
Adapting
Instruction
Adapt instruc-
tion for stan-
dardized testing
and discipline
issues
Does not apply
Students adapt
Teacher-cen-
tered
Curriculum-
centered
Well-rounded
framework
Respects and
celebrates
diversity. Cul-
ture informs
instruction
Instructional
Variety
Instruction
al strategies
through same
repetition, prac-
tice, and drills
Variety would
be within the
dominant
cultural struc-
tures, lecture,
Socratic, testing
Multiple teach-
ing & learning
strategies, stu-
dents use learn-
ing resources
Think outside
the box and
question au-
thority
Learning Envi-
ronment
Motivation
through the
importance of
skills they will
use outside of
school
Promote
dominant cul-
tural patterns,
motivate with
threats, appeal
to cultural
morals
Peer relation-
ships & recog-
nizing how to
encourage each
otherâs learning
Teachers
and students
combine forces
to make things
relevant
Communica-
tion
Teaching tradi-
tional commu-
nication skills
and profes-
sional setting
English only,
technol-
ogy valued as
foundation
to economy,
market
Expands
learner expres-
sion
Access to tech-
nology can be
discriminatory;
dialogic
Planning
Textbook, tra-
ditional lesson
plans
Teacher-
centered, focus
on teacher
authority
Take studentsâ
needs and
interests into
account
Take communi-
ty into account
11. 46 ⢠International Journal of Critical Pedagogy
Assessment
Testing of
essential skills,
standardized
Grading,
knowledge
level, structured
tests from ma-
terial provided
Self-assess-
ment, evaluates
how class
activities affect
the individual
Standardized
testing can be
biased
Relection
Taking college
courses
Relection on
teacher activi-
ties, relection
on dominant
cultural pat-
terns, relection
on student
behavior
Self-directed
learning as
habits of mind,
values critical
thinking
Relects on
how teaching
meets aims of
social justice
Community
Maintaining
contact when
necessary
Involvement
in community
and sustain-
ing dominant
culture, correct
cultural differ-
ences
Using commu-
nity resources
to foster stu-
dent learning
Empower the
powerless