Outlines the way languages are learned with particular emphasis on second language learners.

1. Joshua Scott Perkins
LOTE Department

2.  children do not merely imitate what they hear but
produce original language creatively
 grammatical morphemes are learned in sequence
—e.g. 1) plural –s; 2) irregular past forms; 3)
possessive 's; etc.
 Interrogatives develop sequentially as well:
“what,” “where” and “who” first; “why,” “how”
and “when” develop once the child’s mind
matures cognitively

3.  by age 4 children have mastered the basic
structures of the language or languages spoken to
them in these early years
 metalinguistic awareness develops in pre-school
years leading to word ambiguity giving children
access to word jokes, trick questions, and riddles
 during school years, the child’s vocabulary
increases from several hundred to several
thousand words a year aided by reading a variety
of texts

4.  in early school years, children begin to understand
difference in language registers

5.  behaviourism- B.F.Skinner states that children
learn by imitation and practice
 innatist perspective- Noam Chomsky argues that a
child’s ability to learn language is innate and that
all children possess a universal grammar
critical period hypothesis- suggests that humans
are genetically programmed to acquire certain
kinds of knowledge and skills at specific times
—i.e. language

6.  interactionist/developmental perspectives
Piaget describes language as a symbol system
used to express knowledge via interaction with
the physical world
Vygotsky proposes that speech emerges in
social interactions
both scientists agree that interaction between a
language learner and an interlocutor is essential
for language development
 connectionism- suggests that language acquisition
is related to objects/images

7.  bilingualism- little research supports that learning
languages simultaneously produces a learning delay
 contrastive analysis hypothesis- states where L1 and
L2 are similar, learners should attain L2 with ease
 connectionist propose that language is learned in
chunks based on connections with the learner’s
environment
 interaction hypothesis- learner interacts with
interlocutor who uses modified speech to scaffold
learning thus facilitating acquisition

8.  high intelligence (I. Q.) does not directly correlate
with a learner’s ability to acquire language
 language aptitude plays a role in acquisition
independent of cognitive, social, and personality
characteristics often associated with successful
learning
 learning styles- visual, aural, and kinesthetic may
affect language learning
 motivation and attitude- if the language is needed
in everyday life then the learner is more motivated
to learn

9.  Research suggests that the earlier that language
learners begin study—before 15 is ideal—and most
often exposed translate to better fluency. That is, it
appears that older learners are at a disadvantage
compared to child or adolescent learners thus
confirming Chomsky’s Critical Period Hypothesis.
 phonology- if L1 is more distant from L2 then
pronunciation mastery will be more difficult
 Much of language learning is acquired according to
developmental sequences; and, therefore, language
taught beyond the learner’s current level will not be
acquired.

10.  Approaches that integrate attention to form within
communicative and content-based interaction
receive the most support from classroom research.
 Correcting grammatical mistakes does not
significantly affect L1 acquisition. L2 learners,
however, do need error correction to avoid
fossilized incorrect forms.
 The best predictor of success in second language
acquisition is motivation; though even these
learners faces challenges.

11.  The earlier a second language is introduced in school
programs, the greater likelihood of success in
learning. A good native language foundation in
literacy is key to mastery of a second language.
 The best way to learn new vocabulary is through
reading. This is true for native language. For second
language, the learner must know 90% or more of the
text for context to clarify meaning. Therefore, L2
readers need additional resources to aid acquisition.
 The ability to reproduce the phrasing and stress
patterns are more important that the ability to
articulate each sound of a language.

12.  Learners need roughly 1,000 words and the basic
structure of a second language to participate in
conversations with native speakers.
 No matter how language is presented to learners,
certain structures are acquired before others
(simple or complex); frequent exposure to
language forms aids acquisition.
 Errors are a natural part of language learning in
L1 and L2. Form focused instruction with
feedback appears to be the best method for
improvement.

13.  Language structures develop sequentially.
 There is a critical period of language learning
ending at puberty. After this time, it becomes
difficult to learn language fluently.
 Motivation in a learner is the principal factor for
success.
 Aptitude plays a more important role than
intelligence in language acquisition.
 Real world applicability of the language studied
plays an important role in acquisition.

14. Lightbown, Patsy M. and Nina Spada. How
Languages are Learned. 3rd
ed. Oxford University
Press, 2006. Print.