Module 4-grade-10

• Rules:
–If you think you are pertained
by the statement step forward
and answer the question
TRUTHFULLY.
–State FACTUAL and SINCERE
information only at ALL TIMES.

• I have a friend whom I think
had a hidden anger on me?
–Who is that friend? What may
be the cause of the anger?

• I have a friend whom I have a
secret crush on. I know within
myself that I wanted us to be
more than friends.
–What did you like the most about
that friend?

• I have a friend that even so
he/she is my friend I am really
intimidated when he/she is
around.
– Why are you intimidated? What can he/she do
to make up with the intimidation?

• The little prince – the innocent
persona. The prince wanted to search
for a friend and his innocence lead
him to befriend a fox and a rose.
• The Fox – the second persona who
discussed “tame” and showed the
importance of real friendship. The
true meaning of friendship.

• The story took place in another
planet. Where there are no other
human beings. The fox and the
prince met in open area.

• There was an unhappy prince in search of
a friend when one morning a fox greeted
him and the prince offered the fox to play
with him.
• The fox refused saying that for them to be
friends the prince must “tame” him first.
The fox explained that being tamed means
to establish “ties”.

• The prince tamed the fox until such
time they became friends. When the
time came that the prince needed to
leave, the fox cried and the prince
blamed the canine for doing so.
• The fox expounded the meaning of
true friendship. “it is only with the
heart that one can see rightly;what is
essential is invisible to the eye.”

• “It’s the time you spend on your rose that
makes your rose so important.”
• “It’s the time I spent on my rose…,” the
little prince repeated, in order to
remember.
• “People have forgotten this truth,” the fox
said. “But you mustn’t forget it. You
become responsible forever for what
you’ve tamed. You’re responsible for your
rose…”
• “I’m responsible for my rose…,” the little
prince repeated, in order to remember.

WHAT IS A RESEARCH PAPER?
• A research paper is a substantial piece of
academic writing, usually done as a
requirement for a class, in which the
author does independent research into a
topic and writes a description of the
findings of that research.

STEP 1: BRAINSTORM FOR IDEAS
• Choose a topic that interests you. Use the following
questions to help generate topic ideas.
1. Do you have a strong opinion on a current social or
political controversy?
2. Did you read or see a news story recently that has
piqued your interest or made you angry or anxious?
3. Do you have a personal issue, problem or interest that
you would like to know more about?
4. Is there an aspect of a class that you are interested in
learning more about?

STEP 2: READ GENERAL BACKGROUND
INFORMATION
• Read a general encyclopedia article on the
top two or three topics you are considering.
Reading a broad summary enables you to get
an overview of the topic and see how your
idea relates to broader, narrower, and related
issues.

• Use periodical indexes to scan current
magazine, journal or newspaper articles on your
topic. Ask a librarian if they can help you to
browse articles on your topics of interest.
• Use Web search engines. Google and Bing are
currently considered to be two of the best search
engines to find web sites on the topic.

STEP 3: FOCUS ON YOUR TOPIC
• Keep it manageable. A topic will be very difficult to
research if it is too broad, or too narrow. One way to narrow
a broad topic is to limit your topic.
INTEREST POTENTIAL
TOPIC(NARROWED)
TECHNOLOGY The influence of texting on language
EDUCATION School uniforms and student behavior
WILDLIFE The endangered Florida manatee

STEP 4: MAKE A LIST OF USEFUL
KEYWORDS
• Keep track of the words that are used to describe
your topic. Look for words that best describe your
topic.
• These words will be found in the encyclopedia articles
and other reading you do while selecting your topic.
• Find synonyms, broader and narrower terms for each
keyword you find in order to expand your search
capabilities
• Keep a list of these words to use as keywords later as
you search in catalogs and other online databases.

STEP 5: BE FLEXIBLE
• It is common to modify your topic during the
research process. You can never be sure of
what you may find. You may find too much and
need to narrow your focus, or too little and need
to broaden your focus. This is a normal part of
the research process. When researching, you
may not wish to change your topic, but you may
decide that some other aspect of the topic is
more interesting or manageable.

STEP 6: DEFINE YOUR TOPIC AS A
FOCUSED RESEARCH QUESTION
• You will often begin with a word, develop a more focused
interest in an aspect of something relating to that word,
then begin to have questions about the topic.
For example:
NARROWED TOPIC: The influence of texting on language
FOCUS RESEARCH QUESTION: Does texting affect the
way people write and speak?

STEP 7: RESEARCH AND READ MORE
ABOUT YOUR TOPIC
• Use the key words you have gathered to research in
the catalog, article databases, and Internet search
engines. Find more information to help you answer
your research question.
• You will need to do some research and reading
before you select your final topic. Can you find
enough information to answer your research
question? Remember, selecting a topic is an
important and complex part of the research process.

STEP 8: FORMULATE A THESIS
STATEMENT
• Write your topic as a thesis statement. This may
be the answer to your research question and/or
a way to clearly state the purpose of your
research.
• Your thesis statement will usually be one or two
sentences that states precisely what is to be
answered, proven, or what you will inform your
audience about your topic.
The development of a thesis assumes there is
sufficient evidence to support the thesis
statement.

• For example, a thesis statement could be:
• Frank Lloyd Wright's design principles,
including his use of ornamental detail and
his sense of space and texture opened a
new era of American architecture. His
work has influenced contemporary
residential design.

• The title of your paper may not be exactly
the same as your research question or
your thesis statement, but the title should
clearly convey the focus, purpose and
meaning of your research.
• For example, a title could be: Frank Lloyd
Wright: Key Principles of Design For the
Modern Home

YOUR TASK
•Formulate your research topic using
the tips and steps discussed.
Brainstorm with the group, present
your topic to your teacher.

CHOOSE FIVE OF THE TOPICS AND NARROW THEM DOWN.
WRITE A QUESTION ABOUT EACH NARROWED-DOWN TOPIC
THAT THEY COULD ANSWER BY CONDUCTING RESEARCH.
• 1. Health
• 2. Environment
• 3. Politics
• 4. Science
• 5. Technology
• 6. Psychology
• 7. Education
• 8. Crime and Law
• 9. Business
• 10. Media

 Human beings use language to
communicate with each other and to
represent their ideas or thoughts.
 Communication can be in the form of
written as well as spoken discourse
(stretch the paragraphs).
 To do all this they use one or more word
or/and more than one sentence.
 The wide range of sentences can be
used as a unified whole or separate
unrelated sentences. In this way they
produce long texts.

Cohesive Devices
 Cohesive device is a device which holds
different parts of a thing together.
 In terms of communication, cohesive
devices are typically single words or
phrases that hold and hang different
parts of the text.
 These are basically tools of cohesion
 Function: The major function of cohesion
is text formation.
 Helps in achieving unity of text as a
semantic whole. unified whole of

 A text must be meaningful. A text
that is not cohesive is never
meaningful.
 They show the logical relationship
between sentences and paragraphs.
 They help expand the context, such
as; - whether information is
completely new, - related to
information in other sentences, - or
is a reference to "old" information
from a previous sentence.

Cohesive Devices used for
addition
also, again, in addition,
additionally, furthermore, further,
moreover, as well as, what’s
more, besides this/that,
Examples:
◦ Both/not only proteins and/but also
vitamins are essential for small
children.
◦ The film was neither well made nor
well-performed.

CONTRAST (show two things
are different)
 on the other hand, however,
despite this, conversely, in contrast,
on the contrary, although, while,
though, compared with, in
comparison with, rather, whereas,
but, instead of, in spite of, still,
nevertheless, regardless, otherwise

Examples:
 Although he's very smart, he cannot
pass his English class.
 No matter how smart you are, you
shouldn't underestimate your
opponents.
 He's very smart, he doesn't respect his
friends though.
 Regardless of age, anybody can ride
this ride.

COMPARE (show two things
are similar/alike):
 likewise, similarly, also, in the
same way, in comparison to
 Example:
◦ I can speak Spanish; similarly, my brother
can speak Spanish.

SEQUENCE:
 first, second (etc.), to begin with,
initially, at first, then, next, from
there, and then, following this,
finally, lastly
 Examples:
◦ First the butter, then the egg
following will be the margarine lastly
the yeast.

CONSEQUENCE:
 therefore, as a result, thus, so,
consequently, admittedly, so that,
depending on
 Examples:
◦ As a consequence of rising population,
people now have to cope with heavy traffic.
◦ It was such a great movie that I watched it
three times.
◦ The basketball team's introducing a talented
young player resulted in winning more games.

SUMMARY:
 in summary, in conclusion, overall, in
short, in brief, to sum up, in other
words, all in all, to put it differently, to
summarize, on the whole,
 Examples:
◦ In summary the results were positively
defined.
◦ Overall the program went great and
organized.
◦ In conclusion all of the facts presented are
factual and relevant.

CONCESSION (accepting/acknowledging
something is true):
 granted, naturally, of course,
however, even though, however
much, nevertheless, still, yet
 Example:
◦ It was a very expensive holiday, the
weather was bad and the people
weren’t very friendly. Nevertheless,
we would probably go back to the
same place.

Identify the cohesive devices
used in the following sentences
1. I could not go out last night because I
was too busy.
2. I could not go with my friend so he went
without me.
3. My friend went to the cinema to see a
film but the film wasn't very good.
4. The cinema was full of people and they
were all smoking.
5. I like people but I don't like smoke.

6. Do you want an orange juice or a beer?
7. It was my birthday but he didn't send
me a card.
8. I didn't write to him so he didn't write to
me.
9. She spends a lot of money on clothes.
She is also fond of buying expensive
jewellery. In short, she is extremely
extravagant.
10. The car is not new but it is in good
condition. The price too is very
reasonable. On the whole, I think it is
quite a good bargain.

although because
likewis
e
as when
similarly thus
becaus
e of
as well as such as
since instead
in
addition
at last
for
example
that
means
moreover even so
rather
than
still
however for instance so
in other
words
but
also
consequently

1)Many aquatic plants need full uninterrupted
sunlight. _______________, fish require plenty of
sunlight to maintain their colouring and to grow
satisfactorily.
2)We had to give up our climb and turn back
_______________, the bad weather.
3)When I was eight years old I stopped taking
guitar lessons and _______________, I took up
the piano
4)Manchester United are now ten points clear at
the top of the Premier League table.
_______________, they could win the league title
for a record 20th time.
5)Norman Blamey, who died in 2000, was an
English oil painter who painted just three

6)Something moving in the sky caught my eye. I
had seen several meteors and
_______________, knew this could not be one.
7)After a long search for the grave of Eric Liddell,
the runner who was immortalized in the film, The
Chariots of Fire, has _______________,been
found in China by a Scotsman living in Hong
Kong.
8)The flat was tiny. _______________,we
managed to live there for 3 years.
9) _______________, the flat was tiny, we
10)It makes much more sense to build a colony
in space _______________,send people to other
planets or the moon.

11)The flat is nicely decorated and the rent is
reasonable. _______________, they may not
want to rent it.
12)The police spray the protesters with water
cannons and _______________,they
disperse.
13) _______________, the school was not
built to a high enough standard, it collapsed
during the earthquake.
14)He wrote a number of well-known poems
_______________, his novels.
15) _______________, snakes reach maturity

16)This is not, _______________, true of the
reticulated python, which goes on to grow three
times longer after maturity.
17)If you’ve got the faith; _______________, if
you believe in God, you can believe that anything
is possible. _______________, you will realise
that you can be cured of any disease.
18)On 31st August 1997 Lady Diana, the
Princess of Wales, was killed in a car accident in
a road tunnel by the River Seine. Emad
Mohamed Al-Fayed, the heir to Harrods, and the
driver were _______________, killed.
19)Graphene, the thinnest material ever created,
is far stronger than steel. _______________, it
conducts electricity better than copper and is as
flexible as rubber.

20) _______________, I won’t know anyone at
the party, I don’t really feel like going.
21)In the 85th minute Van Persie had his big
chance of glory, _______________, he kicked
the ball straight into the keeper’s hands.
22)Emily has been active supporting causes
_______________, environmental pollution,
the anti-nuclear movement and gay rights.

Answer Key
1. Many aquatic plants need full uninterrupted
sunlight. Likewise/similarly, fish require plenty of
sunlight to maintain their colouring and to grow
satisfactorily.
2. We had to give up our climb and turn back
because of the bad weather.
3. When I was eight years old I stopped taking
guitar lessons and instead I took up the piano.
4. Manchester United are now ten points clear at
the top of the Premier League table. That means
they could win the league title for a record 20th
time.
5. Norman Blamey, who died in 2000, was an
English oil painter who painted just three
paintings a year. Moreover, he only ever worked

6. Something moving in the sky caught my eye. I
had seen several meteors and thus/so knew
this could not be one.
7. After a long search for the grave of Eric
Liddell, the runner who was immortalized in the
film, The Chariots of Fire, has at last been found
in China by a Scotsman living in Hong Kong
8. The flat was tiny. Even so/However, we
9. Although the flat was tiny, we managed to
live there for 3 years.
10. It makes much more sense to build a colony
in space rather than send people to other
planets or the moon.

11. The flat is nicely decorated and the rent
is reasonable. Still, they may not want to
rent it.
12.The police spray the protesters with
water cannons and consequently they
disperse.
13. Since/As/Because the school was not
built to a high enough standard, it collapsed
during the earthquake.
14. He wrote a number of well-known
poems as well as his novels.
15. When snakes reach maturity they have
already reached their maximum length.

16. This is not, however, true of the
reticulated python, which goes on to grow
three times longer after maturity.
17. If you’ve got the faith; in other words,
if you believe in God, you can believe that
anything is possible. For instance/For
example, you will realise that you can be
cured of any disease.
18. On 31st August 1997 Lady Diana, the
Princess of Wales, was killed in a car
accident in a road tunnel by the River
Seine. Emad Mohamed Al-Fayed, the heir
to Harrods, and the driver
were also killed.

19. Graphene, the thinnest material ever
created, is far stronger than steel. In
addition/Also, it conducts electricity better
than copper and is as flexible as rubber.
20. As/Because/Since I won’t know anyone
at the party, I don’t really feel like going.
21. In the 85th minute Van Persie had his big
chance of glory, but he kicked the ball
straight into the keeper’s hands.
22. Emily has been active supporting
causes such as environmental pollution, the
anti-nuclear movement and gay rights.

Assignment
Writing Activity no. 1
◦Have a story analysis of the
little prince. Write your story
line on your task notebook.
◦Prepare 3 research title for
your research topic.

Agreement
 Research on the
following key concepts.
◦ Alliteration
◦ Allusion
◦ Hyperbole
◦ Irony
◦ Metaphor
◦ Metonymy
◦ Onomatopoeia
 Oxymoron
 Paradox
 Personification
 Simile
 Litotes
 Analogy
 Allegory
 Ceasura

Literary Devices
 Refers to the typical structures
used by writers in their works to
convey his or her messages in a
simple manner to the
readers. When employed
properly, the different literary
devices help readers to
appreciate, interpret and analyze
a literary

Literary Devices
 Are narrative techniques that add
texture, energy, and excitement to the
narrative, grip the reader's
imagination, and convey
information.(Study.com)

Literary Devices
a literary or linguistic technique
that produces a specific effect,
esp. a figure
of speech, narrative style, or pl
ot mechanism.
(Dictionary.com)

Alliteration
 Alliteration is a literary device where words
are used in quick succession and begin with
letters belonging to the same sound group.
 Whether it is the consonant sound or a
specific vowel group, the alliteration involves
creating a repetition of similar sounds in the
sentence.
 Alliterations are also created when the words
all begin with the same letter. Alliterations are
used to add character to the writing and often
add an element of ‘fun’ to the piece

Examples
 The Wicked Witch of the West went her own
way.
 (The ‘W’ sound is highlighted and repeated
throughout the sentence.)
 Janie read a book by the babbling brook.
 The child bounced the ball at
the backyard barbeque.
 Despite their mother’s warnings,
the children chose to chew with their mouths
open.
 The rich man was so cheap that it

Allusion
 Is a brief and indirect reference to a
person, place, thing or idea of
historical, cultural, literary or political
significance. It does not describe in
detail the person or thing to which it
refers. It is just a passing comment.

Examples
 “This place is like a Garden of Eden.”
 This is a biblical allusion to the “garden of God” in the
Book of Genesis.
 “Hey! Guess who the new Newton of our school
is?” – “Newton”,
 means a genius student, alludes to a famous scientist
Isaac Newton.
 It’s no wonder everyone refers to Mary as
another Mother Teresa in the making; she loves
to help and care after people everywhere- from
the streets to her own friends.
 In the example the author uses the mention of Mother
Teresa to indicate the sort of qualities that Mary has.

Hyperbole
 A hyperbole is a literary device wherein the
author uses specific words and phrases that
exaggerate and overemphasize the basic
crux of the statement in order to produce a
grander, more noticeable effect.
 The purpose of hyperbole is to create a
larger-than-life effect and overly stress a
specific point.
 Such sentences usually convey an action or
sentiment that is generally not practically/
realistically possible or plausible but helps
emphasize an emotion.

Examples
 “I am so tired I cannot walk another
inch”
 “I’m so sleepy I might fall asleep
standing here”.
 Your suitcase weighs a ton!
 She is as heavy as an elephant!
 I am dying of shame.
 I am trying to solve a million issues
these days.

Irony
 is a figure of speech in which words
are used in such a way that their
intended meaning is different from the
actual meaning of the words. It may
also be a situation that may end up in
quite a different way than what is
generally anticipated. In simple words,
it is a difference between the
appearance and the reality.

Examples
 “Oh great! Now you have broken my new
camera.”
 A man looked out of the window to see the
storm intensify. He turned to his friend and
said “wonderful weather we’re having!”
 The weather is as cool as a summer day in
the Midwest

Metaphor
 Metaphors are one of the most extensively
used literary devices.
 A metaphor refers to a meaning or identity
ascribed to one subject by way of another.
 In a metaphor, one subject is implied to be
another so as to draw a comparison
between their similarities and shared traits.

Examples
 “Henry was a lion on the battlefield”. (This
sentence suggests that Henry fought so valiantly
and bravely that he embodied all the personality
traits we attribute to the ferocious animal. )
 My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he
was too angry.)
 The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that
the assignment was not difficult.)
 It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This
implies that clear skies are not a threat and life is
going to be without hardships)

Metonymy
 It is a figure of speech that replaces
the name of a thing with the name of
something else with which it is closely
associated. We can come across
examples of metonymy both from
literature and in everyday life.

Examples
 England decides to keep check on
immigration. (England refers to the
government.)
 The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen
refers to written words and sword to
military force.)
 The Oval Office was busy in work. (“The
Oval Office” is a metonymy as it stands for
people at work in the office.)
 Let me give you a hand. (Hand means
help.)

Onomatopoeia
 is defined as a word, which imitates
the natural sounds of a thing. It
creates a sound effect that mimics the
thing described, making the
description more expressive and
interesting.

Examples
 The buzzing bee flew away.
 The sack fell into the river with a
splash.
 The books fell on the table with a loud
thump.
 He looked at the roaring sky.
 The rustling leaves kept me awake.
 the whispering of the forest trees”
 “the hum of a thousand bees”

Agreement
 Research for related articles and
write ups about your research
topic. Note down important details
and FAQ’s about your topic.
 Prepare for writing your
questionnaire.

How Develop your
Research Questionnaire

• Identify the goal of your
questionnaire
–What kind of information do you
want to gather with your
questionnaire?
–What is your main objective? Is a
questionnaire the best way to go
about collecting this information?

• Choose your question type or
types. Depending on the information you
wish to gather, there are several possible
types of questions to include on your
questionnaire, each with unique pros and
cons. Here are the types of commonly
used questions on a questionnaire.
– Dichotomous question: this is a question
that will generally be a “yes/no” question, but
may also be an “agree/disagree” question. It
is the quickest and simplest question to
analyze, but is not a highly sensitive measure.

• Open-ended questions: these questions allow
the respondent to respond in their own words.
They can be useful for gaining insight into the
feelings of the respondent, but can be a
challenge when it comes to analysis of data. It
is recommended to use open-ended questions
to address the issue of “why.”
• Multiple choice questions: these questions
consist of three or more mutually-exclusive
categories and ask for a single answer or
several answers. Multiple choice questions
allow for easy analysis of results, but may not
give the respondent the answer they want.

• Rank-order (or ordinal) scale questions:
this type of question asks your respondent
to rank items or choose items in a
particular order from a set. For example, it
might ask your respondents to order five
things from least to most important. These
types of questions forces discrimination
among alternatives, but does not address
the issue of why the respondent made
these discriminations

• Rating scale questions: these questions
allow the respondent to assess a particular
issue based on a given dimension. You
can provide a scale that gives an equal
number of positive and negative choices,
for example, ranging from “strongly agree”
to “strongly disagree.” These questions are
very flexible, but also do not answer the
question “why.”

• Develop questions for your
questionnaire. The questions that you
develop for your questionnaire should be
clear, concise, and direct.
–Beware of asking for private or
“sensitive” information. This can be
something as simple as age or weight,
or something as complex as past sexual
history.
–Asking questions such as these usually
require you to anonymize or encrypt the
demographic data you collect.

• Restrict the length of your
questionnaire. Keep your questionnaire
as short as possible. More people will be
likely to answer a shorter questionnaire, so
make sure you keep it as concise as
possible while still collecting the necessary
information.

• Identify your target demographic. Is
there a certain group of people who
you want to target with your
questionnaire? If so, it is best to
determine this before you begin to
distribute your questionnaire.

• Ensure you can protect privacy. Make
your plan to protect respondents’ privacy
before you begin writing your survey. This
is a very important part of many research
projects.
– Consider an anonymous questionnaire. You
may not want to ask for names on your
questionnaire. This is one step you can take
to prevent privacy, however it is often possible
to figure out a respondent’s identity using
other demographic information (such as age,
physical features, or zipcode).

Agreement
• Develop a functional questionnaire for
you research. It can be typewritten.
Your questionnaire should be one
page only.

Developing a Research
Questionnaire

Your Task
• Develop a functional research
questionnaire that will serve as your
research instrument.
• Follow the guidelines and step
discussed, in developing a
questionnaire.
• Make sure to cover all the necessary
details of your research.

Assignment
• Research for Victor Hugo’s
Biography. Take note of the
significant information about the
author.
• Research for Chapter VII of the story
Les Miserables or Les Miserav.
• Take note of the story synopsis and
the overview of the literary piece.

Oxymoron
 The word oxymoron is in itself an oxymoron. It
comes from the Ancient Greek word oxumoron, a
compound of the words oxus, meaning “sharp” or
“keen” and moros, meaning “dull” or “stupid.”
Therefore it means something akin to wise
foolishness.
 Oxymora are often pairs of words, such as the
adjective-noun combinations of a “new classic”
or a “big sip,” or a noun-verb combination such
as “the silence whistles.” Oxymora can also be
found in phrases or sentences that have
a juxtaposition of contradictory concepts.

Examples
 controlled chaos
 kill with kindness
 old news
 small giant
 original copy
 even odds
 elevated subway
 “It’s a step forward although there was no
progress.” – President Hosni Mubarak of
Egypt

Paradox
 The term Paradox is from the Greek word
“paradoxon” that means contrary to
expectations, existing belief or perceived
opinion.
 It is a statement that appears to be self-
contradictory or silly but may include a
latent truth. It is also used to illustrate an
opinion or statement contrary to accepted
traditional ideas. A paradox is often used to
make a reader think over an idea in
innovative way.

Examples
 Your enemy’s friend is your enemy.
 I am nobody.
 “What a pity that youth must be wasted on
the young.” – George Bernard Shaw
 Wise fool
 Truth is honey which is bitter.
 “I can resist anything but temptation.” –
Oscar Wilde

Difference of Paradox and Oxymoron
 It is important to understand the difference
between a paradox and an oxymoron.
 A paradox may consist of a sentence or even a
group of sentences.
 An oxymoron, on the other hand, is a
combination of two contradictory or opposite
words.
 A paradox seems contradictory to the general
truth but it does contain an implied truth. An
oxymoron, however, may produce a dramatic
effect but does not make sense. Examples of
oxymoron are found both in casual conversations

Personification
 Personification is a figure of speech in
which a thing, an idea or an animal is given
human attributes. The non-human objects
are portrayed in such a way that we feel
they have the ability to act like human
beings.

Examples
 Look at my car. She is a beauty, isn’t it so?
 The wind whispered through dry grass.
 The flowers danced in the gentle breeze.
 Time and tide waits for none.
 The fire swallowed the entire forest.

Simile
 A simile is a figure of speech that makes
a comparison, showing similarities
between two different things. Unlike
a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance
with the help of the words “like” or “as”.
Therefore, it is a direct comparison.

Examples
 Our soldiers are as brave as lions.
 Her cheeks are red like a rose.
 He is as funny as a monkey.
 The water well was as dry as a
bone.
 He is as cunning as a fox.

Litotes
 Litotes, derived from a Greek word
meaning “simple”, is a figure of speech
which employs an understatement by
using double negatives or, in other words,
positive statement is expressed by
negating its opposite expressions.

Examples
 He’s not the friendliest person.
 It wasn’t a terrible trip.
 She’s not unkind.
 They aren’t unhappy with the
presentation.
 Not too shabby!
 The two concepts are not unlike each
other.
 She’s no spring chicken.

Analogy
 An analogy is a comparison in which
an idea or a thing is compared to
another thing that is quite different
from it. It aims at explaining that idea
or thing by comparing it to something
that is familiar.

Examples
 GREEN : COLOR :: ORCHID : FLOWER
 SCIENTIST : EINSTEIN :: MUSICIAN :
MOZART
 HUMAN : FINGERNAIL :: TIGER : CLAW

Allegories
 Allegories can be understood to be a type
of extended metaphor. An extended
metaphor develops a certain analogy to a
greater extent than a simple comparison.
An allegory, meanwhile, uses a particular
metaphor throughout an entire plot.
 The word “allegory” comes from the
ancient Greek for “to speak so as to imply
something other.” The definition of allegory
makes sense coming from this term, as an
allegory always has some hidden meaning

Examples
 The Tortoise and the Hare from Aesop’s Fables:
From this story, we learn that the strong and
steady win the race.
 The story of Icarus: Icarus fashions wings for
himself out of wax, but when he flies too close to
the sun his wings melt. This story is a message
about the dangers of reaching beyond out
powers.
 Yertle the Turtle by Dr. Seuss: This story about a
turtle who yearns for too much power is actually
an allegory about Adolf Hitler and the evils of
totalitarianism.

Ceasura
 A caesura is a complete stop in a line
of poetry. A caesura can be anywhere
in a metrical line—it is called an initial
caesura if it occurs at or near the
beginning of the line, a medial
caesura if it is found in the middle of
the line, and a terminal caesura if it
occurs near the end of the line.

 The definition of caesura can be further
classified either as masculine or
feminine, depending on the syllable
following the caesura.
 A stressed syllable following a caesura
denotes a masculine caesura, whereas
a feminine caesura is followed by an
unstressed syllable. Caesurae are
usually marked by a pair of parallel lines
(“||”), called a “double pipe” sign.

Examples
 “We hold these truths to be self-evident ||
that all men are created equal.”—
Declaration of Independence, United
States of America 1776
 My country ’tis of thee || sweet land of
liberty || of thee I sing.
Land where my fathers died || land of the
Pilgrim’s pride,
From every mountainside || let freedom
ring!
—“My Country, ’Tis of Thee” by Samuel

Primary source
 A primary source (also called original
source or evidence) is an artifact, a
document, a recording, or other source of
information that was created at the time
under study.
 It serves as an original source of
information about the topic. Similar
definitions are used in library science, and
other areas of scholarship, although
different fields have somewhat different
definitions.

Examples of Primary sources
 Narrative sources or literary sources tell a
story or message. They are not limited to fictional
sources (which can be sources of information for
contemporary attitudes) but include diaries, films,
biographies, leading philosophical works
and scientific works.
 Diplomatic sources include charters and other
legal documents which usually follow a set
format.
 Social documents are records created by
organizations, such as registers of births and tax
records.

Secondary sources
 Secondary sources are documents
written after an event has occurred,
providing secondhand accounts of
that event, person, or topic. Unlike
primary sources, which provide first-
hand accounts, secondary sources
offer different perspectives, analysis,
and conclusions of those accounts.

Examples include:
 Journal and magazine articles
 News reports
 Encyclopedias
 Textbooks
 Books

Why use secondary sources?
 Secondary sources can provide you with background
information and offer analysis of the event or work by
those removed one or more steps from the event or
work itself.
 Scholarly articles are written by experts studying in a
particular field, offering credibility to your research by
providing interpretation of material by scholars.
Secondary sources look beyond a particular event or
artifact and can broaden your perspective and
research.
 They can also provide historical perspective based
on other events that have taken since the original
event or work.

How can I tell if something is a
secondary source?
 Authors
 How does the author know what he/she knows?
 Does his/her knowledge stem from personal experience
or having read about and analyzed an event?
 Does the author cite several other (published) reports?
 Content
 Why is the information being provided or the article
written?
 Are there references to other writings on this topic?
 Is the author interpreting previous events?
 Does the information come from personal experience or
others' accounts?

Encyclopedias
 Encyclopedias in the Undergrad Library and the UIUC Online
Collection are a great place to get started with research and
find secondary sources. Here is a sampling of encyclopedias
that are good starting points on a variety of topics. In addition
to the encyclopedia entries, use the bibliographies or
references lists at the end of the entries to find
additional sources on your topic. For additional resources,
ask a librarian:
 Countries and Their Cultures
 The Greenwood Guide to American Popular Culture
 Encyclopedia of Sociology
 Encyclopedia of American Social History
 St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture
 Encyclopedia of Communication and Information
 Encyclopedia of Bioethics

Books
 Use the Library Catalog to find books on
a particular subject.
 Enter your subject term in the search box
 Select Subject from the Search by drop-
down menu

Articles
 The Undergraduate Library’s Find Articles
Guide provides resources to search
magazines, newspapers, and other
sources using databases such as
Academic Search Premier (EBSCO). More
specific subject databases will be found
under specific categories on the list.
Articles in many of these databases
provide an analysis of data and historical
events. Many provide the secondary
sources that will help you broaden your

Some good starting points include:
 JSTOR - historical perspective in many
subjects (History)
 MLA International Bibliography (Literature)
 SocINDEX (Sociology)
 America History and Life - historical
perspective on North America (History)
 Historical Abstracts - historical perspective
on the rest of the world (History)

List down 15 examples of primary
and secondary sources.
 Make a list of the different primary
sources that can be found within the
school. Name one specific topic for
each material that you may find.
 Example:
 Secondary source: Ing Martsa
 Topic: CRHS Intramurals idinaos.

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