RESEARCH BASICS

What is Research?
• Can be diverse
• General definition is “finding answers to questions in an
organized and logical and systematic fashion”

How to Search for Truth/Answer?
• 1) tradition or custom
• 2) authority
• 3) personal experience
• 4) deductive reasoning
• 5) scientific inquiry (research)

Nature of Research
• Systematic – ordered structure of inquiry
• Logical – process to evaluate conclusions drawn
• Empirical - collection of data (facts, experience, etc.) on which to
base decisions
• Reductive – individual events (data) are used to establish general
relationships
• Replicable – process is recorded so findings and procedures can be
tested again

Induction and Deduction

• Induction is a process
of establishing a general
proposition (hypothesis)
based on observed fact.
• To induce is to draw
conclusion from one (or
more) particular fact.
The conclusion explains
the facts.

HOWEVER,
please remember the conclusion is only a hypothesis. It might be true,
it might be not.
Cooper & Schindler (2001) put a clear explanation on this.
According to Cooper & Schindler (2001)
“The inductive conclusion is an inferential jump beyond the
evidence presented”. (p.35)
To confirm the conclusion,
we have to test the hypothesis – Deduction process

Deduction is a process of
arriving conclusion by logical
generalization of a known fact
(Sekaran, 2006).
Example:
Our past experiences and the
previous studies have shown
that, there is a strong
relationship between sales and
promotion. Meaning that, a well
execute promotion will increase
sales (this is the ‘known fact’ or
hypothesis)
It involves hypothesis testing!!!

Basic Scientific Method
• Identify the problem – central to beginning the
method of actually solving the problem
• Formulate the hypothesis – outcome statement
to test
• Develop the plan of research – what do you
need to do to test this hypothesis? (Methodology,
participants, data gathering, analysis)
• Collecting and analyzing the data
• Interpreting the results and forming
conclusions-does the evidence support the
hypothesis

Basic Research Plan

Basic Principles of Research Design
Four main features of research design, which are distinct, but closely related
Ontology:
• How you, the researcher, view the world and the assumptions that you make about the
nature of the world and of reality
Epistemology:
• The assumptions that you make about the best way of investigating the world and about
reality
Methodology:
• The way that you group together your research techniques to make a coherent picture
Methods and techniques:
• What you actually do in order to collect your data and carry out your investigations

Four main schools of ontology
(how we construct reality)
Ontology Realism Internal Realism Relativism Nominalism
Summary
The world is ‘real’, and
science proceeds by
examining and
observing it
The world is real,
but it is almost
impossible to
examine it directly
Scientific laws are
basically created
by people to fit
their view of
reality
Reality is entirely
created by people,
and there is no
external ‘truth’
Truth There is a single truth
Truth exists, but is
obscure/vague
There are many
truths
There is no truth
Facts
Facts exist, and can
be revealed through
experiments
Facts are concrete,
but cannot always
be revealed
Facts depend on
the viewpoint of
the observer
Facts are all
human creations
However, none of these positions are absolutes.
They are on a continuum, with overlaps between them.

Epistemology
i.e. the way in which you choose to investigate the world
Two main schools are positivism and social constructionism:
• Positivists believe that the best way to investigate the world
is through objective methods, such as observations.
Positivism fits within a realist ontology.
• Social constructionists believe that reality does not exist by
itself. Instead, it is constructed and given meaning by
people. Their focus is therefore on feelings, beliefs and
thoughts, and how people communicate these.
• Social constructionism fits better with a relativist ontology.
Anything objective sticks to the facts, but anything subjective has feelings.
Objective: It is raining. Subjective: I love the rain!

Methodology
• Epistemology and ontology will have implications for your
methodology
Realists tend to have positivist approach
 tend to gather quantitative sources of data
Relativists tend to have a social constructionist approach
 tend to gather qualitative sources of data
• Remember these are not absolutes! People tend to work on
a continuum
 role for mixed methods and approaches
• Also consider the role of the researcher*: internal/external;
involved or detached?
* See also Adams, Anne; FitzGerald, Elizabeth and Priestnall, Gary (2013). Of catwalk technologies and boundary creatures. ACM
Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI), 20(3), article no. 15. http://oro.open.ac.uk/35323/

Choosing your approach
• Your approach may be influenced by your colleagues’ views, your
organization's approach, your supervisor’s beliefs, and your own experience
• There is no right or wrong answer to choosing your research methods
• Whatever approach you choose for your research, you need to consider five
questions:
• What is the unit of analysis? For example, country, company or individual.
• Are you relying on universal theory or local knowledge? i.e. will your results be
generalizable, and produce universally applicable results, or are there local factors that will
affect your results?
• Will theory or data come first? Should you read the literature first, and then develop your
theory, or will you gather your data and develop your theory from that?
• Will your study be cross-sectional or longitudinal? Are you looking at one point in time, or
changes over time?
• Will you verify or falsify a theory? You cannot conclusively prove any theory; the best that
you can do is find nothing that disproves it. It is therefore easier to formulate a theory that
you can try to disprove, because you only need one ‘wrong’ answer to do so.

You are now ready
to identify
THE PROBLEM

SELECTING A PROBLEM
The central element in any educational research is the
problem. Once the problem has been identified and
adequately defined, the systematic and scientific process of
making observation and collecting data can be more easily
carried out.
However, the large part of the solution to the problem lies
in knowing precisely
what the problem is.
How can you solve a problem if you don’t know what the
problem is?

HOW DO YOU SELECT A PROBLEM?
Problem situations can be generated from a number of
sources, among them are:
PERSONAL PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE
CRITICAL STUDY OF THE LITERATURE
INTERACTION WITH OTHERS

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A PROBLEM
1. Interest:
If you are going to be commit yourself to an
educational research, then its is important that you
should be interested to the topic that you are
researching.
2. Size:
Exercise some professional wisdom! Manageable
research problem.

3. Economy:
Researchers are often confronted with practical
constraints - time and money.
4. Researcher’s Capabilities and Limitations:
Must recognize his/her own capabilities and
limitations.
Inexperienced in research, seek guidance - close to
your supervisor, advise from others who are interested
or specialized in your field of study.
5. Uniqueness:
Do not spend a lot of time and energy researching a
problem if the answer to the problem already existed.

PROBLEM AREAS TO AVOID
1. Moral, Ethical Questions
2. Philosophical Questions
3. Theological Questions

ANALYSING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
Problem Situation
Preliminary list of possible contributing factors and
explanations
Eliminating of irrelevant facts
List of probable relevant facts and explanations
Basic assumptions
Research Problem

There are certain rules to follow in writing SOP.
1. CLARITY.
- write as clearly as possible, avoiding unnecessary
words but include all words that are required to make
the problem clear - key words!
- thus, you should know the relevant variables and the
relationship you would like to investigate.
2. AVOID VALUE STATEMENTS.
- avoid at all times ‘value-laden’ words which indicate
cultural or personal bias, such as:
best way / bad / should / ought / better than / best /
poor etc.

Example of a not well-stated SOP:
Should Automotive Engineering students be involved in an
industrial attachments scheme?
It could be rewritten like:
What effect does an industrial attachment scheme have on the
performance of students in an Automotive Engineering course?
Or
How do Mechanical Engineering lecturers perceive the
introduction of an industrial attachment scheme in an
Automotive Engineering course?
Thus,
the SOP will dictate the type of study that will eventually be
developed.

3. AVOID DICHOTOMOUS QUESTIONS.
Dichotomous questions are those can be answered in two ways:
Yes or No, Right or Wrong, Agree or Disagree etc.
Problems should not be written as questions requiring a ‘yes or
‘no’ answer.
Example:
Do automotive engineering students need an industrial
attachment period included in their training course?

EVALUATING THE PROBLEM
Having developed a well-constructed SOP, it is important
to consider:
• The research problem is FEASIBLE, and
• The research problem is WORTHWHILE

IS THE PROBLEM FEASIBLE ?
(IS THE PROBLEM RESEARCHABLE?)
The primary evaluative source is yourself.
1. Has the problem been specified?
2. Is the problem amenable to research?
3. Is the problem too large?
4. How available are the data?
5. Am I capable of solving the problem?

IS THE PROBLEM WORTHWHILE?
(WILL THE RESULT BE SIGNIFICANT?)
1. Will the results advance knowledge?
2. Will the research have some value?
3. Will the results be of interest to others?

WRITING RESEARCH QUESTIONS
INPUT IDEAS
AND
PROBLEMS
STATEMENT
OF
PROBLEM
RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Example
PROBLEM STATEMENT:
What are the impacts of linkages existing between institute A and
the industries?
RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
RQ1. What are the impacts on employment of the graduates of
institute A from the linkages with local industries?
RQ2. What are the impacts on curriculum content of the
programmes in institute A from the linkages with local
industries?
RQ3. What are the impacts on skill performances of the students in
institute A from the linkages with local industries?
RQ4. What are the impacts on the facilities found institute A from the
linkages with local industries?

WHAT CAN BE DERIVED FROM A WELL-DEFINED
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM AND RESEARCH
QUESTIONS?
• IDENTIFY THE RESEARCH DESIGN
• IDENTIFY THE METHODOLOGY
• IDENTIFY THE RESPONDENTS
• IDENTIFY THE DATA COLLECTION TOOLS
• IDENTIFY THE VARIABLES THAT NEED TO BE
RESEARCHED
• DETERMINE THE STATISTIC SUITABLE FOR THE
RESEARCH

THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
AND
HYPOTHESIS
DEVELOPMENT

THE NEED FOR A THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
• A theoretical frame-work is a conceptual model of
how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the
relationships among the several factors that have
been identified as important to the problem.
• This theory flows logically from the documentation of
previous research in the problem area. Integrating
one‘s logical beliefs with published research,
taking into consideration the boundaries and
constraints governing the situation, is pivotal in
developing a scientific basis for investigating the
research problem.

Difference b/w Theoretical and
Conceptual Framework
• Theoretical framework in a study is based on an existing
theory or theories (e.g., a theory of motivation).
• The conceptual framework, on the other hand, is
something you can develop yourself based on this theory.
• You inevitably would use some --if not all-- concept that
this particular theory operates with. In addition, in your
conceptual framework you can add your own concept /
constructs / variables that you think are relevant and then
proceed to explore or test the relationship between them.

• From the theoretical framework, then, testable hypotheses can
be developed to examine whether the theory formulated is valid
or not.
• The hypothesized relationships can thereafter be tested through
appropriate statistical analyses.
• By being able to test and replicate the findings, we will also
have stronger conviction in the rigor of our research.
• Thus, the entire research rests on the basis of the theoretical
framework.
• Even if testable hypotheses are not necessarily generated
(as in some applied research projects), developing a good
theoretical framework is central to examining the problem
under investigation.

•Since the theoretical framework
offers the conceptual foundation to
proceed with the research, and
•since a theoretical framework is
none other than identifying the
network of relationships among the
variables considered important to the
study of any given problem situation,
•it is essential to understand what a
variable means and what the
different types of variables are.

VARIABLES
•A variable is anything that can take
on differing or varying values. The
values can differ at various times
for the same object or person, or
at the same time for different
objects or persons. Examples of
variables are production units,
absenteeism, and motivation.

Types of Variables
Four main types of variables will be discussed here:
1. The dependent variable (also known as the criterion
variable).
2. The independent variable (also known as the predictor
variable).
3. The moderating variable.
4. The intervening variable.
Variables can be discrete (e.g., male/female) or continuous
(e.g., the age of an individual).

Dependent Variable
• The dependent variable is the variable of primary
interest to the researcher. The researcher‘s goal is to
understand and describe the dependent variable, or to
explain its variability, or predict it. In other words, it is
the main variable that lends itself for investigation as a
viable factor.
• Through the analysis of the dependent variable (i.e.,
finding what variables influence it), it is possible to find
answers or solutions to the problem. For this purpose,
the researcher will be interested in quantifying and
measuring the dependent variable, as well as the other
variables that influence this variable.

Independent Variable
• An independent variable is one that influences the
dependent variable in either a positive or negative
way.
• That is, when the independent variable is present,
the dependent variable is also present, and with
each unit of increase in the independent variable,
there is an increase or decrease in the dependent
variable also.
• In other words, the variance in the dependent
variable is accounted for by the independent
variable.

Moderating Variable
• The moderating variable is one that has a strong
contingent effect on the IV–DV Relationship.
• That is, the presence of a third variable (the
moderating variable) modifies the original
relationship between the independent and the
dependent variables. This becomes clear through
the following example
• A prevalent theory is that the diversity of the workforce
(comprising people of different ethnic origins, races, and
nationalities) contributes more to organizational effectiveness
because each group brings its own special expertise and skills
to the workplace. This synergy can be exploited, however, only if
managers know how to harness the special talents of the
diverse work group; otherwise they will remain untapped.

Independent Variable Managerial expertise (MV) dependent Variable
• In the above scenario, organizational effectiveness is the
dependent variable, which is positively influenced by
workforce diversity—the independent variable.
• However, to harness the potential, managers must know
how to encourage and coordinate the talents of the various
groups to make things work. If not, the synergy will not be
tapped.
• In other words, the effective utilization of different talents,
perspectives, and eclectic problem-solving capabilities for
enhanced organizational effectiveness is contingent on the
skill of the managers in acting as catalysts. This managerial
expertise then becomes the moderating variable.
Work force
Diversity
Organizational
Effectiveness

Intervening Variable
• An intervening variable is one that surfaces
between the time the independent variables start
operating to influence the dependent variable
and the time their impact is felt on it.
• There is thus a temporal quality or time
dimension to the intervening variable.
• The intervening variable surfaces as a function of
the independent variable(s) operating in any
situation, and helps to conceptualize and explain
the influence of the independent variable(s) on
the dependent variable.
• The following example illustrates this point.

• In the above example where the independent variable workforce diversity
influences the dependent variable organizational effectiveness, the
intervening variable that surfaces as a function of the diversity in the
workforce is creative synergy.
• This creative synergy results from a multiethnic, multiracial, and multi-
national (i.e., diverse) workforce interacting and bringing together their multi-
faceted expertise in problem solving.
• Note that creative synergy, the intervening variable, surfaces at time t2, as a
function of workforce diversity, which was in place at time t1, to bring about
organizational effectiveness in time t3. The intervening variable of creative
synergy helps us to conceptualize and understand how workforce diversity
brings about organizational effectiveness.
Time: t1 t2 t3
Independent variable Intervening variable Dependent variable
Work force
Diversity
Organizational
Effectiveness
creative
synergy

•Having examined the different
kinds of variables that could
operate in a situation and how
the relationships among these
can be established, it is now
possible to see how we can
develop the conceptual model or
the theoretical framework for our
research.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
• The theoretical framework is the foundation on which the
entire research project is based.
• It is a logically developed, described, and elaborated network
of associations among the variables deemed relevant to the
problem situation and identified through such processes as
interviews, observations, and literature survey. Experience
and intuition also guide in developing the theoretical
framework.
• It becomes evident at this stage that to arrive at good
solutions to the problem, one should correctly identify the
problem first, and then the variables that contribute to it.
• After identifying the appropriate variables, the next step is to
elaborate the network of associations among the variables, so
that relevant hypotheses can be developed and subsequently
tested

• The relationship between the literature survey and the
theoretical frame- work is that the former provides a solid
foundation for developing the latter.
• That is, the literature survey identifies the variables that might
be important, as determined by previous research findings.
• This, in addition to other logical connections that can be
conceptualized, forms the basis for the theoretical model.
• The theoretical framework elaborates the relationships
among the variables, explains the theory underlying these
relations, and describes the nature and direction of the
relationships.
• Just as the literature survey sets the stage for a good
theoretical framework, this in turn provides the logical base
for developing testable hypotheses.

• The elaboration of the variables in the theoretical framework
thus addresses the issues of
• why or how we expect certain relationships to exist, and
• the nature and direction of the relationships among the variables of
interest.
• A schematic diagram of the conceptual model described in the
theoretical framework will also help the reader to visualize the
theorized relationships.
• It may be noted that we have used the terms theoretical
framework and model interchangeably. There are differences
of opinion as to what a model actually represents.
• Some describe models as simulations;
• others view a model as a representation of relationships
between and among concepts.
• We use the term model here in the latter sense as a
conceptual scheme connecting concepts.

The Components of the Theoretical Framework
There are five basic features that should be incorporated in
any theoretical framework.
1. The variables considered relevant to the study should be
clearly identified and labeled in the discussions.
2. The discussions should state how two or more variables are
related to one another. This should be done for the important
relationships that are theorized to exist among the variables.
3. If the nature and direction of the relationships can be theorized on the basis of the
findings of previous research, then there should be an indication in the discussions
as to whether the relationships would be positive or negative.
4. There should be a clear explanation of why we would expect these
relationships to exist. The arguments could be drawn from the previous
research findings.
5. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be given so that the
reader can see and easily comprehend the theorized relationships.

HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
• Once we have identified the important variables in a situation
and established the relationships among them through logical
reasoning in the theoretical frame- work, we are in a position
to test whether the relationships that have been theorized do
in fact hold true.
• Testing these relationships scientifically through appropriate
statistical analyses, we will be able to obtain reliable
information on what kinds of relationships exist among the
variables operating in the problem situation.
• The results of these tests offer us some clues as to what could
be changed in the situation to solve the problem.
• Formulating such testable statements is called hypotheses
development.

Definition of Hypothesis
 A hypothesis can be defined as a logically assumed
relationship between two or more variables expressed in
the form of a testable statement.
 Relationships are assumed on the basis of the network of
associations established in the theoretical framework
formulated for the research study.
 By testing the hypotheses and confirming the assumed
relationships, it is expected that solutions can be found to
correct the problem encountered.
In a qualitative research we develop
“Propositions” instead of “Hypothesis”
WHY!!!!!

Null and Alternate Hypotheses
• The null hypothesis is a proposition that states a definitive, exact
relationship between two variables.
• That is, it states that the population correlation between two variables is
equal to zero or that the difference in the means of two groups in the
population is equal to zero (or some definite number).
• In general, the null statement is expressed as no (significant) relationship
between two variables or no (significant) difference between two groups.
• The alternate hypothesis, which is the opposite of the null, is a statement
expressing a relationship between two variables or indicating differences
between groups.
• H0 represents the null hypothesis
• HA represents the alternate hypothesis
• H 0: There is no relationship between stress experienced on the job and
the job satisfaction of employees.

Statement of Hypotheses: Formats
• If–Then Statements
• A hypothesis can also test whether there are differences
between two groups (or among several groups) with
respect to any variable or variables. To examine whether or
not the conjectured relationships or differences exist, these
hypotheses can be set either as propositions or in the form
of if–then statements. The two formats can be seen in the
following two examples.
Employees who are more healthy will take sick leave less
frequently.
If employees are more healthy, then they will take sick
leave less frequently.

Directional and Non-directional Hypotheses
Directional Hypotheses
• If, in stating the relationship between two variables or
comparing two groups, terms such as positive, negative,
more than, less than, and the like are used, then these
hypotheses are directional because the direction of the
relationship between the variables (positive/negative) is
indicated, as in example 1 below,
• or the nature of the difference between two groups on a
variable (more than/less than) is postulated, as in 2nd
example.
• Example 1. The greater the stress experienced in the job, the
lower the job satisfaction of employees.
• Example 2. Women are more motivated than men.

Non-directional Hypotheses
• Non-directional hypotheses are those that do postulate a relationship or
difference, but offer no indication of the direction of these relationships or
differences.
• In other words, though it may be conjectured that there would be a significant
relationship between two variables, we may not be able to say whether the
relationship would be positive or negative,
• Likewise, even if we can conjecture that there will be differences between two
groups on a particular variable, we will not be able to say which group will be more
and which less on that variable
 There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction.
 There is a difference between the work ethic values of American and
Asian employees.
Non-directional hypotheses are formulated either because the
relationships or differences have never been previously explored
and hence there is no basis for indicating the direction, or because
there have been conflicting findings in previous research studies
on the variables.

Type I and Type II errors
Type I (false positive – i.e. rejecting null hypothesis incorrectly)
or Type II errors (false negative – i.e. rejecting alternate
hypothesis incorrectly)