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Curriculum development
Introduction:
The term “curriculum” is a latin word currere which means running, race,
lap or course, which are taken to reach a goal, it is the last meaning that is closer
to the accepted use of the word in education, i.e. as applied to a courseof study.
Thus curriculum means a courseto be run for reaching certain goal or
destination.
Curriculum may be considered as a blue print of an educational
programme. It is the base of education on which the teaching learning process is
planned implemented.
The conceptof curriculum has changed from time to time. If one goes
through the traditional books oncurriculum and the modern books on
curriculum one will realize, leading to the goal.
Definition:
 “Curriculum is a tool in the hands of an artist to mould his material,
according to his ideals in his studio”- Cunningham.
 “The sum total of student activities which the schoolsponsorsforthe
purposeof achieving its objectives”- Alberty.
 “Curriculum is a systematic arrangements of the sum total of selected
experiences planned by a schoolfor a defined group of students to attain
the aims of a particular educational programme”- Florence Nightingale.
Determinants and foundation of curriculum:-
The development of curriculum depends largely on three fields:
 Philosophy
 Sociology
 Psychology
The knowledge of three fields will help them to satisfy their lives within the
context of the society

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Philosophical determinants of curriculum:-
Philosophy is a powerful determinant factor of aims of education, but is also
equally a strong deciding factor of contents and methods of education
It aims at the all-round development of the individual
It is based on the philosophy of nation.
It reflects the ideals and aspirations og the people
It inculcates the desired ideals of life in the youngsters.
It helps in the development of proper philosophy of life.
It is in accordancewith the aspiration level of the individual
It enables the learners to learn the desirable cultural values, intellectual
virtues, social norms, and moral doctrine.
IT helps in develop in personal and national character.
The philosophical foundation of education includes:-
1. Child- centeredness (naturalistic philosophy)
2. Need- centeredness (pragmatic philosophy)
3. Activity- centeredness ( projects and basic curriculum)
Sociological determinants of curriculum:-
Schools are the social institutions specially set up for the preservation and
transmission of culture by society seek to discharge this function through the
curriculum.
Sociological consideration that guide the curriculum development are-
Core values and needs of Indian society
Changing values of the people
Demands of modernization
Good family life, ways of life
Democratic temper of teh society

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Faith, beliefs and attitudes of the people
Cooperation
Media explosion
Population explosion
Regional and national imbalance
Economic efficiency
Education for fellowship and leadership
Creative and purposefulactivities
Cultural, political factors
Knowledge attitude, beliefs
Psychological determinants:-
Knowledge of the nature of the learner and learning process and the
conditions facilitating optimum learning
Knowledge of growth and development
Intelligent, development capacities
Curriculum to be child centered, learning experiences should be provided in
accordancewith the mental development of learner i.e. ability grouping
Interests of the learner

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Process & steps of curriculum development
Introduction:-
Curriculum development is an on-going society is not static; therefore its needs
are not static. Improvement in general education, changes in traditional
customs, advances in medical sciences, research in nursing and increasing
availability of resources – all have an effect on nursing education, so that
evaluation and modification of the curriculum are essential if the programme
offered y the school/college is to keep pace which a particular school/ college of
nursing plans for its students and which is developed by the members of its own
curriculum committee.
Defintiton:-
Beane, Toerpter and Alessr (1986) defined curriculum development in their
book, “curriculum planning and development”- “curriculum development is
mainly concerned with the design of plans for actual teaching-learning
situations. It is based upon the broad goals and identified ways to translate those
goals into a co-ordinated and coherent programme of learning experience”.
Phases of curriculum process:
The curriculum is based on the philosophy and purposes ofthe schoolor
college or university and its construction requires an understanding of
educational psychology together with knowledge and skill in the principles and
practice of nursing education. There are five steps in the development of the
curriculum.
There are five phases in curriculum process,which include as follow:
Phase I – formulating the statement of philosophy of the schoolor college or
university
Phase II- establishment of purposes and objectives of the schoolor college or
university.
Phase III- selection of learning experience to achieve the purposes and
objectives
Phase IV – Effecting organization of the selected learning experience.

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Phase V- Evaluation of the total program.
Phase I :- Formulating the statement of Philosophy
The philosophy and administration of schoolor college, institution or education
program originates from the Board of Trustees and its member constituted by
the government or any private trust, who are expected to become acquainted
with the interests and problems in the community. For example, community
may decide to organize hospital for care of sick, organisation of university or
college or schoolof nursing may follow.
o An educational philosophy states the values which are believed to be
right, true and good by the persons responsible for he schoolor college.
o An educational philosophy will be unique to the particular society
and individuals whom it serves.
Philosophy
Purpose/
Objectives
Selection of
learning
experience
Organization of
learning experience
and content
Evaluationof total
programme
Curriculum
process

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o All teaching staff should participate in the formation of the school
philosophy or college philosophy
o College or schoolphilosophy is used as a screen
o College or schoolphilosophy should not conflict with the philosophy
of the institution of which it is a part.
o College or schoolphilosophy should be re-examined periodically to
determine its suitability in the light of changing condition.
Phase II:- Aims, Goals and Objectives
One of the major difficulties of the curriculum process is the transition from
general aims to the particular objectives of the classroom. Whether the aims of
the educational process are stated as a part of the curriculum process
 The ultimate goals are the expected outcomes expressed as patterns
or categories of behaviour
 Ultimate goals are the expected end products ofan education carried
out over time.
 Mediate goals are the patterns of expected behaviour at given stages
over the educational period.
 It is doubtful whether specific objectives can be determined in phase
I at all, because they are concerned with fairly discrete educational goals
the classroom level.
Aims & Objectives of Basic B.Sc Nursing
Aims:-
The aim of the basic B.S.c Nursing program is to :-
 Provide a balance of professional and general education
 Enable a student to become a professional nurse practitioner

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 Prepare graduated to assume responsibilities as professional,
competent nurses and midwives in providing promotive, preventive
curative and rehabilitative services.
 Prepare nurses who can make independent decisions in nursing
situations, protectthe rights and facilitate individuals and groups in
pursuit of health, function in the hospital, community nursing services,
and conductresearch studies in the area of nursing practice. They are
also expected to assume the role of teacher, supervisor, and manager
in a clinical/ public health.
Objectives:
On completion of the four year B.Sc nursing program the graduate
will be able to:-
 Apply knowledge from physical, biological, and behavioural
sciences, medicine including alternative systems and nursing in providing
nursing care to individuals, families and communities.
 Demonstrate understanding of life style and other factors, which
affect health of individuals and groups
 Provide nursing care based on steps of nursing process in
collaboration with the individuals and groups
 Demonstrate critical thinking skill in making decisions in all
situations in order to provide quality care.
 Utilize the latest trends and technology in providing health care
 Understanding of fundamental principles of administration and
organization of nursing services.
 Understanding the human behaviour and an appreciation of effective
interpersonal relationship with individuals, families and groups.
 Appreciation of the various factors affecting the community social,
health and welfare programme
 Ability to assume responsibility for continuing learning and for
increasing competence in nursing practice.

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 Appreciation of professional attitudes necessary for leadership roles
in nursing
 Demonstrate skills in teaching to individuals and groups in clinical/
community health settings
 Participate effectively as member of the health team in health care
delivery system
 Demonstrate leadership and managerial skills in clinical/ community
health setting.
 Conductneed based research findings to improve the quality of care
 Demonstrate awareness, interest, and contribute towards
advancement of self and of the profession.
Phase III:- Selection of Learning Experience
Even if the general aims are derived and stated apart from the
process ofcurriculum developmet, it is obvious that data useful in the three-step
process in phase I must be derives from the behavioural sciences. In order to
achieve ends, appropriate means are required. The means of instilling or
changing behaviour are through learning experiences. Phase II of th curriculum
process is concerned with the selection of appropriate experience to bring about
th desired behaviour specified in phase I. Though learning experience are
specific, they may be classified into general categories which deal with man’s
functioning in particular ways, or his interests in certain directions, or his
attempts to solve certain directions, or his attempts to solve certain kinds of
problems.
Learning and learning experience::-
Learning refers to a more or less permanent change n behaviour, which occurs
as a result of practice. The term behaviour, as is used here, demands special
attention. It refers to mental, emotional and physical reactions or responses so,
mental emotional and physical reactions or responses are behaviours.

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Classifications of learning experiences:-
Learning experiences can be classified into two categories i.e. direct
learning experiences and indirect learning experiences
Direct learning experiences:- there are firsthand experiences with
various objects or symbols. Some of the direct experience are as
follow.
- Observing samples or specimen
- Experimenting with physical and chemicals materials
- Setting up apparatus for experiment
- Operating machines
- Constructing models, charts, plans, diagrams
- Drawing figures, painting models
- Summarizing a lengthy description
- Collecting analysing and interpreting the data and generalizing
- Listing important facts andpoints
- Presenting ideas orally or in writing
- Conducting physical examination of clients
- Performing nursing procedures
- Handling different types of medical equipment
Indirect learning experience:-
These are those experiences which are not firsthand experiences. In
education program like nursing education in most of the time every student
cannot get direct experiences in all matters relating to nursing.

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Phase IV:- Organization and integration of Experiences and content
The major task to be attempted in phase IV is the combining of information
about experiences, including developmental sequences and stages discovered in
Phase II.
Phase IV is the phase which leads directly into teaching situation.
Phase V:- Evaluation of the Curriculum
The final phase in the curriculum process is the coming to conclusion about the
success orfailure, of the educational enterprise by means of some measurement
or assessment of change in behaviour.
STEPS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT:
According to Ralph Tyler, there are four main steps or tasks in curriculum
development. They are:-
1. Formulation of educational objectives
2. Selection of learning experiences
3. Effective and efficient organisation of learning experience
4. Evaluation of the curriculum
Formulation of educational objectives
Educational objectives are the statement of those desired changes in behaviour
as a result of specific teaching-learning activity or specific teacher-leaner
activity.
Data required for formulating educational objectives:
The following information will be formulate educational objectives in an
effective manner
1. Philosophical statement of the institute
2. Social and health needs of the society

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3. Needs of the student
4. Resources available in the society
5. Entry criteria of level of students
6. Specification of positions to be held by the student on the completion
of the programme like staff nurse, nursing tutor, etc.
7. Minimum requirements in terms of clinical and other facilities
prescribed by the statutory bodies like nursing council, universities etc.
8. Future trends in nursing
9. Criteria to be fulfilled in order to appear for internationally reputed
qualifying examinations like CGFNS, MOH exams etc.
Criteria for selection and statement of Objectives:
Following criteria will help to state the objectives in a meaningful way
Objectives has to be stated in terms of desired changes in behaviour
and the area of subject matter through which behaviour is to operate
Objective should be stated in the form which makes them most
helpful in selecting the learning experiences and guiding the reaching
activity.
The desired changes in behaviour should be consistent eith the
accepted educational objective
The objectives for the specific subjects or the units or lessons should
be direct contribution to attain the overall objective of the curriculum
The objective should be attainable and practicable in the specific
teaching-learning situation.
Objectives selected should be worth while
Objectives should be easily accepted and understood by the teacher
as well as students.

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Objectives should be cooperatively planed and developed by all
teachers and by the teacher and student whenever and wherever possible
Objectives have to be so worded that each statement contains only a
single objective
Objective should not too detailed
STEPS IN FORMULATION OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES:
According to Ralf Tyler, there are nine essential tasks or steps in the
formulation of educational objectives, they are:
Identify the needs of the learner
Identify the needs of the society
Study the suggestion of the experts
Formulate the philosophy
State the objectives gathered from various sources in a proper way
Formulate the theory of learning
Screen the objectives through educational philosophy & educational
psychology and select the appropriate ones
Defines the objectives clearly in terms of content
State the educational objectives in terms of behavioural outcomes or
change.
SELECTION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Learning experience is defined as deliberately planned experience in
selected situations where students actively participate, interact and which result
in desirable changes of behaviour in the students. In nursing education,
selection of learning experience is concerned with the decision about the
content of subject matter and clinical, community and laboratory practice. Thus,
selection of learning situation together with correspondinglearning activities
will comprise the learning experiences. When these are in relation to the
selection of subject matter, i.e. different theoretical are selected in terms of

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community and clinical nursing practice and laboratory work these will
constitute practical learning experience. In short, learning experience are those
experiences which make appropriate responses among students as indicated in
the objectives.
PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED IN THE SELECTION OF LEARNING
EXPERIENCES:
All learning needs should be in relation to the selected objectives
Learning activities should be in relation to those real life situations
where the students are expected to practice after being qualified.
Selection should be in a manner that there is an effective integration
between theory and practice
Reaction sought must be within the range of possibility for the
students concerned
The same learning experience will result in several outcomes and
several learning experiences may bring out the same outcome.
Learning experiences should be selected in such a way that learners
are constantly motivated
Learning experiences should be planned and organised in sucha way
that the student gets meaning out of each experiences and focus on the
future needs.
Learning is enhanced by utilizing a wide variety of teaching-learning
methods.
Students will learn effectively if the experiences are satisfactory to
them.
Learning experiences should consider the students ability to undergo
the desired changes in behaviour.
Learning experiences selected should be according to the needs of
the students and every student should be given similar learning
experiences.

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Learning experiences selected should provide same or equal chances
for all students.
ELEMENTS OF ORGANISING THE LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Elements to be considered while organising the learning experiences
are :-
Grouping learning experiences under subject heading
Preparation of master plan for curriculum
Placement of learning experiences in the total curriculum
Preparation of the correlation chart
Organisation of clinical experience in the total curriculum
Types of teaching system have to be followed
PREPARATIONOF MASTER PLAN FOR CURRICULUM
Preparation of master plan will guide teachers in the placement of subject matter
and clinical experience. This will give a clear picture as to how, in which year
and in what stage is the subject matter going to be taught and the relevant
clinical experience to be offered. Master plan should be prepared in accordance
with the requirement prescribed by the statutory bodies like Indian nursing
council and universities. The master plan also spell out the hours of planned
instructions an required hours of clinical experience per week or per moth of the
year, invariably the master plan explains the following
Total duration of programme
Explanation of different course of study with special reference to
theory and practical
Total allotted hours in terms of theory and practical
ORGANIZATION OF CLINICAL EXPERIENCE

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Organization of clinical experience in the curriculum is done on the basis of the
syllabus and regulations laid down by the statutory bodies like Indian nursing
council and universities. Organization of clinical experience is the responsibility
of the faculty. Clinical experience related to each courseshould be planned
according to the objectives so that students will get enough opportunities for
developing the desired nursing skills and attitude.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CLINICAL ROTATIONPLAN
Multiple factors influence the planning of clinical rotation plan. They are:-
Requirement stated by the statutory bodies like Indian Nursing
Council and universities.
The objectives of the course
Only a limited number of student can be posted in a particular
clinical area
Infrastructure of various clinical areas
Duration of experience in each area
Nurse educators available for supervision
PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPING CLINICAL ROTATIONPLAN
Principles related to the development of clinical rotation plan will help to
accomplish the objective of the clinical postings in a more effective manner.
A clinical rotation plan must be in developed accordancewith the
master plan of the curriculum
The master plan must be made in advance with the cooperation of all
the faculty members involved in the clinical teaching.
Maxims of teaching should be followed while selecting areas of
experience
Principle of continuing sequence and integration should be followed
to maximum extent.
Enough teaching staff should be made available in the clinical areas
for giving properinstructions to the students.

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Seeks suggestions of the nursing staff working to the suggestion of
nursing staff will help to postthe students in such a way that they will get
enough exposure
First year students should receive maximum supervision and
attention.
All students should get enough experience as per the clinical rotation
plan
All assignments related to the clinical area should be finished before
the completion of the postings.
Overcrowding in clinical areas with different groups of students is
not advisable.
EVALUATION OF CURRICULUM
Evaluation of nursing curriculum has becomea major concernof
nurse educators in recent years. Curriculum evaluation involves an assessment
of the philosophy of the institutions, programme goals of the institution, nursing
concepttaught in each course, course objective, teaching-learning methods,
courseevaluation methods and relationship of non-nursing courses to the
overall plan of study.
CORECURRICULUM
According to Fredgreaves, core curriculum means the central area of concern,
the central theme or thread which provides the main route for the students
through the curriculum or part of it. It can also mean the areas of curriculum
which are compulsory, rather than electives or special options. Nursing process
approachof giving nursing care can be regarded as the core curriculum in any
nursing educational programme.
MODELS OF CURRICULUM

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Models of curriculum help to understand the nature of curriculum. Some of the
useful curriculum models are discussed below in a very brief manner.
The behavioural Objective (produce) Model:-
This model was developed by Ralph Tyler (19550). He was one of the most
influential of the early curriculum theorists and has arguably developed a
considerable and lasting influence on present day thinking about the nature and
function of the curriculum. His theories reflect very much the need to organise
and the utility of purposeand concern for an end productof quality and
practical application. He views curriculum objectively and in terms of its
function and clearly includes teaching and learning as integral parts of it.
He identifies four fundamental questions to be answered in the
process ofdeveloping a curriculum.
a. What educational purposes should the schoolseek to attain, i.e.
objectives.
b. How can learning experiences be selected that are likely to be useful
in attaining these objectives
c. How can learning experiences be organised for effective instruction?
d. How can the effectiveness of learning experience be evaluated?
Stenhouse’s ProcessModel
Lawrence (1975) formulated the process model. This is an input model, i.e.
emphasis on learning experience or the process ofeducation. He believed that it
was possible to organise curriculum without having to specify in advance the
expected behavioural change in students. According the content of curriculum
can be selected on the basis that is suitable in itself and not merely as the means
to achieve behavioural objective.
Lawton’s Cultural Analysis Model

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Lawton’s model (1983) was a reaction against what he saw as the dangers of the
behavioural objectives models. This model proposesa curriculum planned on
the technique of cultural analysis. Culture is defined as the whole way of life of
society and the purposeof education is to make available to the next generation
what we regard as the most important aspects of culture. Cultural analysis is the
process bywhich the selection is made from the culture and in terms of
curriculum planning.
Beattie’s FourFold Model
Beattie (1987) suggest that there are four fundamental approaches in relation to
the task of planning a curriculum for nursing they are:-
1. The curriculum as a map of key subjects: approachconsists of
mapping out the key subjects in nursing curriculum
2. The curriculum as schedule of basic skills: this approach emphasis
the explicit specification of basic skills of nursing practice.
3. The curriculum as a portfolio of meaningful personal experiences:
this approachplaces the students at the centre of things by organising the
curriculum around their interests and experiences.
4. The curriculum as an agenda of important cultural issues: this
approachavoids giving detailed subject matter; focusing instead on
controversial issues and political dilemmas in nursing and health care.
Types of curriculum
Corresponding to the changes in the education system in our country
or in other countries there have been changes in the concepts and form of
curriculum. As new psychological, philosophical and sociological principles
modified the educational process, new types of curricula came into being. They
are:-
The traditional or subject centred curriculum
Child centred curriculum
Activity curriculum
Experience curriculum

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Undifferentiated curriculum
Basic education curriculum
Official curriculum
Hidden curriculum
Olivia Bevis recommends four types of nursing curricula namely the
Legitimate curriculum
Illegitimate curriculum
Hidden curriculum
Null curriculum
The officialcurricula include the stated curriculum framework with
philosophy and mission; recognised lists of outcomes, competencies, and
objectives for the programme and individual courses.
The operationalcurriculum consists of what is actually taught by the teacher
and how its importance is communicated to the student. The curriculum
includes knowledge, skills and attitudes emphasized faculty in the classroom
and clinical setting.
The legitimate curriculum: this is the one agreed by the faculty either
implicitly or explicitly. Sometimes it is written into plans, sometimes not. But,
regardless it is recognised and acknowledged by faculty and students as ‘real’
curriculum.
The illegitimate curriculum: this is the curriculum that, becauseof the
constraints of the behavioural objectives driven curriculum prevalent in nursing,
cannot be graded or officially acknowledge or sanctioned becauseit does not
lend itself to descriptors that are behavioural. It is the curriculum that values and
reaches, among many other things, caring compassion, power and its use.
Hidden curriculum: it is the curriculum in which we are unaware of the
messages given by the way we teach, the priorities we set, the type of methods
we use and the way we interact with students. This is the curriculum of subtle

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socialization of teaching how to think and feel like nurses. It is the curriculum
that covertly communicates priorities, relationships and values.
The Null Curriculum: this is the curriculum that exists only in the hearts and
mind of educators but seldom exists in reality. This may be because teachers are
not taught the art of provoking cognitive dissonanceand raising issues and
questions that supportthe general aims of education like critical thinking,
enquiry and intellectual development.
CURRICULUM FRAME WORKIN INDIA
Curriculum is a compositeof the entire range of experiences the
learner undergoes under the guidance of the schoolor college. It is a systematic
arrangement of the sum total of selected experiences planned by a schoolor
college or a defined group of students to attain the aims of a particular
educational program.
A curriculum directed to teh education of the nurses is designed within three
frameworks.
1. The legally established limits for the nursing activities of the nurses
within the individual state or union and union territories
2. The natural roles of nurse in the profession of nursing
3. The types of nursing situations or areas where specifically qualified
persons are able to learn for nursing.
The provisions of the states or union relative to the objectives and education of
nurses vary, but they are based upon the limited roles of nurses in nursing
profession. There will be common curricula for one state or country that will be
requirements which is prescribed by the statutory bodyin the form of syllabus.
In Indian Nursing Council” is the statutory bodywhich prescribes syllabus for
all levels of nursing programs. It may be ANM,GNM, B.S.c, M.Sc, M.Phil, PhD
courses.