1. Learning by Consequence
Part II
Higher National Diploma in Psychology
Module Code GP003
Kumari Karandawala
BA Psycology (Hons) (US)
MSc.(MSSW) In Social Enterprise Management
and International Social Work / Development

2. Extinction
• In Classical conditioning is a weakening Conditioned Response:
The right circumstances produce extinction, which is the gradual weakening
and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency
produced by the consistent presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone,
without the unconditioned stimulus.**
• In operant conditioning extinction refers to the gradual weakening and
disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer
followed by reinforcement.
For example, in lab studies with rats this situation usually occurs when the
experimenter stops delivering food as reinforcement for lever pressing.
*When extinction process begins a brief surge often occurs in the rat’s
responding, followed by a gradual decline in response rate until it approaches
zero.

3. Extinction
• In operant conditioning extinction refers to
the gradual weakening and disappearance of
a response tendency because the response is
no longer followed by reinforcement.
For example, in lab studies with rats this situation usually occurs
when the experimenter stops delivering food as reinforcement for
lever pressing.
*When extinction process begins a brief surge often occurs in the
rat’s responding, followed by a gradual decline in response rate
until it approaches zero.

4. Extinction
• Key issue: How much resistance to extinction an organism will
display when reinforcement is halted.
• Resistance to extinction occurs when an organism continues
to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer for it has
been terminated.
• The greater the resistance to extinction the longer the
responding will continue. If a researcher stops giving
reinforcement for lever pressing and the response tapers off
very slowly, the response shows high resistance to extinction.
• If the response tapers off quickly it shows relatively little
resistance to extinction.
• Source: Weiten, W. (2005). Psychology Themes and Variations, Sixth Edition

5. Stimulus Control:
Generalization and Discrimination
• Operant responding is ultimately controlled by its
consequences, as organisms learn response-outcome (R-O)
associations.
• Stimuli that precede a response, however, can also
influence operant behavior
• When a response is consistently followed by a reinforcer in
the presence of a particular stimulus, that stimulus comes
to serve as a “signal” indicating that the response is likely to
lead to a reinforcer.
For example, a pigeon quickly learns that pecking at the disk
only when the light is on elicits a reward. The light that signals
the availability of reinforcement is called a discriminative stimulus.

6. Discrimination
• Discriminative Stimuli are cues that influence operant
behavior by indicating the probable consequences
(reinforcement or non-reinforcement of a response.)
• Discriminative stimuli play a key role in the relation of
operant behavior. (For eg. Birds learn that hunting for
worms is reinforced after a rain. Drivers learn to slow down
when the highway is wet.)
• Reactions to a discriminative stimulus are governed by the
processes of stimulus generalization and stimulus
discrimination just like reactions to a CS in classical
conditioning.

7. Delayed Reinforcement
• Reinforcement is delayed whenever there is
period of time between the response
producing the reinforcer and its subsequent
delivery. This time period has been arranged
in different ways. Skinner (1938) programmed
the delay in the presence of the same stimuli
that were in effect during the nondelay
period.

8. Conditioned Reinforcement
• Conditioned or secondary reinforcers are
events that acquire reinforcing qualities by
being associated with primary reinforcers.
• Examples of common secondary reinforcers
among humans are money, good grades,
attention, flattery, praise, applause.
• Secondary because they people learn to earn
them.

9. Schedules of Reinforcement
Reinforcement Schedules
Let’s say I want my boyfriend to lose weight and I am going to use operant
conditioning to help him. There are several ways I can give him the
reinforcements and each may have a different affect on both the acquisition
and extinction of his behaviors.
• Fixed-Ratio Schedule: provides the reinforcement after a set
number of responses. So I give my boyfriend a neck massage
for every pound that he loses.
• Variable-Ratio Schedule: provide the reinforcement after a
random number of responses. So I give my BF a massage
after 1 pound, then maybe 3, then I might wait for 6 pounds,
then go back to one pound. Here acquisition takes longer to
set in, but it is also more resistant to extinction.
Can you think of why?

10. Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed-Interval Schedule: a fixed amount of time passes
before the reinforcement is given. So I give my BF a
massage for every 24 hours he stays on his diet.
• Variable- Interval Schedule: a random amount of time
passes before the reinforcement is given. So I give my
BF a massage after 24 hours and then 10 hours of
dieting and then 5 and then 48 etc…. Once again the
variable schedules (both ratio and interval) are more
resistant to extinction but also more difficult to acquire
acquisition.

11. Negative and Positive Reinforcement
• Negative Reinforcement when a response is
strengthened because it is followed by the
removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus.
- Involves a favorable outcome that strengthens a
response tendency resulting from the removal of an
aversive stimulus.
• Positive Reinforcement occurs when a response is
strengthened because it is followed by the
presentation of a rewarding stimulus.

12. Escape
• In Escape Learning, an organism acquires a
response that decreases or ends some
aversive stimulation.
• Example: Dogs and rats experiment in
Laboratory Shuttle box:
• Shuttle box has two compartments; animal is
placed in the section that generates shocks.
The animal learns to escape into the other
compartment which has no shocks.

13. Avoidance
• Escape learning often leads to avoidance
learning.
• In Avoidance learning, an organism acquires a
response that prevents some aversive stimulation
from occurring.*
• Eg. Shuttle box studies - experimenter gives the
animal a signal that the shock is coming. This
signal alone then has the animal running into the
second compartment exhibiting avoidance
learning.

14. Avoidance Learning
• where classical conditioning and operant
conditioning work together to regulate behavior.
• In avoidance learning, the warning signal or light
becomes a CS (through classical conditioning)
eliciting reflexive, conditioned fear in the animal.
• The response of fleeing to the other side of the
box is operant conditioning which is strengthened
by negative reinforcement because it reduces the
animal’s conditioned fear.

15. References
• Skinner, B. F. (1938). The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental
Analysis. New York: Appleton-Century.
• Skinner, B. F. (1948). 'Superstition' in the pigeon. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 38, 168-172.
• Thorndike, E. L. (1905). The elements of psychology. New York: A. G.
Seiler.
• McLeod, S. A. (2007). B.F. Skinner | Operant Conditioning. Retrieved
from http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
• http://www.appsychology.com/Book/Behavior/operant_conditionin
g.htm
• Source:
http://www.southalabama.edu/oll/mobile/theory_workbook/
social_learning_theory.htm
• Weiten, Wayne (2005). Psychology: Themes and Variations –
Sixth Edition.

16. THE END
• QUESTIONS?
THANK YOU!