Sociology

1. René Descartes (French philosopher)
Born: March 31, 1596, Descartes, France Died: February 11, 1650, Stockholm, Sweden Place of
burial: Église de Saint Germain des Prés, Paris, France Siblings: Anne Descartes, Jeanne Descartes, Pierre
Descartes, Joachim Descartes Parents: Joachim Descartes, Jeanne Brochard Education: University of
Poitiers (1614–1616), Prytanée National Militaire De La Flèche, Leiden University, University of Franeker
Biography
• René Descartes was a French philosopher, scientist, and mathematician, widely considered a seminal
figure in the emergence of modern philosophy and science. Mathematics was central to his method of
inquiry, and he connected the previously separate fields of geometry and algebra into analytic geometry
• Descartes has been heralded as the first modern philosopher. He is famous for having made an
important connection between geometry and algebra, which allowed for the solving of geometrical
problems by way of algebraic equations
• Descartes argued the theory of innate knowledge and that all humans were born with knowledge
through the higher power of God. It was this theory of innate knowledge that was later combated by
philosopher John Locke (1632–1704), an empiricist.
• In the Meditations and related texts from the early 1640s, Descartes argues that the self can be
correctly considered as either a mind or a human being, and that the self's properties vary
accordingly. For example, the self is simple considered as a mind, whereas the self is composite
considered as a human being
• He resolves the problem of personal existence in one of the most famous philosophical
statements of all time, Cogito ergo sum, or “I think, therefore I exist.” He also offers rational
proofs that the human mind is separate from the body, that the mind outlives the body, and that God
exists
• According to Descartes, a human being is a union of mind and body, two radically dissimilar
substances that interact in the pineal gland. He reasoned that the pineal gland must be the uniting point
because it is the only nondouble organ in the brain, and double reports, as from two eyes, must have
one place to merge.
• According to Descartes, God's existence is established by the fact that Descartes has a clear and
distinct idea of God; but the truth of Descartes's clear and distinct ideas are guaranteed by the fact
that God exists and is not a deceiver.
• Rene Descartes, a 17th century French philosopher believed that the origin of knowledge comes
from within the mind, a single indisputable fact to build on that can be gained through individual
reflection.
• Famous line of Descartes “Cogito ergo sum. (I think, therefore I am.)”
Does Descartes believe in free will?
• Freedom is a central theme in Descartes's philosophy, where it is linked to the theme of the infinite:
it is through the freedom of the will, experienced as unlimited, that the human understands itself to bear
the "image and likeness" of the infinite God

2. • Descartes reiterates his view that freedom is essential to the will: acting “by means of the will” is
equated with acting freely; in the Fourth Meditation, Descartes identifies “will” with “freedom of choice.”
Furthermore, our acting by means of the will or freely is a “supreme perfection” in human beings;
What is the meaning of I think therefore I am?
• Phrase. I think therefore I am. (philosophy) I am able to think, therefore I exist. A philosophical proof
of existence based on the fact that someone capable of any forms of thought necessarily exists.
Immanuel Kant (Philosopher)
Born: April 22, 1724, Königsberg Died: February 12, 1804, Königsberg
• Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Born in
Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and
aesthetics have made him one of the most influential figures in modern Western philosophy.
• At the foundation of Kant's system is the doctrine of “transcendental idealism,” which emphasizes a
distinction between what we can experience (the natural, observable world) and what we cannot
(“supersensible” objects such as God and the soul). Kant argued that we can only have knowledge of
things we can experience
• Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher and one of the foremost thinkers of the
Enlightenment. His comprehensive and systematic work in epistemology (the theory of knowledge),
ethics, and aesthetics greatly influenced all subsequent philosophy, especially the various schools of
Kantianism and idealism
What is Kant's most famous principle?
• The categorical imperative is Kant's famous statement of this duty: “Act only according to that maxim
by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.”
• Kant's theory of knowledge is summed up in a statement: “Thoughts without contents are empty;
intuitions without concepts are blind.” or lack of one element makes knowledge impossible. The
interplaying of sensibility (with its power to receive) and understanding (with its power to think) comes
about knowledge.
• Morally speaking, Kant is a deontologist; from the Greek, this is the science of duties. For Kant, morality
is not defined by the consequences of our actions, our emotions, or an external factor. Morality is
defined by duties and one's action is moral if it is an act motivated by duty.
What is Kant's universal law?
• One of Kant's categorical imperatives is the universalizability principle, in which one should "act only
in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a
universal law.” In lay terms, this simply means that if you do an action, then everyone else should also
be able to do it.
Does Kant believe in free will?
• Now, in GMS II, Kant had argued that for a will to act autonomously is for it to act in accordance with
the categorical imperative, the moral law. Thus, Kant famously remarks: "a free will and a will under
moral laws is one and the same" (ibd.

3. What is an example of Kant's moral theory?
• For example, if you hide an innocent person from violent criminals in order to protect his life,
and the criminals come to your door asking if the person is with you, what should you
do? Kantianism would have you tell the truth, even if it results in harm coming to the innocent person.
What does Kant say about freedom?
• Kant formulated the positive conception of freedom as the free capacity for choice. It asserts the
unconditional value of the freedom to set one's own ends. Autonomy of the will is the supreme principle
of morality and a necessary condition of moral agency.
Why is Kantian ethics the best?
• It is easier to determine an action as morally right in Kantian ethics than in utilitarian ethics.
When data is scarce, Kantian theory offers more precision than utilitarianism because one can
generally determine if somebody is being used as a mere means, even if the impact on human
happiness is ambiguous.
What is Kant's view on human dignity?
• Kant's main themes were these (Kant 2002: 214–45): all persons, regardless of rank or social class,
have an equal intrinsic worth or dignity. Human dignity is an innate worth or status that we did not
earn and cannot forfeit.
How did Immanuel Kant influence society?
• Kant not only influenced domestic policy, but international policy as well. In Perpetual Peace, he
determines how to ensure the welfare of the populace and how to achieve an alliance or
federation of states that renounce a fraction of their sovereignty in order to live in peace.