Increasing Cultural Understanding and Diversity in Applied Behavior Analysis Elizabeth Hughes Fong Saint Joseph’s University Seana Ficklin Multicultural Alliance of Behavior Analysts, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania Helen Y. Lee Boston University In recent years, the demands for behavior analysis to serve consumers with diverse cultural backgrounds have significantly increased. The field is in great need of culturally competent behavior analysts who can integrate appropriate cultural considerations to their programs. The field of behavior analysis can address this growing need by fostering cultural compe- tency in professional training through increasing relevant training opportunities and the development of culture- and diversity-relevant educational curricula and materials, and by supporting efforts to increase the number of ethnically and racially diverse behavior- analytic workforces in academic and professional settings. Together, we can promote cultural awareness and cultural competencies in professional behavior-analytic training. However, there are challenges for fostering culturally diverse professionals, especially during the academic training phase, which include language barriers, negative perceptions about cultures that are different from one’s own, microaggressions in work and academic settings, lack of mentoring opportunities, adverse campus climates, and tokenism. Some potential ways to address such challenges include the development of culture- and diversity- related curricula, mentoring opportunities, and greater support for minority and culturally diverse students and faculty. The purpose of this commentary was to increase awareness about the importance of cultural understanding and competency, as well as a diverse workforce in the field of behavior analysis, a necessary step to better serve those consumers from multicultural backgrounds. Keywords: behavior analysis, diversity, multiculturalism Today’s behavior analysts serve consumers from increasingly diverse ethnic, racial, and so- cioeconomic backgrounds, and this trend will likely continue as the field expands. To better serve consumers from different cultures, includ- ing historically marginalized ethnic and racial populations in the United States, the field of applied behavior analysis (ABA) needs to rec- ognize the cultural diversity of consumers and critically examine the role of culture in effective treatment design, practice, and delivery. Cul- tural competency is no longer an option but a necessity for serving an increasingly multicul- tural background of consumers. Behavior ana- lysts need to be aware of how their own cultural values and beliefs or the lack of understanding of their consumers’ cultures can negatively im- pact treatment and service delivery. To this end, we believe good starting points are the promo- tion of cultural understanding and skills in be- havior-analytic education and training and of supporting diversity in the ABA workforce. To- Edi.

1. Increasing Cultural Understanding and Diversity in Applied
Behavior Analysis
Elizabeth Hughes Fong
Saint Joseph’s University
Seana Ficklin
Multicultural Alliance of Behavior Analysts,
Swarthmore, Pennsylvania
Helen Y. Lee
Boston University
In recent years, the demands for behavior analysis to serve
consumers with diverse cultural
backgrounds have significantly increased. The field is in great
need of culturally competent
behavior analysts who can integrate appropriate cultural
considerations to their programs.
The field of behavior analysis can address this growing need by
fostering cultural compe-
tency in professional training through increasing relevant
training opportunities and the
development of culture- and diversity-relevant educational
curricula and materials, and by
supporting efforts to increase the number of ethnically and
racially diverse behavior-
analytic workforces in academic and professional settings.
Together, we can promote
cultural awareness and cultural competencies in professional
behavior-analytic training.

2. However, there are challenges for fostering culturally diverse
professionals, especially
during the academic training phase, which include language
barriers, negative perceptions
about cultures that are different from one’s own,
microaggressions in work and academic
settings, lack of mentoring opportunities, adverse campus
climates, and tokenism. Some
potential ways to address such challenges include the
development of culture- and diversity-
related curricula, mentoring opportunities, and greater support
for minority and culturally
diverse students and faculty. The purpose of this commentary
was to increase awareness
about the importance of cultural understanding and competency,
as well as a diverse
workforce in the field of behavior analysis, a necessary step to
better serve those consumers
from multicultural backgrounds.
Keywords: behavior analysis, diversity, multiculturalism
Today’s behavior analysts serve consumers
from increasingly diverse ethnic, racial, and so-
cioeconomic backgrounds, and this trend will
likely continue as the field expands. To better
serve consumers from different cultures, includ-
ing historically marginalized ethnic and racial
populations in the United States, the field of
applied behavior analysis (ABA) needs to rec-
ognize the cultural diversity of consumers and
critically examine the role of culture in effective
treatment design, practice, and delivery. Cul-
tural competency is no longer an option but a
necessity for serving an increasingly multicul-

3. tural background of consumers. Behavior ana-
lysts need to be aware of how their own cultural
values and beliefs or the lack of understanding
of their consumers’ cultures can negatively im-
pact treatment and service delivery. To this end,
we believe good starting points are the promo-
tion of cultural understanding and skills in be-
havior-analytic education and training and of
supporting diversity in the ABA workforce. To-
Editor’s Note. Alan Poling served as the action editor for
this article.—AP
This article was published Online First February 16, 2017.
Elizabeth Hughes Fong, Department of Health Services,
St. Joseph’s University; Seana Ficklin, Multicultural Alli-
ance of Behavior Analysts, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania;
Helen Y. Lee, Department of Psychological and Brain Sci-
ences, Boston University.
Helen Y. Lee is now at the Department of Comparative
Human Development, University of Chicago.
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Elizabeth Hughes Fong, Department of Health
Services, St. Joseph’s University, 5600 City Avenue, Post
Hall Room 123, Philadelphia, PA 19131-1395. E-mail:
[email protected]
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8. Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice © 2017 American
Psychological Association
2017, Vol. 17, No. 2, 103–113 2372-9414/17/$12.00
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bar0000076
103
mailto:[email protected]
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bar0000076
gether, we can enhance the quality of ABA
services to consumers from diverse ethnic and
racial minority groups by providing culturally
more effective and satisfying programs.
In the United States, racial and ethnic demo-
graphics have been undergoing significant
changes, with a rapid and considerable growth
of non-White populations during the last decade
(Humes, Jones, & Ramirez, 2011; U.S. Census
Bureau, 2013). For example, the non-White
Hispanic population grew by 43% between
2000 and 2010, and non-White Hispanics are
projected to constitute one third of the United
States population by the end of 2060 (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2013). Meanwhile, public
health services in the United States are signifi-
cantly ill-equipped to meet the needs of rapidly
growing multicultural populations over the past
few decades, and significant disparities already
exist in health-care quality and access (Brady,
Ho, Kelley, & Clancy, 2007; DHHS, 2014).
This unfortunate trend reflects a long history of
health-care inequality in the United States and

9. an ongoing struggle to remediate the disparity.
Elimination of the health-care disparity be-
tween the majority and ethnic and racial minor-
ity populations became a major part of the na-
tional health agenda particularly after the 1960s,
as a result of a number of historical and ongoing
social and cultural events and changes took
place, for example, the civil rights movement,
mental health reforms, and growing immigra-
tion (Derose, & Escarce, & Lurie, 2007; Hoff-
man, 2003; Smith, 1998). Over the years, vari-
ous stakeholders, including federal agencies and
public and private organizations, have worked
to address this inequality, and numerous schol-
ars have examined its causes, potential solu-
tions, and their outcomes (Fiscella, Franks,
Gold, & Clancy, 2000; Smedley, Stith, & Nel-
son, 2002; van Ryn & Burke, 2000). A large
body of literature has indicated that health-
service disparity is the result of complex mul-
tidimensional layers of barriers and requires
ongoing and wide-ranging corrections (Baker et
al., 2010; Flores, Abreu, Olivar, & Kastner,
1998). The barriers include consumers’ lack of
proficiency in the English language (illiteracy),
their negative perceptions of health establish-
ments, an insufficient number of health profes-
sionals with diverse cultural backgrounds, and
unsupportive social and academic systems that
fail to foster the potential of students of color to
become competent professionals. Presently, the
extent to which ABA professionals provide ser-
vice to culturally diverse and minority popula-
tions is unclear, as are the percentages of pro-

10. fessionals with different cultural backgrounds
(e.g., ethnic and racial backgrounds) and the
types of challenges professionals face when
working with individuals from cultural popula-
tions that are different from theirs.
The ABA field currently lacks culturally rel-
evant behavior-analytic knowledge and profes-
sional training materials. Yet, according to a
recent large-scale survey study by Fong, Jar-
muz-Smith, Dogan, Serna, and Woolery (2015),
behavior analysts are increasingly interested in
obtaining such knowledge. The study found that
the more experienced behavior analysts are, the
greater the importance they assign to including
cultural competency in professional training for
working with consumers from different cul-
tures. The study concluded that there is a grow-
ing and immediate need for developing and
testing professional development programs
aimed at increasing cultural competency.
As the field of behavior analysis currently goes
through an important phase in its growth, it is
necessary to recognize the cultural diversity of its
consumers and the impact of this diversity on
research and the theory, practice, and delivery of
ABA services. Cultural sensitivity can contribute
to creating better service for consumers from dif-
ferent cultural backgrounds and greater service
equality for minority populations. In particular, we
believe that increasing diversity in the behavior-
analytic workforce, together with developing cul-
ture-relevant education and training materials, can
play a pivotal role in improving the cultural com-
petencies of behavior analysts and better serving

11. diverse populations. In this commentary, we ex-
amine the important role of culture in health ser-
vices and the importance of fostering racially and
ethnically diverse professionals. Then we discuss
social barriers that need to be addressed to achieve
this cultural diversity, as well as potential solu-
tions to these challenges. Finally, we present our
conclusion and future research directions.
Importance of Cultural Understanding
and Diversity
Culture plays a critical role in how individu-
als develop and function in a society; it guides
and shapes their values, beliefs, and behavior
104 FONG, FICKLIN, AND LEE
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throughout their lives (e.g., Shweder & LeVine,
1984). According to Skinner (1971), culture is a
collection of the contingencies of reinforcement
into which individuals are born and to which
they are exposed throughout their lives. The
contingencies are part of both the social and the
physical environment and may not be readily
observable, especially in the case of social con-

16. tingencies in which the reinforcers are values
and ideas that generate the behavior. Different
cultures offer unique contingency environments
that shape and influence individuals’ behavior
(Glenn, 2004; Skinner, 1971). In particular, cul-
ture influences the perceptions and behaviors of
clinicians as well as consumers, including their
expectations regarding appropriate behavior in
social situations (Glenn, 2004; Skinner, 1971).
Individuals’ cultural identities and connec-
tions to their families and communities are es-
pecially relevant in the mental health-service
setting. Culture may influence how a condition
impacts an individual and may manifest as a
syndrome (culture-bound syndrome) and also
affects how these are treated (Marsella &
Yamada, 2000). Specifically, culture can influ-
ence the likelihood of individuals seeking help
or treatment, the type of treatment they seek,
and the coping styles they use, within a broader
ecological context of available support systems
and stigmata attached to their conditions
(DHHS, 2001).
At the most basic level, cultural competency
begins with recognizing one’s cultural identity
(Fong, Catagnus, Brodhead, Quigley, & Field,
2016). Cultural identity can be viewed in terms
of distinguishable stimulus and response class-
es: Being aware of one’s cultural identity allows
for an awareness of how one’s values, prefer-
ences, characteristics, and circumstances may
differ from those of others. This self-awareness
can, in turn, help behavior analysts be vigilant
regarding unintentional biased perceptions or

17. disregard for others’ cultural beliefs and behav-
iors, thus allowing them to develop assessments
and interventions that are better suited to the
needs of their clients. Findings from psycholog-
ical studies have, in fact, shown that clinicians’
competency in cultural knowledge can signifi-
cantly improve the quality and effectiveness of
health-service delivery to minority populations
(e.g., Ngo-Metzger et al., 2006). Moreover, cul-
tural sensitivity and understanding can also help
clinicians build better relationships with con-
sumers with ethnic and racial minority back-
grounds who may have negative perceptions of
the establishment due to past unfair social and
political treatments.
A report from the Office of the Surgeon Gen-
eral (DHHS, 2001) suggested that minority pa-
tients were more likely to perceive that differ-
ences between their cultural values and beliefs
and those of mainstream ethnic majority clini-
cians could result in bias and inadequate service
on the part of the clinician. That is, when clini-
cians hold negative stereotypical images of a
minority, this can influence the type and timing
of the diagnosis and treatment options they give
to consumers. A study comparing the treatment
rate of European American and African Amer-
ican boys who received a diagnosis of attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) found
that the African American boys were less likely
to be recommended for and receive treatment
than were their European American counter-
parts (Maddox & Wilson, 2003). Clinicians
who are not culturally aware are more likely to

18. misunderstand cultural influences in differences
in normative behavior can lead to pathologizing
behavior (e.g., misperception and misdiagno-
sis), and therefore may be more likely to mis-
diagnosis minority clients (McIntyre, 1996). In
addition, studies have shown that differences in
the treatment of ethnic and racial minorities can
also result from other factors, such as limita-
tions of available health-care options, bias or
stereotyping in diagnosing minority consumers,
and a lack of culturally competent clinicians
(Bailey & Owens, 2005).
However, with proper education and training,
professionals of any cultural background can
develop the necessary skills to treat and interact
with consumers who come from outside their
culture. For example, Diller and Moule (2005)
suggested that teachers can be educated in cul-
tural competency by focusing on developing
personal and interpersonal awareness and sen-
sitivities, acquiring different bodies of cultural
knowledge, and mastering a set of skills for
effective communication and teaching. The Na-
tional Education Association (2008; NEA) fur-
ther developed these ideas and identified four
basic cultural competency skill areas for educa-
tors: valuing diversity, being culturally self-
aware, understanding the dynamics of cultural
interactions, and institutionalizing cultural
knowledge and adapting to diversity. Specifi-
105CULTURE UNDERSTANDING AND DIVERSITY IN ABA
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cally, professionals need to value diversity and
respect different cultural values, traditions, and
communicative styles; be aware of ways in
which their own cultural beliefs, values, and
knowledge shape who they are within their so-
cial and cultural community and how they be-
have with others; and understand that a number
of factors can influence dynamic cultural inter-
actions, including historical experiences. Fi-
nally, there is a need to institutionalize the prac-
tice of integrating the cultural backgrounds of
students and knowledge about these into learn-
ing environments. The NEA argued that with
the development of educators’ cultural attitudes,
skills, and knowledge toward valuing diversity,
they will be better equipped to serve diverse
children. Similarly, by cultivating cultural com-
petence in behavioral analysts’ education and
training, the field of ABA can better serve di-
verse populations.
In addition to focusing on educating ABA
professionals in general, another way to
strengthen cultural competence in the field is to
increase the number of culturally diverse pro-
fessionals. Health studies have long established
that increasing the number of ethnically and
racially diverse health professionals is a critical

24. component for serving their communities more
efficiently (e.g., Phillips & Malone, 2014) and
closing the gap in health-care disparity
(Thomas, 2014). Cultural natives can overcome
communicative barriers with non-English-
speaking or illiterate consumers and can also
more accurately understand culture-related en-
vironmental contingencies and contexts, and
thus help in assessing and designing socially
(culturally) appropriate behavior programs.
They can also help in building trust and main-
taining rapport with consumers by virtue of
being members of a racial or ethnic group, and
therefore knowledgeable about its cultural nu-
ances in social interactions.
The ABA profession can benefit from cultur-
ally knowledgeable analysts in its efforts to
effectively reach and work with diverse cultural
populations. Culturally diverse professionals
can introduce ABA to ethnic and racial com-
munities that may not be familiar with the field,
and can also share their cultural knowledge with
other professionals who may not readily under-
stand or may even miss subtle environmental
contingencies (Bolling, 2002). A culturally di-
verse group of behavioral analysts can serve as
a valuable pool of informers who can share their
cultural knowledge and contribute to the devel-
opment of cultural concepts relevant to behav-
ior-analytic theory, research, and practice in line
with the core mission and principles of ABA.
In sum, building cultural competency will
contribute to the critical task of enhancing ABA

25. professionals’ ability to work effectively in
cross-cultural settings. The best ways to accom-
plish the latter involve developing culture-
relevant educational and training materials and
curricula along with fostering diversity in the
behavior-analytic field by having more minority
and culturally diverse groups participate and
share their cultural knowledge to advance ABA.
Barriers to Increasing Diversity
Although various government and public and
private organizations and institutions have de-
voted considerable effort to increasing ethnic
and racial diversity in the health-care service
area, barriers continue to exist. Among various
views that have been used to examine the chal-
lenges associated with achieving health equal-
ity, the critical race theory (CRT) framework
provides useful insights for understanding the
social and economic factors that underlie sys-
tematic resistance to diversity. CRT attempts to
understand race, racism, and inequality by ex-
amining the power relationship in which the
dominant culture’s ideology impacts popula-
tions of people who are in the minority with
respect to race, gender, and class (Solórzano,
1997, 1998; Solórzano & Delgado Bernal, in
press; Solórzano & Yosso, 2000). In this view,
the health-service disparity is a result of imbal-
anced social and economic power relationships
among major and minor ethnic and racial pop-
ulations that have manifested as discouraging
messages in subtle and overt everyday interac-
tions and limited access to resources (Solór-
zano, 1997, 1998; Solórzano & Delgado Bernal,

26. in press; Solórzano & Yosso, 2000). CRT offers
insights, perspectives, methods, and pedagogies
that can guide our efforts to identify, analyze,
and transform the structural and cultural aspects
of education that maintain dominant and subor-
dinate racial positions inside and outside the
classroom (Matsuda, Lawrence, Delgado, &
Crenshaw, 1993; Tierney, 1993). In what fol-
lows, we review some key features identified by
CRT to describe the barriers to achieving diver-
106 FONG, FICKLIN, AND LEE
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sity that need to be overcome. These include
racial microaggressions, inadequate opportuni-
ties to receive mentoring, adverse campus racial
climates, and tokenism.
Microaggressions
Racial microaggressions are brief, uncon-
sciously denigrating messages to people of
color in the form of subtle snubs or dismissive
looks, gestures, and conversational tones during
everyday exchanges (Sue et al., 2007). There
are three forms of microaggressions: microin-

31. sults, -assaults, and -invalidations. Microinsults
are race-based statements that are rude and de-
meaning to a person (Clark, Mercer, Zeigler-
Hill, & Dufrene, 2012), such as insensitive
statements made to minorities about the “sur-
prising” capabilities they possess. Microassaults
are more blatant forms of racism meant to insult
or hurt the intended victim (Sue et al., 2007),
and microinvalidations are statements or actions
that invalidate or nullify a person’s feelings,
experiences, or beliefs based on his or her race
(Clark et al., 2012).
The literature suggests that such microag-
gressions are potential sources of stress for stu-
dents of color, especially in negative racial cli-
mates on campus. These stressors may involve
the European American majority’s precon-
ceived notion of how minorities make it to
college.
According to Sue et al. (2008), African
American students and staff have been per-
ceived in numerous focus-group studies as less
intelligent than ethnic majority individuals, as
potential criminals, or even as coming from an
inferior culture. Such negative perceptions can
have psychological implications and contribute
to racial disparities in employment, education,
and health care (Sue, 2010). When the micro-
aggressions are severe, minority students report
emotional distress: they feel overlooked, iso-
lated, and rejected, which leads to depression
and anxiety—and these can, in turn, impact
students’ academic engagement and subsequent
outcomes (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris,

32. 2004). Microaggressions, together with minor-
ity individuals’ feelings of alienation and pow-
erlessness, can lead to mental exhaustion and
significantly interfere with students’ ability to
fully engage in academic studies (Yosso, Smith,
Ceja, & Solórzano, 2009).
Lack of Opportunities to Receive
Mentoring
Inadequate opportunities to receive mentoring
constitute another barrier for minority students’
and junior faculty’s success in academic and pro-
fessional settings. According to Johnson and Rid-
ley (2004), mentoring is an informal, unofficial,
mutually agreed upon, and voluntary interaction
between two people in which one or more expe-
rienced persons share expertise with a less expe-
rienced person. The mentoring process involves
the mentee observing, questioning, and observing
while the mentors demonstrate, explain, and mod-
el. Although the literature suggests that mentor-
ship has a strong and essential role in facilitating
ethnic minority students’ success in completing a
degree program, mentoring opportunities remain
low, particularly opportunities with another mi-
nority member as a mentor (e.g., Gilbert & Ross-
man, 1992; Johnson, 2002).
As new faculty members, junior faculty can
better decipher an institution’s expectations
with respect to retention, tenure, and promotion
under the guidance of a mentor (Vasquez et al.,
2006). Minority faculty report that lack of sup-
port and guidance is a greater problem for them
in adjusting to their jobs than for their European

33. American counterparts, especially at predomi-
nantly European American institutions
(Vasquez et al., 2006).
Adverse Campus Racial Climate
An open, ethnically and racially diverse
climate is essential for encouraging minority
students to pursue further academic educa-
tion. The social climate of professional envi-
ronments is reflected in multiple layers of
institution-level access to academic re-
sources, beyond a cordial and friendly social
atmosphere for creative collaborations. A col-
legial racial climate that is positive entails
greater inclusion of minority students, fac-
ulty, and administrators, more diverse aca-
demic curricula and programs related to the
historical and contemporary experiences of
people of color, an active policy and pro-
grams to support the recruitment, retention,
and graduation of minority students, and a
university mission statement that includes the
institution’s commitment to pluralism (Yosso
et al., 2009). These elements are least likely
107CULTURE UNDERSTANDING AND DIVERSITY IN ABA
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38. to exist on campuses that have negative racial
climates.
Creating and maintaining a genuinely di-
verse racial environment has proved to be an
ongoing social and political challenge. Some
scholars have pointed out that, today, with
colorblindness and race-neutral politics being
popular notions, it is easier for many univer-
sities and institutions to endorse what seems
to be a diversity of convenience than to pur-
sue genuine diversity or pluralism (Yosso et
al., 2009). That is, universities may celebrate
diversity with ethnic food and fiestas but at
the same time fail to provide equal access and
opportunity for minority students. Such hap-
hazard endorsement of diversity does not nec-
essarily translate into tangible outcomes, ac-
cess to resources, or a positive campus racial
climate for minority students. The racial en-
vironment of college campuses can thus im-
pact the academic performance, retention, and
dropout rates of ethnic minority students.
Tokenism
Tokenism is a policy or practice that makes a
perfunctory effort or gesture to create a false
appearance of social inclusion and diversity by
including a limited number of members of mar-
ginalized groups (e.g., based on race or gender;
Jackson, Thoits, & Taylor, 1995). As a result,
small groups of members of ethnic minorities
can be perceived as representing an entire race

39. of people and culture on some college cam-
puses. As a form of tokenism, this perception
overwhelms members of ethnic minorities, who
are disproportionately called upon to mentor,
supervise, and facilitate the majority of campus
and departmental initiatives with multicultural
underpinnings (Bradley, 2005). For example,
African American faculty can suffer from com-
mittee overload with a disparate assignment to a
wide variety of committees (Haizlip, 2012). At
the same time, others may perceive that the
minority faculty member is incompetent and
unqualified to be a university faculty member
(Haizlip, 2012).
Recommendations for Increasing Cultural
Understanding and Diversity
Several recommendations for increasing cul-
tural understanding and diversity have been
proposed, with the ultimate aim of assisting the
field in building culturally competent profes-
sionals. The recommendations we have com-
piled from the literature are meant to serve as a
starting point for future work. These are devel-
oping culturally relevant curricula and training
opportunities in academic and other training
settings, providing positive mentoring opportu-
nities and support to minority students and fac-
ulty, and creating a diversity-friendly campus
environment.
Developing Culture- and Diversity-Related
Curricula and Training Opportunities

40. Over the past few decades, various health-
care professionals have been encouraged to in-
crease their cultural understanding and compe-
tencies to accommodate diverse ethnic and
racial populations. Notably in psychology, there
has been a significant increase in programs that
incorporate and emphasize cultural sensitivity
and diversity in their curriculum development,
as well as in internship settings (Rogers, Hoff-
man, & Wade, 1998; Rogers, & Molina, 2006).
The American Psychological Association ac-
creditation guidelines (American Psychological
Association [APA], 2003) prominently ac-
knowledge that multicultural and culture-
specific knowledge can help researchers, teach-
ers, therapists, and other applied practitioners
become more competent in their ability to un-
derstand and interact with consumers from dif-
ferent cultures. The APA accreditation commit-
tee, which accredits training programs in
counseling and clinical and school psychology,
requires that these programs provide diversity
education for students, as well as create an
ethnically and racially diverse faculty and stu-
dent body (APA, 2002).
In comparison, there is presently a dearth of
literature or educational materials for cultural
competency in ABA. There is a great need to
develop culture- and diversity-related curricula
and training opportunities in line with the the-
ory and practice of behavioral analysis. This
requires the concerted effort and dedication of
scholars and practitioners under the guidance of
the highest levels of leadership in ABA across
national and regional associations, academic in-

41. stitutions, and organizations. For example, a
task force composed of experts in culture and
108 FONG, FICKLIN, AND LEE
T
hi
s
do
cu
m
en
t
is
co
py
ri
gh
te
d
by
th
e
A
m
er

42. ic
an
Ps
yc
ho
lo
gi
ca
l
A
ss
oc
ia
tio
n
or
on
e
of
its
al
lie
d
pu

43. bl
is
he
rs
.
T
hi
s
ar
tic
le
is
in
te
nd
ed
so
le
ly
fo
r
th
e
pe

44. rs
on
al
us
e
of
th
e
in
di
vi
du
al
us
er
an
d
is
no
t
to
be
di
ss

45. em
in
at
ed
br
oa
dl
y.
ABA could begin by assessing the current status
of the field, its needs, and recommendations.
In academic settings, ABA faculty can play a
considerable role in creating an inviting multi-
cultural atmosphere in the classroom and in
developing appropriate culture-related curri-
cula. When professors are perceived as amiable,
nonjudgmental, and enthusiastic and their over-
all leadership in the classroom is encouraging
and positive, students report a greater positive
experience regarding their multicultural training
(APA, 2003; Lenington, 1999).
Increasing Opportunities for Mentoring
Increased opportunities to receive mentoring
from advanced students and faculty members
can significantly boost undergraduate minority
students’ academic attitudes and performance.

46. The literature suggests that although a racial
and ethnic match between mentor and mentee
can be useful, mentees nonetheless value the
opportunity to receive mentoring and the ac-
companying benefits even in the absence of
such a match, for example, when European
American professors and senior professionals
mentor ethnic minority students (Atkinson,
Neville, & Casas, 1991).
Moreover, when minority professionals pro-
vide mentorship to other ethnic minority and
nonminority students, they report a sense of
personal satisfaction in helping others and in-
creased enthusiasm about their own work (At-
kinson, Casas, & Neville, 1994). Thus, devel-
oping a greater pool of mentors, including those
with European American and minority cultural
backgrounds, and providing more opportunities
for minority students to serve as mentors them-
selves can contribute to positive academic and
educational experiences.
Along with academic guidance, mentoring
programs can help minority college students
develop a sense of belongingness. Programs
such as the Holmes Scholars Network (Lamb,
1999), the Compact of Faculty Diversity (Smith
& Parker, 2000), and the Preparing Future Fac-
ulty Program (DeNeef, 2002) that create a sense
of belongingness actively encourage minorities
to pursue additional education for careers that
lack sufficient minority representation through
supportive social networks and relationships.
Some scholars have also pointed out that in
addition to creating a positive social atmo-

47. sphere, it is important for mentorship efforts to
include opportunities for career development,
such as attending and presenting at national
conferences, publishing academic work, super-
vising, and networking with other practitioners,
scholars, and students of color, both within the
university and nationally (Haizlip, 2012).
Recognizing the benefits of mentoring, many
national organizations and institutions have de-
veloped and implemented various mentoring
programs. For example, the Committee for the
Advancement of Professional Practice (CAPP),
which oversees the American Psychological
Association, has developed multiple mentoring
models and programs to train practitioners in
essential professional skills and has dissemi-
nated the knowledge by working with state,
provincial, and territorial psychological associ-
ations (SPTAs; Burney et al., 2009). These in-
clude the Massachusetts Psychological Associ-
ation graduate student and early-career
psychologist (ECP) programs, the Texas Psy-
chological Association externship program,
practice advocacy programs, and the State
Leadership Conference (SLC) Diversity Initia-
tive. The core mission of these mentoring pro-
grams is to train students with a wide breadth of
knowledge related to effective professional and
clinical skills (Burney et al., 2009).
Similarly, the ABA field needs to develop
effective mentoring models that can support the
existing body of minority students and early
professionals and also to engender future men-

48. tors. National and regional level initiatives can
promote and encourage mentoring and network-
ing opportunities for minority students. In addi-
tion, mentors should receive training on how to
effectively mentor junior or new faculty, as well
as provide effective mentoring to multicultural
backgrounds of mentees.
Increasing and Supporting
Minority Faculty
Increasing the presence of minority faculty in
academia promotes student diversity and pro-
fessional development. More positive attitudes
toward diversity and the availability of trustful
and valued faculty mentors and opportunities
for research in ethnic-congruent areas influence
how a department is perceived by prospective
minority students (Jones, 1990; Muñoz-Dunbar
& Stanton, 1999; Rogers et al., 1998; Speight,
109CULTURE UNDERSTANDING AND DIVERSITY IN ABA
T
hi
s
do
cu
m
en
t
is

49. co
py
ri
gh
te
d
by
th
e
A
m
er
ic
an
Ps
yc
ho
lo
gi
ca
l
A
ss
oc

50. ia
tio
n
or
on
e
of
its
al
lie
d
pu
bl
is
he
rs
.
T
hi
s
ar
tic
le
is

51. in
te
nd
ed
so
le
ly
fo
r
th
e
pe
rs
on
al
us
e
of
th
e
in
di
vi
du

52. al
us
er
an
d
is
no
t
to
be
di
ss
em
in
at
ed
br
oa
dl
y.
Thomas, Kennel, & Anderson, 1995). Also, a
critical mass of minority students in a depart-
ment can facilitate recruitment of new minority

53. graduate students, who can, in turn, potentially
become faculty members (Maton, Kohout,
Wicherski, Leary, & Vinokurov, 2006). Thus,
this cycle can ultimately enhance the recruit-
ment, retention, and achievement of both under-
graduate and graduate minority students as well
as minority faculty members (Maton et al.,
2006).
Presently, the percentage of ABA faculty
who are members of minorities and the support
and challenges that exist for their career devel-
opment is not clear. The field can begin by
providing the necessary support for increasing
minority-faculty recruitment and developing
opportunities and incentives for their academic
development, especially in the early stages of
their careers. These opportunities could include
receiving mentoring from senior faculty mem-
bers who can help navigate the process of tenure
and promotion and ultimately the retention of
minority-faculty members (Ortega-Liston &
Soto, 2014), support for conference travel to
present academic work and network with other
professionals, and small grants for conducting
research. In addition, the exploration of doctoral
training grants to increase the number of diverse
students should be considered. There, efforts
should go hand-in-hand with encouraging
greater cultural diversity and ethnic and racial
inclusion in the field through institutional poli-
cies.
Acknowledgments of Past and
Current Efforts

54. The APA (2010) Ethical Principles of Psy-
chologists and Code of Conduct includes sev-
eral relevant guidelines related to working with
diverse populations, which provide guidance on
working within one’s boundaries of compe-
tence, maintaining competence, prohibiting dis-
crimination and harassment, avoiding harm,
avoiding exploitative relationships, and obtain-
ing informed consent. As previously mentioned,
the APA (2010) also created a task force and
guidelines on multicultural training, research,
practice, and organizational change for psychol-
ogists. Although the Behavior Analyst Certifi-
cation Board currently lacks guidelines with a
multicultural perspective, as suggested by Fong
and Tanaka (2013), they do have a professional
and ethical compliance code for behavior ana-
lysts that outlines parameters similar to the
Code of Conduct for expected behavior. In ad-
dition, the Association for Behavior Analysis
International put forth a policy on diversity and
has a special interest group dedicated to under-
standing and serving the needs of diverse pop-
ulations.
Conclusion and Future Research Directions
This commentary has highlighted the im-
portance of increasing cultural competencies
and diversity in the contemporary behavior-
analytic service field and has offered some
recommendations to address this issue. Al-
though there is no simple solution for such a
multilayered issue, becoming aware of the
cultural issues in the field would be a prom-

55. ising first step. The next step would be ac-
tively exploring cultural issues in research
and practice and evaluating their validity and
relevance in ABA more closely. For example,
in addition to adapting to the existing cultural
models offered by other disciplines, such as
health-care and education systems, the ABA
field needs to build and examine a cultural
framework appropriate to its own theory,
practice, and service. Furthermore, the field
needs to develop the necessary educational
and training materials related to cultural com-
petency to guide behavior analysts and ABA
students. Future work also needs to examine
the cultural backgrounds of behavior analysts
and consumers, culturally diverse consumers’
access to and satisfaction with ABA services,
and ways in which ABA can reach and con-
nect with culturally diverse populations.
Finally, we hope that a commitment to diver-
sity and cultural competence is actively shared
by professionals as well as individuals at the
highest level of ABA’s professional and aca-
demic organizations and leadership. The path to
increasing cultural understanding and diversity
in behavior analysis is a complex one that re-
quires a long-term commitment and continual
attention to provide more comprehensive and
competent services to a rapidly growing seg-
ment of consumers. It is work that has been long
neglected, and it deserves proper attention and
consideration in ABA’s contemporary develop-
ment and service.
110 FONG, FICKLIN, AND LEE

56. T
hi
s
do
cu
m
en
t
is
co
py
ri
gh
te
d
by
th
e
A
m
er
ic
an
Ps

57. yc
ho
lo
gi
ca
l
A
ss
oc
ia
tio
n
or
on
e
of
its
al
lie
d
pu
bl
is
he

58. rs
.
T
hi
s
ar
tic
le
is
in
te
nd
ed
so
le
ly
fo
r
th
e
pe
rs
on
al

59. us
e
of
th
e
in
di
vi
du
al
us
er
an
d
is
no
t
to
be
di
ss
em
in
at

60. ed
br
oa
dl
y.
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Received June 10, 2016

82. Revision received December 8, 2016
Accepted December 12, 2016 �
113CULTURE UNDERSTANDING AND DIVERSITY IN ABA
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b12-243.html
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b12-243.html
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gs/nhqrdr/nhqr13/2013highlights.pdf
http://www.ahrq.gov/sites/default/files/wysiwyg/research/findin
gs/nhqrdr/nhqr13/2013highlights.pdf
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gs/nhqrdr/nhqr13/2013highlights.pdf

87. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK44249/
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK44249/
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536%2899%2900338-X
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536%2899%2900338-X
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.2.157
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.2.157
http://dx.doi.org/10.17763/haer.79.4.m6867014157m707l
http://dx.doi.org/10.17763/haer.79.4.m6867014157m707lIncreas
ing Cultural Understanding and Diversity in Applied Behavior
AnalysisImportance of Cultural Understanding and
DiversityBarriers to Increasing DiversityMicroaggressionsLack
of Opportunities to Receive MentoringAdverse Campus Racial
ClimateTokenismRecommendations for Increasing Cultural
Understanding and DiversityDeveloping Culture- and Diversity-
Related Curricula and Training OpportunitiesIncreasing
Opportunities for MentoringIncreasing and Supporting Minority
FacultyAcknowledgments of Past and Current EffortsConclusion
and Future Research DirectionsReferences
EEE: 2220
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC
ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES
Lecture 3
1
LECTURE ROADMAP
• Circuit Analysis-Theorems

88. – Thevenin’s Theorem
– Norton’s Theorem
– Maximum Power Theorem
– Examples
2
Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem as applied to d.c. circuits is stated below :
• Any linear, bilateral network having terminals A and B can be
replaced by a
single source of e.m.f. VTh in series with a single resistance
RTh.
• (i) The e.m.f. VTh is the voltage obtained across terminals A
and B with load,
if any removed i.e. it is open-circuited voltage between
terminals A and B.
• (ii) The resistance RTh is the resistance of the network
measured between
terminals A and B with load removed and sources of e.m.f.
replaced by their
internal resistances. Ideal voltage sources are replaced with

89. short circuits and
ideal current sources are replaced with open circuits.
3
Thevenin’s Theorem
• Consider the circuit shown in Fig. (i). As far as the circuit
behind terminals AB
is concerned, it can be replaced by a single source of e.m.f. VTh
in series with a
single resistance RTh as shown in Fig. b (ii).
4
• (i) Finding VTh. The e.m.f. VTh is the voltage across
terminals AB with load
(i.e. RL) removed as shown in Fig. (ii).
• With RL disconnected, there is no current in R2 and VTh is
the voltage appearing
across R3
5
• (ii) Finding RTh. To find RTh, remove the load RL and

90. replace the battery by a
short-circuit because its internal resistance is assumed zero.
Then resistance
between terminals A and B is equal to RTh as shown in Fig.
3.84 (i). Obviously,
at the terminals AB in Fig. 3.84 (i), R1 and R3 are in parallel
and this parallel
combination is in series with R2.
6
Procedure for Finding Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
• (i) Open the two terminals (i.e., remove any load) between
which you want to
find Thevenin equivalent circuit.
• (ii) Find the open-circuit voltage between the two open
terminals. It is called
Thevenin voltage VTh.
• (iii) Determine the resistance between the two open terminals
with all ideal
voltage sources shorted and all ideal current sources opened (a
non-ideal source
is replaced by its internal resistance). It is called Thevenin

91. resistance RTh.
• (iv) Connect VTh and RTh in series to produce Thevenin
equivalent circuit
between the two terminals under consideration.
• (v) Place the load resistor removed in step (i) across the
terminals of the
Thevenin equivalent circuit. The load current can now be
calculated using only
Ohm’s law and it has the same value as the load current in the
original circuit.
• Note. Thevenin’s theorem is sometimes called Helmholtz’s
theorem
7
Practice Problems
• Use Thevenin's theorem to find the current flowing in the 10Ω
resistor for the
circuit shown in Fig below.
8

92. Solution
9
Practice Problems
• Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the current in 6 Ω resistor in
Fig.2 (i).
10