1. High Empire (96-192 CE)
Figure 10-41 Apollodorus of Damascus, model of Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE. Reconstruction by James E. Packer and John Burge. 1)Figure 10-41 Apollodorus of Damascus, model of Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE. Reconstruction by James E. Packer and John Burge. 1)
Temple of Trajan, 2) Column of Trajan, 3) Libraries, 4) Basilica Ulpia, 5) Forum, 6) Equestrian statue of Trajan.Temple of Trajan, 2) Column of Trajan, 3) Libraries, 4) Basilica Ulpia, 5) Forum, 6) Equestrian statue of Trajan.
-2nd
Century CE under Trajan, Hadrian and the Antonines = Roman empire reaches greatest geographic extent
and height of power
TRAJAN (98-117 CE) – SPANISH / government took on greater responsibility for its people’s
welfare, instituted social programs/ Trajan popular, granted title Optimus (the Best)
-New forum glorified Trajan’s victories in two wars against the Dacians/ huge basilica dominated colonnaded
open square/ temple located behind the basilica with two libraries and commemorative Column of Trajan/
equestrian statue of the emperor in center of court
-Basilica Ulpia (Trajan’s family name, Ulpius) had apses (semicircular recesses on each short end)/
entrances were on the long side (200 ft. wide)/ clerestory windows

2. Figure 10-42 Column of Trajan, Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE.Figure 10-42 Column of Trajan, Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE.
Figure 10-42 DetailFigure 10-42 Detail
Close detail: RomansClose detail: Romans
Crossing the DanubeCrossing the Danube
and Building a Fortand Building a Fort
Trajan’s Columnar Tomb
-Colossal freestanding column with a continuous spiral narrative frieze
invented here
-128 ft. high/ originally topped with nude statue of Trajan, lost in Middle
Ages and replaced with St. Peter/ square base decorated with captured
Dacian arms and armor and served as Trajan’s tomb (housed his ashes
and wifes)
-625 ft. band winds around column and, once painted, low reliefs depict
Trajan’s two successful campaigns against the Dacians/ story is told in
more than 150 episodes with about 2,500 figures/ bands increase in
width toward top of column so easier to see upper portions

3. Figure 10-43 APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, aerial view of Markets of Trajan,Figure 10-43 APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, aerial view of Markets of Trajan,
Rome, Italy, ca. 100–112 CE.Rome, Italy, ca. 100–112 CE.
Figure 10-44 APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, interior of the great hall, Markets of TrajanFigure 10-44 APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, interior of the great hall, Markets of Trajan
Markets of Trajan
-Housed shops and administrative offices
-Made of concrete
-Basic unit = Taberna (single-room shop covered by
barrel vault)/ wooden inner attic used for storage
-Opened onto paved street or onto a great indoor
market hall (resembled modern shopping mall)

4. Figure 10-45 Arch of Trajan,Figure 10-45 Arch of Trajan,
Benevento, Italy, ca. 114–118 CE.Benevento, Italy, ca. 114–118 CE.
Arch of Trajan
-Almost identical to Titus
arch, but relief panels
cover both facades
giving it billboard-like
function/ advertises
emperor’s achievements
-Reliefs present him as
guarantor of peace and
security, benefactor of
poor, patron of soldiers
and merchants = he was
“all things to all people”
-In arch’s attic he
intermingles with
divinities (divinely
sanctioned ruler in
company of gods)

5. Figure 10-46 Funerary relief of a circus official, from Ostia, Italy, ca. 110–130 CE. Marble, approx. 1’ 8” high. Vatican Museums, Rome.Figure 10-46 Funerary relief of a circus official, from Ostia, Italy, ca. 110–130 CE. Marble, approx. 1’ 8” high. Vatican Museums, Rome.
Trajan Restored Circus Maximus
-World’s best horse teams competed in chariot races at Circus Maximus
-Below: Art produced for working class = funerary piece of circus official/ continuous narrative = same figure
appears more than once in the same space at different stages of a story/ handshake between man and
woman is symbol of marriage in Roman art/ she is smaller = less important/ she is standing on base = statue
(not alive, died before her husband)

6. Figure 10-47 Portrait bust of Hadrian as general, from Tel Shalem,Figure 10-47 Portrait bust of Hadrian as general, from Tel Shalem,
Israel, ca. 130–138 CE. Bronze, approx. 2’ 11” high. Israel Museum,Israel, ca. 130–138 CE. Bronze, approx. 2’ 11” high. Israel Museum,
Jerusalem.Jerusalem.
Hadrian (117-138 CE)
(Spaniard, connoisseur and lover of all the
arts, author and architect)
-Trajan’s chosen successor
-More portraits of Hadrian exist today than
of any other emperor except Augustus
-41 years old at time of Trajan’s death and
always depicted as mature adult who never
ages
-Models for Hadrian’s artists = statues of
mature Greek men/ wearing a beard (Greek
influence)/ beards became norm for
emperors for more than a century and a half

7. Figure 10-48 Aerial view of theFigure 10-48 Aerial view of the
Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118–125Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118–125
CE.CE.
Figure 10-50 Interior of the Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118–125 CE.Figure 10-50 Interior of the Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118–125 CE.
Temple of All
Gods - Pantheon
-Façade is porch with
eight Corinthian
columns = traditional
-Revolutionary =
concrete cylinder with
hemispherical dome/
142 ft. in diameter/
142 ft. from dome top to
floor/
Domes thickness
decreases as nears the
oculus (30 ft. in
diameter and only light
source for interior)
Domes weight was lessened through
use of coffers (sunken decorative
square panels)
The interior is a single unified, self-
sufficient whole, uninterrupted by
supporting solids.
Walls of marble
veneer

8. Figure 10-53 Model of an insula, Ostia, Italy, second century CE. MuseoFigure 10-53 Model of an insula, Ostia, Italy, second century CE. Museo
della Civiltà Romana, Rome.della Civiltà Romana, Rome.
Figure 10-54 Ceiling and wall paintings in Room IV of the Insula of theFigure 10-54 Ceiling and wall paintings in Room IV of the Insula of the
Painted Vaults, Ostia, Italy, early third century CE.Painted Vaults, Ostia, Italy, early third century CE.
Ostia – Rome’s Harbor
City
90 % of Rome’s population of close to one
million lived in multistory apartment blocks
called insulae which were made of brick-faced
concrete
Shops occupied the ground floor, above were
apartments
Deluxe apartments had private toilets
Similar to modern day apartments
Finer apartments had mosaic floors and
painted walls and ceilings.
Right: Frescoed groin vault- central oculus-like
medallion surrounded by eight wedge-shaped
segments, each segment has white lunette with
paintings of birds and flowers

9. Figure 10-55 Neptune and creatures of the sea, floorFigure 10-55 Neptune and creatures of the sea, floor
mosaic in the Baths of Neptune, Ostia, Italy, ca. 140 CE.mosaic in the Baths of Neptune, Ostia, Italy, ca. 140 CE.
Figure 10-56 Funerary reliefs of aFigure 10-56 Funerary reliefs of a
vegetable vendor (left) and avegetable vendor (left) and a
midwife (right), from Ostia, Italy,midwife (right), from Ostia, Italy,
second half of second century CE.second half of second century CE.
Painted terracotta, approx. 1’ 5”Painted terracotta, approx. 1’ 5”
and 11” high, respectively. Museoand 11” high, respectively. Museo
Ostiense, Ostia.Ostiense, Ostia.
Baths of Neptune- Black and
White Floor Mosaic
Ostia – Workers’
TombsCommon people:
Communal tombs adorned with
small painted terracotta plaques
immortalizing activities of
middle-class merchants and
professional people
Vegetable seller
Midwife delivering baby
Scenes of daily life for Roman
funerary reliefs

10. Figure 10-57 Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina,Figure 10-57 Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina,
pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius, Rome, Italy, ca.pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius, Rome, Italy, ca.
161 CE. Marble, approx. 8’ 1 1/2” high. Vatican Museums,161 CE. Marble, approx. 8’ 1 1/2” high. Vatican Museums,
Rome.Rome.
Figure 10-58 Decursio, pedestal of the Column of AntoninusFigure 10-58 Decursio, pedestal of the Column of Antoninus
Pius, Rome, Italy, ca. 161 CE. Marble, approx. 8’ 1 1/2”Pius, Rome, Italy, ca. 161 CE. Marble, approx. 8’ 1 1/2”
high. Vatican Museums, Rome.high. Vatican Museums, Rome.
The Antonines (138-192
CE)(Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius
Verus)
After Pius’ death, Marcus and Lucius erected
memorial column
Pedestal:
Apotheosis (ascent to the heavens) of
Antoninus and his wife = classical tradition with
well-proportioned figures, personifications
(Rome with shield, Field of Mars as youth
holding Egyptian obelisk) and single ground
line corresponding to panel’s lower edge
Pedestal:
Decursio (ritual circling of the imperial
funerary pyre)/ adopted nonclassical
conventions of art of lower classes (stockier
figures, ground is whole surface of relief,
etc.)
Artists seeking new direction, looking at
plebeian art

11. Figure 10-59 EquestrianFigure 10-59 Equestrian
statue of Marcusstatue of Marcus
Aurelius, from Rome,Aurelius, from Rome,
Italy, ca. 175 CE.Italy, ca. 175 CE.
Bronze, approx. 11’ 6”Bronze, approx. 11’ 6”
high. Musei Capitolini,high. Musei Capitolini,
Rome.Rome.
Figure 10-60 Portrait of Marcus Aurelius, detail of a relief from a lostFigure 10-60 Portrait of Marcus Aurelius, detail of a relief from a lost
arch, Rome, Italy, ca. 175–180 CE. Marble, approx. life-size. Palazzo deiarch, Rome, Italy, ca. 175–180 CE. Marble, approx. life-size. Palazzo dei
Conservatori, Rome.Conservatori, Rome.
Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius
-Superhuman grandeur/ larger than normal in relation to
horse/ conveys awesome power of godlike Roman emperor
as ruler of whole world
-Medieval Period: was not melted down (pagan image)
because thought it was Constantine
-Inspired Renaissance sculptors to portray their patrons on
horseback
-Used drill for hair, beard and eyes creating
bold patterns of light and shadow
-Roman emperor appears weary, saddened
and even worried
-Sculptor went beyond verism to show the
ruler’s character, thoughts and his soul

12. Figure 10-61 Sarcophagus with the myth of Orestes,Figure 10-61 Sarcophagus with the myth of Orestes,
ca. 140–150 CE. Marble, 2’ 7 1/2” high. Clevelandca. 140–150 CE. Marble, 2’ 7 1/2” high. Cleveland
Museum of Art, Cleveland.Museum of Art, Cleveland.
Figure 10-62 Asiatic sarcophagus with kline portrait ofFigure 10-62 Asiatic sarcophagus with kline portrait of
a woman, from Rapolla, near Melfi, Italy, ca. 165–170a woman, from Rapolla, near Melfi, Italy, ca. 165–170
CE. Marble, approx. 5’ 7” high. Museo NazionaleCE. Marble, approx. 5’ 7” high. Museo Nazionale
Archeologico del Melfese, Melfi.Archeologico del Melfese, Melfi.
From Cremation
to Burial
-Romans began to
favor burial over
cremation.
-Required larger
containers for their
remains, this led to
sudden demand for
sarcophagi
-Greek mythology popular subject for
sarcophagi
-Repetition of sarcophagus compositions
indicates sculptors has access to
pattern books
-Sarcophagus production major industry
during High and Late Empire
-Western style = reliefs on front & sides,
Eastern style = reliefs on all four sides

13. Figure 10-63 Mummy portrait of a man, from Faiyum, Egypt,Figure 10-63 Mummy portrait of a man, from Faiyum, Egypt,
ca. 160–170 CE. Encaustic on wood, approx. 1’ 2” high.ca. 160–170 CE. Encaustic on wood, approx. 1’ 2” high.
Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo.Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo.
Roman Mummy Portraits
Egypt became Roman province in 30
BCE, continued to bury dead in
mummy cases
Painted portraits on wood with
encaustic replaced traditional stylized
portrait masks
Refined use of brush and spatula/
master of textures and light/ sensitive
portrayal of deceased’s calm
demeanor
Most likely painted when subject was
still alive

14. Late Empire
(192-337 CE)
Figure 10-64 Painted portrait of SeptimiusFigure 10-64 Painted portrait of Septimius
Severus and his family, from Egypt, ca. 200Severus and his family, from Egypt, ca. 200
CE. Tempera on wood, approx. 1’ 2”CE. Tempera on wood, approx. 1’ 2”
diameter. Staatliche Museen, Berlin.diameter. Staatliche Museen, Berlin.
Figure 10-66 Chariot procession of Septimius Severus, relief from the Arch ofFigure 10-66 Chariot procession of Septimius Severus, relief from the Arch of
Septimius Severus, Lepcis Magna, Libya, 203 CE. Marble, approx. 5’ 6” high. CastleSeptimius Severus, Lepcis Magna, Libya, 203 CE. Marble, approx. 5’ 6” high. Castle
Museum, Tripoli.Museum, Tripoli.
-Roman power begins to erode/ economy declines
-Pagan ancient world gradually transforms into the
Christian Middle Ages
The Severans (193-235 CE)
-Septimius Severus (African-born general) rules
-Left: Family Portrait/ tondo format painted with
tempera (pigments in egg yolk) on wood/ emperor’s
hair is gray = advanced age/ younger son erased by
older son, Caracalla (succeeded his father, had his
brother murdered, memory damned and ordered death
of his own wife)
Right: Relief from Arch of Severus/
Late Antique Style: no motion,
stately stillness/ second row figures
have no connection with ground
line/ frontal figures/ more non-
naturalistic, non-classical elements

15. Figure 10-65Figure 10-65
Portrait ofPortrait of
Caracalla, ca. 211–Caracalla, ca. 211–
217 CE. Marble,217 CE. Marble,
approx. 1’ 2” high.approx. 1’ 2” high.
MetropolitanMetropolitan
Museum of Art, NewMuseum of Art, New
York.York.
Figure 10-68 Reconstruction drawing of the central hall (frigidarium) of theFigure 10-68 Reconstruction drawing of the central hall (frigidarium) of the
Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy, 212–216 CE.Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy, 212–216 CE.
Figure 10-67 Plan of theFigure 10-67 Plan of the
central section of thecentral section of the
Baths of Caracalla,Baths of Caracalla,
Rome, Italy, 212–216Rome, Italy, 212–216
CE. 1) Natatio, 2)CE. 1) Natatio, 2)
Frigidarium, 3)Frigidarium, 3)
Tepidarium, 4)Tepidarium, 4)
Caldarium, 5) Palaestra.Caldarium, 5) Palaestra.
The bathing, swimming,The bathing, swimming,
and exercise areas wereand exercise areas were
surrounded bysurrounded by
landscaped gardens,landscaped gardens,
lecture halls, and otherlecture halls, and other
rooms, all enclosedrooms, all enclosed
within a great concretewithin a great concrete
perimeter wall.perimeter wall.
Ruthless Caracalla- His portrait captures his suspicious, fearful and brutal character
Erected Baths of Caracalla with imperial funds to
win public’s favor/ made of brick-faced concrete/
walls up to 140 ft. high/ covered almost 50 acres/
symmetrical in design/ cold, warm and hot water
baths/ had open-air performances/ fenestrated
groin vaults/ stuccoed vaults/ mosaic floors/
marble-faced walls/ colossal statuary/1,600
bathers at a time/ furnaces circulated hot air
through hollow floors and walls

16. Figure 10-71 Battle of Romans and barbarians (Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus), from Rome, Italy, ca. 250–Figure 10-71 Battle of Romans and barbarians (Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus), from Rome, Italy, ca. 250–
260 CE. Marble, approx. 5’ high. Museo Nazionale Romano-Palazzo Altemps, Rome.260 CE. Marble, approx. 5’ high. Museo Nazionale Romano-Palazzo Altemps, Rome.
Figure 10-71 DetailFigure 10-71 Detail
Roman general (perhaps Ostilianus, Emperor Dicius' son,Roman general (perhaps Ostilianus, Emperor Dicius' son,
died 252 AD) and his horsedied 252 AD) and his horse
Soldier Emperors (235-284 CE) – Time of continuous civil war, generals declared
emperors by troops, then murdered by other generals
-3rd
century burial of dead
widespread even in imperial family/
sarcophagi popular in Rome
-Above: Battle between Romans and Goths/ no illusion of space/
floating ground lines/ mass of intertwined, moving bodies/ central
horseman stands out = fearless commander assured of victory/
has emblem of Mithras carved on forehead (Persian god of light,
truth and victory over death)/ rejects classical style

17. Figure 10-72 Sarcophagus of a philosopher, ca. 270–280 CE. Marble, approx. 4’ 11” high. Vatican Museums, Rome.Figure 10-72 Sarcophagus of a philosopher, ca. 270–280 CE. Marble, approx. 4’ 11” high. Vatican Museums, Rome.
Insecurity of times led many Romans to seek solace in philosophy.
-On sarcophagi in 3rd
century, deceased assumes role of learned intellectual/ Roman philosopher holding
scroll, also might depict Christ flanked by his apostles (popular for Christian burials)/ frontal figure and
subordinate flanking figures are common in Early Christian art

18. Figure 10-73 Plan and reconstruction drawing of theFigure 10-73 Plan and reconstruction drawing of the
Temple of Venus, Baalbek, Lebanon, third century CE.Temple of Venus, Baalbek, Lebanon, third century CE.
Decline in respect for
classical art also seen in
architecture.
Temple of Venus - Stone
-Circular domed cella set behind
a gabled columnar facade
-Platform is scalloped/
entablature is scalloped
-Five-sided Corinthian capitals
with corresponding pentagonal
bases
-Arch inserted within the
triangular pediment

19. Figure 10-74 Portraits of the four tetrarchs, fromFigure 10-74 Portraits of the four tetrarchs, from
Constantinople, ca. 305 CE. Porphyry, approx. 4’ 3”Constantinople, ca. 305 CE. Porphyry, approx. 4’ 3”
high. Saint Mark’s, Venice.high. Saint Mark’s, Venice.
Diocletian and the Tetrarchy
(284-306 CE)
-In order to restore order to Roman
empire, Diocletian decided to share
power with his potential rivals.
-293- established the tetrarchy (rule
by four) and adopted title of Augustus
of the East
-When Diocletian retired in 305, it
collapsed
-Division of Roman Empire into
eastern and western spheres
survived throughout the Middle Ages
(Latin West and Byzantine East)
-Right: Artist tried to represent the
nature of tetrarchy itself- to portray
four equal partners in power/ made of
purple marble/ embrace one another/
large cubical heads on squat bodies/
drapery is schematic and bodies are
shapeless/ faces are emotionless
masks/ human figure is conceived in
iconic terms

20. Figure 10-76 Arch of Constantine, Rome, Italy, 312–315 CEFigure 10-76 Arch of Constantine, Rome, Italy, 312–315 CE
Figure 10-76 DetailFigure 10-76 Detail
Raking view of South face from ESE, withRaking view of South face from ESE, with
figures on bases of columns.figures on bases of columns.
Figure 10-77Figure 10-77
Distribution of largess,Distribution of largess,
detail of the northdetail of the north
frieze of the Arch offrieze of the Arch of
Constantine, Rome,Constantine, Rome,
Italy, 312–315 CE.Italy, 312–315 CE.
Marble, approx. 3’ 4”Marble, approx. 3’ 4”
high.high.
Constantine (306-337 CE)
Constantine attributed his victory at the battle of the Milvian Bridge to the aid of the Christian god/ 313
issued the Edict of Milan, ending persecution of Christians/ founded a New Rome on site of Byzantium and
named it Constantinople/ 325 Christianity official religion of Roman Empire/ Constantinian art is a mirror of
transition from classical to medieval world
-Right: Arch
commemorates
defeat of Maxentius
at Milvian Bridge/
triple passageway/
sculptural
decoration is taken
from other
monuments, recut
heads and added
labels
-Reuse of statues
and reliefs = decline
in creativity and
technical skill
and/or Constantine
wanted to be
associated with the
“good emperors”
(Trajan, Hadrian,
etc.) of the 2nd
cen.

21. Figure 10-78 Portrait of Constantine,Figure 10-78 Portrait of Constantine,
from the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy, ca.from the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy, ca.
315–330 CE. Marble, approx. 8’ 6” high.315–330 CE. Marble, approx. 8’ 6” high.
Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome.Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome.
Constantine –
Depicted as eternal
youthful head of state
-8 ½ ft. tall head is fragment
of a once enthroned statue of
the emperor that was made
of brick core, wooden torso
covered with bronze and
head and limbs of marble/
held an orb, symbol of global
power in left hand/ eternal
authority, power is depicted-
his is absolute ruler

22. Figure 10-79 Reconstruction drawing of the Basilica Nova (Basilica of Constantine), Rome, Italy, ca. 306–312 CE.Figure 10-79 Reconstruction drawing of the Basilica Nova (Basilica of Constantine), Rome, Italy, ca. 306–312 CE.
Basilica Nova (New Basilica)
-Constantine’s gigantic portrait sat in the western apse of the Basilica Nova (like Greco-Roman divinity in
temple cella)
-300 ft. long and 215 ft. wide/ brick-faced concrete walls 20 ft. thick supported by coffered barrel vaults in the
aisles/ walls and floors marbled and stuccoed/ groin vaults and clerestory windows permitted ample light in
nave

23. Figure 10-80 Aula Palatina, Trier, Germany, early fourth century CE (exterior).Figure 10-80 Aula Palatina, Trier, Germany, early fourth century CE (exterior).
Figure 10-81 Aula Palatina, Trier, Germany, early fourth century CE (interiorFigure 10-81 Aula Palatina, Trier, Germany, early fourth century CE (interior
Constantine’s Basilica-like Audience Hall – Aula Palatina
-Brick exterior
-190 ft. long and 95 ft. wide
-lead framed panes of glass for the windows
-wooden, coffered ceiling
-main hall, no aisles, apse with arch
Parallels many Early Christian basilicas
Later converted into a Christian church