1) Maize is primarily a rainfed crop cultivated in the highlands of Sri Lanka during the maha season under both settled and shifting cultivation systems. 2) A survey was conducted in Moneragala district, a major maize producing region. The average family size was 5.5 people but 1/3 of families had extended families averaging 6 people. Most farmers had received some education. 3) Maize faces competition from other subsidiary crops for space and inputs since it is often intercropped. Yield varies widely among districts from 0.14 to 6.18 tons per hectare. Production meets only a portion of domestic demand while imports occasionally supplement supply.

1. CGPRT No. 16
Maize Production in Sri Lanka
N.F.C. Ranaweera
G.A.C. de Silva
M.H.J.P. Fernando
and H.B. Hindagala
The CGPRT Centre

2. Maize Production in Sri Lanka

3. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the
legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries.
The opinions expressed in signed articles are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the
opinion of the United Nations.

4. CGPRT NO. 16
Maize Production in Sri Lanka
N.F.C. Ranaweera
G.A.C. de Silva
M.H.J.P. Fernando
and H.B. Hindagala
The CGPRT Centre
Regional Co-ordination Centre for
Research and Development of Coarse Grains,
Pulses, Roots and Tuber Crops in the
Humid Tropics of Asia and the Pacific

5. Table of Contents
Page
List of Tables and Figures ………………………………………………….... vii
Preface ……………..……………………………………………………….... xi
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................... xii
Summary ......................................................................................................... xiii
1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1
Objectives of the study ........................................................................ 1
Methodology ....................................................................................... 1
Organization of the report ................................................................... 3
2. Physical Characteristics of Sri Lanka and Features of the Small Farm
Sector ....................................................................................................... 5
Physical characteristics ........................................................................ 5
Small farm sector in Sri Lanka ............................................................ 7
Rainfed cropping in dry zone highland ............................................... 8
3. Maize Cultivation and Production in Sri Lanka ....................................... 9
Area under cultivation ......................................................................... 9
Production of maize ............................................................................. 9
Imports of maize .................................................................................. 11
Other subsidiary food crops ................................................................. 11
Marketing of maize ............................................................................. 12
Agricultural extension for maize ......................................................... 12
4. Maize Research in Sri Lanka ................................................................... 15
Earlier studies on maize ....................................................................... 15
Breeding .............................................................................................. 16
Agronomic investigations .................................................................... 18
Water requirements and irrigation studies ........................................... 21
Research activities - continuing planned breeding .............................. 21
Agronomic investigations .................................................................... 22
5. Characteristics of Moneragala District ..................................................... 23
Physical features .................................................................................. 23
Agricultural extension service ............................................................. 25
6. Results of the Socio-Economic Survey of Maize Cultivation .................. 27
Family Information .............................................................................. 27
Land, tenure, farm size ........................................................................ 30
Cropping calendar ............................................................................... 33
Cropping pattern .................................................................................. 35
Permanent crops .................................................................................. 38
Maize cultivation ................................................................................. 38
v

6. Cost of cultivation ............................................................................... 47
Average yield of maize ........................................................................ 49
Crop losses .......................................................................................... 49
Returns on maize cultivation ............................................................... 49
Marketing of Maize ............................................................................. 49
Agricultural extension for maize ......................................................... 52
7. Statistical Analysis of Variables Effecting Maize Production ................. 53
Average production function for maize ............................................... 53
Technical efficiency in maize cultivation ............................................ 54
Correlation among variables ................................................................ 55
8. Available technology ............................................................................... 63
Available technology ........................................................................... 63
Constraints ........................................................................................... 63
Non-economic constraints ................................................................... 63
Economic constraints .......................................................................... 66
Constraints - overall effect .................................................................. 67
9. Available technology ............................................................................... 69
Glossary ........................................................................................................... 71
References ....................................................................................................... 73
vi

7. List of Tables and Figures
Tables Page
1.1 ASC areas selected and farmer sample sizes .......................................... 3
3.1 Main maize cultivation districts of Sri Lanka ......................................... 9
3.2 Extent of cultivation of maize in ASC districts ....................................... 10
3.3 Production of maize in Sri Lanka ........................................................... 10
3.4 Yield per hectare of maize ...................................................................... 11
3.5 Imports of maize ..................................................................................... 11
3.6 Cultivation of subsidiary food crops other than maize, maha season only 12
3.7 Production of subsidiary food crops other than maize, maha season only 12
4.1 Grain yield and agronomic data of eight local varieties of maize
evaluated during the rainy season of 1981/1982 ................................... 16
4.2 Mean grain yield of two promising maize varieties evaluated at four
locations during the rainy season of 1974/1975 and seven locations in
1975/1976 and 1976/1977 ...................................................................... 17
4.3 Mean grain yield of early-maturing maize varieties evaluated at two
locations during the rainy season of 1982/1983 ..................................... 18
4.4 Mean grain yield of four quality protein maize varieties and one normal
variety evaluated at two locations during the rainy season of 1983/1984 .... 18
4.5 Grain yield of maize in simulated forest and bare fields at five nitrogen
levels ........................................................................................................ 19
5.1 Major and minor irrigation tanks in ASC areas ....................................... 24
5.2 Extent of major crops in Moneragala district ........................................... 25
5.3 Agricultural extension service staff in Moneragala district ..................... 25
6.1 Family composition ................................................................................. 27
6.2 Educational level of the farmers .............................................................. 28
6.3 Educational level of farmers' wives ......................................................... 28
vii

8. 6.4 Educational level of children over 16 years of age .................................. 28
6.5 Participation of farmer and wife in activities of the farm ........................ 29
6.6 Participation of children in the activities of the farm................................ 29
6.7 Nature of outside employment of farmer ................................................. 30
6.8 Families reporting children with outside employment ............................. 30
6.9 Availability of different types of land ...................................................... 30
6.10 Tenurial status of lowland ....................................................................... 31
6.11 Average extent of lowland....................................................................... 31
6.12 Tenurial status of highland ...................................................................... 32
6.13 Average extent of highland ..................................................................... 32
6.14 Tenurial status of chena ........................................................................... 32
6.15 Average extent of chena .......................................................................... 33
6.16 Average farm size .................................................................................... 33
6.17 Cultivation of lowland under different types of irrigation ....................... 34
6.18 Lowland cultivation seasons .................................................................... 34
6.19 Lowland cultivation calendar .................................................................. 34
6.20 Highland cultivation calendar .................................................................. 35
6.21 Chena cultivation calendar ...................................................................... 35
6.22 Crops cultivated in lowland ..................................................................... 36
6.23 Cropping pattern in highland - 1984/1985 maha ..................................... 37
6.24 Extent of cultivation in highland ............................................................. 36
6.25 Cropping pattern in chena - 1984/1985 maha .......................................... 39
6.26 Permanent crops available in highland ..................................................... 40
6.27 Permanent crops available in chena.......................................................... 41
6.28 Nature of maize crop stand - highland...................................................... 41
viii

9. 6.29 Nature of maize crop stand - chena .......................................................... 41
6.30 Average extent of maize cultivation - highland ....................................... 42
6.31 Average extent of maize cultivation - chena ............................................ 42
6.32 Variety of maize cultivated - highland ..................................................... 43
6.33 Variety of maize cultivated - chena.......................................................... 43
6.34 Method of planting maize ........................................................................ 44
6.35 Source of seed - 1984/1985 maha season ................................................. 44
6.36 Number of seedings................................................................................. 45
6.37 Seed rate of maize ................................................................................... 45
6.38 Application of fertilizer ........................................................................... 45
6.39 Weed control in highland ......................................................................... 46
6.40 Weed control in chena .............................................................................. 46
6.41 Cost of cultivation of maize - highland .................................................... 48
6.42 Cost of cultivation of maize - chena......................................................... 48
6.43 Average yield of maize............................................................................. 49
6.44 Costs and returns in maize cultivation...................................................... 50
6.45 Home consumption and marketing of maize ............................................ 50
6.46 Time of marketing .................................................................................... 51
6.47 Ways of marketing maize......................................................................... 51
6.48 Effect of extension service ....................................................................... 52
7.1 Family size and land availability .............................................................. 56
7.2 Family size and land area ......................................................................... 56
7.3 Family size and area of maize cultivated.................................................. 57
7.4 Family size and maize stand in highland.................................................. 57
7.5 Family size and marketable surplus.......................................................... 58
ix

10. 7.6 Lowland extent and total extent of maize cultivated ................................ 58
7.7 Highland maize extent and maize productivity ........................................ 59
7.8 Chena maize extent and maize productivity............................................. 59
7.9 Total maize extent and maize stand in highland....................................... 59
7.10 Total maize area and marketable surplus.................................................. 60
7.11 Total maize area and farm gate price........................................................ 60
7.12 Labour use and maize productivity-highland ........................................... 60
7.13 Labour use and maize productivity - chena.............................................. 61
8.1 Net returns of alternate crops ................................................................... 66
Figures
1.1 Moneragala district. Agricultural Services Centres.................................. 2
1.2 Agro-ecological regions of Sri Lanka ...................................................... 6
1.3 Planting calendar for chena ...................................................................... 8
x

11. Foreword
The regional research and development project RAS/82/002 is funded by the
UNDP and is implemented by the FAO in co-operation with the ESCAP CGPRT
Centre.
One of the objectives is to identify and analyse socio-economic constraints to
increased production and efficient distribution, and to formulate strategies to exploit
the economic, employment and nutritional potential of coarse grains and food legumes
under varying farming systems.
The CGPRT Centre was requested to implement socio-economic studies in selected
countries of Asia. Country studies were conducted in six countries: Bangladesh, India,
Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines and Sri Lanka. Selection of crops was based on their
importance for the individual countries.
Maize Production in Sri Lanka is the seventh in the series of country reports. This
study reviews the small farm sector in Sri Lanka and provides an overview of maize
cultivation, production and research in the country. The authors highlight the
contraints that are facing the maize producer based on a survey in the Moneragala
district of Sri Lanka.
According to the report, maize production is still below the national requirement
and is cultivated at subsistence levels under the slash-and-burn system. Unless specific
policy measures are applied, it is unlikely that production will increase. The authors
outline a number of recommendations to increase the profitability of maize cultivation.
I would like to express our appreciation to the authors for their co-operation with
CGPRT Centre in undertaking the maize production study in Sri Lanka. I would also
like to thank the UNDP for its financial support.
I am pleased to present this report to the reader and I hope it will increase the
awareness of the problems confronting upland agriculture in Sri Lanka.
Shiro Okabe
Director
CGPRT Centre
xi

12. Acknowledgements
We wish to express our sincere thanks to many individuals who made this study
possible.
Particularly, we gratefully acknowledge the untiring efforts of the following field
officers who conducted the Field work under very difficult conditions: A.G.
Abeysinghe, S. Mendis, M. Muthunayaka, Y.C. Piyaseeli, M. Wimalasena, A.
Nadarajha and P. Mallawarachchi.
We also appreciate the services of Miss J.T.P. Gunawardena, for the computer
analysis of the data.
N.F.C. Ranaweera
xii

13. Summary
Maize is primarily a rainfed crop cultivated in the maha season in both settled and
shifting (chena) types of highland cultivation. The primary sources of demand for
maize are the rural farming population, where maize is consumed both on the cob and
as flour and in the provender industry, where it is used in about 25% of the poultry
feed manufactured. Maize is cultivated in all but six districts in Sri Lanka, but it is an
important crop only in the districts of Anuradhapura, Ampara, Badulla, Moneragala,
Matale and Batticaloa, where the area is over 2000 ha. These districts, popularly called
"the maize belt", account for over 80% of the land planted to maize in the country.
The national extent of maize is 23,000-28,000 ha and the annual production is around
35,000 t. There is a wide variation in yield among districts, ranging from 0.14 t/ha to
6.18 t/ha.
Although some maize is imported, there is no clear trend to importing. During the
eight-year period 1977-1984, maize was imported in only four years, the largest
quantity (4200 t) in 1984.
Maize is one of the subsidiary food crops cultivated in the highlands, and it
therefore competes with other crops such as cowpea, green gram, groundnut, chilli and
finger millet for space and inputs. It is often cultivated mixed with these crops.
Research on maize in Sri Lanka was initiated in the early 1950s at the agricultural
research station Maha Illuppallama, with research on breeding, agronomy, pests and
disease control. Early research was on the improvement of varieties, which resulted in
the release of the first open-pollinated variety, T-48. Later research was conducted on
hybrids, but without a continuous source of hybrid seeds, emphasis was redirected
towards development of open-pollinated varieties. In 1970, the broad-based Thai
Composite was introduced and selections were made to isolate a strain that performed
much better than T-48. This strain was released as Bhadra 1. Research was also
conducted and is continuing on fertilizer use, weed control, protein content, early-
maturing varieties and drought resistance.
A field survey was conducted in Moneragala district, one of the main maize-
producing districts in Sri Lanka. Moneragala district lies in the southeastern quadrant
of Sri Lanka, and has a large land area and a very low population density. It is a rural
district lacking areas administered by municipal or urban councils.
There are two broad climatic zones, the dry and the intermediate, but all areas
receive rainfall during the maha season. Chena cultivation is prevalent and serves as a
major source of food and income. Chenas are mainly under maize, manioc, finger
millet, sesame, chilli, groundnut, green gram and cowpea.
There are 12 Agricultural Service Centre (ASC) areas in the district, seven or
which were randomly selected for the survey. The survey covered broadly the 1984-1985
maha season and 1983-1984 maha season.
The average family size of the maize-cultivating farmer is 5.5 persons. However
one-third of the families surveyed reported having extended families. The average
household size of such families is six persons. Most of the farmers surveyed are
educated, and while the educational level of farmers' wives is less than that of farmers
the children have received a better education, reflecting recent improvements it
educational facilities.
xiii

14. A majority of the farmers surveyed are full-time workers on their farms. Within
each district, 86% of farmers farm full-time. Eighty-nine percent of the adult male
children and 74% of the adult female children assist their parents in farming.
A majority of the farmers own their land. Over 90% have a lowland area farm, the
average extent of lowland per farm is approximately 0.5 ha. The average extent of
highland per farm is 1.3 ha. Availability of chena varies in different parts of
the district. While 80% of the farmers in Bibila report having chena, only 14% in
Wellawaya have chena. The average extent of chena per farm is 0.8 ha.
The average size of a farm is 2 ha. Moneragala ASC area has the largest average
farm size (3.16 ha) and Bibila the smallest (1.29 ha).
Approximately one-half of the paddy lands are cultivated under rainfed conditions
and one-third are under minor irrigation systems. Twenty-two percent of paddy lands
can be cultivated in both the maha and yala season, but the rest is cultivated only in
the maha season. Highlands and chenas are totally dependent on rainfall and are
cultivated only in the maha season. The cropping calendars for lowland, highland and
chena are different.
During maha, lowland is cultivated only in paddy. In yala, only 1.5% of the
farmers surveyed cultivate other field crops, and 74% do not cultivate at all. A majority
of the farmers cultivate highlands in a mixture of crops. In all ASC areas, maize is
reported as a main crop in the mixture. Where pure stands are cultivated, maize is also
main crop. The extent of maize grown in pure stands is almost the same as its extent
as a mixed crop. In chenas, too, maize is a dominant crop whether it is cultivate in a
pure stand or in a mixture.
In both highlands and chenas, more farmers grow maize in crop mixture than
cultivate it in pure stands. The traditional mixed-crop system of cultivation has not
changed. The average extent of mixed crop land per farm in highland is 0.42 ha and in
chena 0.6-0.7 ha.
In highlands, 25% of the farmers surveyed cultivate improved varieties; others
cultivate local and unspecified varieties. However, in chenas more farmers cultivate
local and unspecified varieties. Seventy percent of farmers use their own seed, and 25%
replant maize, for various reasons. The seed rate is not consistent.
Except in one ASC area, fertilizer is rarely applied to maize, and if applied the
amounts are negligible. No farmers surveyed control pests and diseases. However, all
practise weed control.
The cash cost of cultivating one hectare of maize in highlands varies from Rs 172
to Rs 912, with a weighted average of Rs 411. If the cost of family labour is added the
full cost varies from Rs 2244 to Rs 4964. The costs under chena conditions are lower
than under highland conditions.
The average yield of maize in highlands is 1160 kg/ha, compared with 1309 kg/ha
in chenas. Where fertilizer is used, the yields are two to four times greater. Under chena
conditions the increase in yield is not as dramatic as in highlands.
Farmers' earnings are several times their cash costs, but if the cost of family
labour is added, the net earnings are marginal.
The market surplus of maize is 60% of production. The remaining 40%. is
consumed by the farmer's household. The surplus is sold in stages. The peak period of
sales is in the first month after harvest. The most common method of marketing maize
is to sell it to traders in the village or in the bazaar. Collecting agents also come to the
farms to purchase maize.
xiv

15. Regression analysis showed that total output is significantly and positively related
to land, fertilizer and improved varieties. Further analysis showed that farmers are
only 52% efficient. Exposure to agricultural extension, specializing in large-scale
maize cultivation was found to contribute positively to technical efficiency.
xv

16. 1
Introduction
Maize is cultivated in many districts in Sri Lanka, mainly under rainfed
conditions. It is considered primarily a dry zone crop and is one of the main crops
cultivated in the highlands. It is cultivated as a pure as well as a mixed crop in both
settled highlands and in the shifting type of agriculture practised in highlands, called
chena.
It is a popular crop, especially among those who practise chena. It is consumed
mostly by rural people, in both the cob and flour forms. The main demand for maize,
aside from its consumption by the farming family, is in the livestock sector, where it
contributes about 25% of the poultry feed manufactured locally. Consequently there is
an increasing emphasis on expanding the extent of land planted under this crop, as
well as on improving the levels of production.
Maize is still cultivated in Sri Lanka at a low level of technology, with seeds of
local or mixed varieties, and minimum or zero inputs, particularly of fertilizers. Two
major constraints identified for the expansion of the crop acreage are the lack of
marketing facilities and fair prices.
Objectives of the study
A study in a typical maize-producing area was undertaken to identify:
1. the socio-economic profile of farmers who cultivate maize,
2. types and extent of land used for maize cultivation,
3. technology adopted by farmers,
4. costs and returns of maize cultivation,
5. marketing channels used and prices obtained by farmers and consumers,
6. constraints on further development, and
7. ongoing research and research results available for improvement of maize
production.
Methodology
Major maize-cultivating districts are Anuradhapura, Ampara, Badulla, Monera-
gala, Matale and Batticaloa (Table 3.1). Moneragala district was selected for the
survey as it is centrally situated in this maize-growing region.
For agricultural extension purposes, Moneragala district is divided into 11
Agricultural Service Centre (ASC) areas (Figure 1.1). Maize is cultivated in all ASC
1

17. 2 Introduction
areas and cultivation practices, for all practical purposes, can be considered
homogeneous. Of the 11 ASC areas, seven were selected randomly for the first stage
of the survey (Table 1.1).
Figure 1.1 Moneragala district Agricultural Service Centres.
A total of 350 farmers were interviewed for the survey. The sample was distributed
equally among the seven selected ASC areas. Within each area the sample of 50

18. Introduction 3
farmers was distributed randomly among four to six villages. In each village, farmers
were selected individually as there is no register of maize-cultivating farmers.
Table 1.1 ASC areas selected and farmer sample sizes
ASC area Sample size
Bibila 50
Moneragala 50
Buttala 50
Badalkumbura 50
S.yambalanduwa 50
Wellawaya 50
Kotagama 50
Total 350
A single-visit, sample-survey technique with a questionnaire was used to collect the
required information. The questionnaire was retested in the district and revised. Its
four sections included:
1. socio-economic background of the cultivators,
2. information related to the cultivation of maize in highland and chena,
3. utilization of maize, including home consumption, marketing, marketing channels
and farm gate prices,
4. constraints faced by farmers in increasing the extent of cultivation and
productivity, and
5. farmers' views on improving the cultivation and production of maize.
In addition to the farmers, investigators also met many traders at lower and higher
levels of the marketing chain within the district. An open questionnaire was used to
interview four or five traders selected individually from each ASC area.
Organization of the report
A brief description of the more important physical characteristics of Sri Lanka
and salient features of the small farm sector are given in Chapter 2. The agro-ecological
regions of the country, rainfall pattern, cultivation seasons and small farm sector
characteristics such as holding sizes and cropping patterns are discussed in Chapter 2.
The main features of maize cultivation in Sri Lanka are given in Chapter 3. The
extent of cultivation, cultivating districts, production and imports of maize are
discussed. The status of research conducted on maize, including earlier studies, current
research and anticipated research, is highlighted in Chapter 4.
Chapter 5 gives a general description of the main characteristics of Moneragala
district, where the survey was conducted. This description serves as background for
the survey results.

19. 4 Introduction
The main chapter of this report is Chapter 6, which gives the survey results. It
covers both socio-economic and agronomic aspects of maize cultivation in Moneragala.
Chapter 6 presents the results of the survey in simple descriptive tables with averages
and percentages. A more detailed analysis of the survey results including regressions
and tabular analysis is given in Chapter 7.
Constraints on maize cultivation, based on survey findings as well as on regression
and correlation analysis, are discussed in Chapter 8. Policy recommendations are given
in Chapter 9.

20. 2
Physical Characteristics of Sri Lanka and
Features of The Small Farm Sector
Physical characteristics
The geographical extent of Sri Lanka is 6.56 million ha. The total population is
approximately 15.5 million persons. The agriculture sector accounts for 23.8% of the
gross domestic product (GDP), over 52.5% of total export earnings (1985) and 45.5% of
total employment (1981).
Three distinct physiographic regions can be identified within the island: a lowland
peneplane (sea level to 305 m), a highly dissected middle peneplane (305 m to 915 m)
and an upland peneplane (higher than 915 m).
Potential land use in the country is determined largely by the pattern of annual
rainfall, effects of temperature and elevation, soil characteristics and the degree of
reliability of rainfall. Based on rainfall, vegetation, soils and present land use, three
main agro-climatic zones have been recognized, namely the wet, intermediate and dry
zones.
The climate is characterised by small variations of temperature and heavy, variable
rainfall. The mean temperature ranges from 70-89°F. The annual precipitation follows a
distinctly bi-modal pattern and the country receives rainfall from two monsoons: the
northeast monsoon (November to January), referred to locally as the maha season, and
the southwest monsoon (May to September), known locally as the yala season. The
whole island benefits from the northeast monsoon, but the mountains intercept the
southwest monsoon and, as a result, the highlands and southwestern portion of the
island receive 190-508 cm of rain per year. This area is the wet zone and comprises 1.53
million ha. The remaining 75% of the island, comprising the lowlands to the north and
east, benefits little from the southwest monsoon and receives 89-100 cm of rainfall per
year. This area is divided into a dry and an intermediate zone. In the dry zone (4.17
million ha), the bulk of the rainfall occurs during the northeast monsoon. The
intermediate zone (covering 0.85 million ha) has a better rainfall distribution as a
transition area between the wet and dry zones (Figure 2.1).
There is considerable variation in the amount and reliability of monthly rainfall
between zones and between locations within a zone. Runoff estimates indicate that
only 50-60% of the rainfall received is effective. Probability data show that in the wet
zone, rainfall is adequate and sufficiently reliable to grow a crop during both seasons.
In the dry and intermediate zones, however, only in the maha season is the rainfall
adequate for crop production under rainfed conditions. The rainfall in the dry zone
during the yala season permits the cultivation of only short-aged, drought resistant,
arable crops.
The three major zones (wet, dry and intermediate) are further divided. Within the
wet and intermediate zones, a sub-division based on elevation takes into account the
temperature limitations for the more important crops grown in the country. The
elevation limits correspond to three physiographic units: low-country, mid-country and
5

21. 6 Physical Characteristics of Sri Lanka
up-country. The wet zone has been divided into sub-regions based primarily on
differences in rainfall and elevation. In the dry zone, the nature of the soils has been the
main criterion for identifying individual agro-climatic regions. In the intermediate zone,
both these elements receive equal weight.
Figure 2.1 Agro-ecological regions of Sri Lanka.

22. Physical Characteristics of Sri Lanka 7
Monthly histograms of anticipated rainfall at the 75% probability level form the
base for identification of individual rainfall regimes on the island. This information has
been matched with soil and elevation data to identify 24 district agro-climatic regions
(Figure 2.1).
The island is divided into 25 administrative districts, ranging in size from 7,224 sq
km (Anuradhapura) to 1,217 sq km (Nuwara Eliya). The boundaries of these districts do
not coincide with the agro-ecological regions, however. The bulk of the population
resides in the wet zone, which comprises 25% of the island. The dry zone is sparsely
populated, with the exception of the Jaffna district, which is intensively cultivated by a
large concentration of farmers on very small holdings using groundwater.
Small farm sector in Sri Lanka
The dominant land form in Sri Lanka, covering about 90% of the land surface, is
that of ridges and valleys, having as basic elements valley bottom, slope and ridge. The
valley bottom is referred to as the "lowland" and the slope and ridge as "upland" or
"highland". Most landholdings contain both lowland and highland, with a part of the
highland demarcated as the home garden. This system, which could be considered the
traditional form of landholding, still prevails in the older villages but appears to be
disappearing in the new settlement schemes, primarily due to government settlement
policies.
A single farm therefore consists of three separate parts, namely, the lowland where
rice is usually cultivated, the highland where crops other than rice (such as pulses,
coarse grains, yams, tubers and oil seeds) are grown and a home garden where
vegetables and some tree crops are grown and animals are reared. The lowlands and
highlands are usually cultivated in tracts, where the individual holdings of all members
of the village are located. Traditionally, the entire area of the village is surrounded by
forest. This physical environment provides the farmers with their food supply, fuel, and
forage for the animals.
In the small farm sector there are an estimated 1,807,697 operational holdings,
covering approximately 1.5 million ha of land (1982). Of these holdings, 557,200 (31%)
produce crops and livestock, 1,196,390 (66%) produce crops only, and the balance
produce livestock only. The number of holdings has increased slightly due to
settlements under the Mahaweli Development Scheme and other schemes. Of the 1.5
million ha of cultivated acreage reported, 31% is lowland, 38% is highland and 31% is
home garden. The general distribution is 70% highland to 30% lowland. However, in
practice, only about 25% of the lowland is functional.
The farms can be categorized as:
1. three-component farms: farms that have the traditional structure and include
lowland, highland and home garden;
2. two-component farms: any two of the three components are combined; and
3. single-component farms: having only one of the three identified elements.
The three- and two-component farms cover about 80% of the land cultivated,
although they constitute only 48% of the farms. The largest farms are the traditional

23. 8 Physical Characteristics of Sri Lanka
three-component farms, which cover nearly 30% of the land area. The largest of these
three-component farms (5% of the total farms) cover nearly 25% of the land area.
Cropping sequences tend to be determined by the composition of the land held.
Farmers tend to cultivate all components of the farm and hence labour distribution
among the components determines crop combinations.
Distribution of farms by region is correlated with the density of the rural
population. However, the size of the farms is determined by the availability of land.
The farms in the wet zone and the mid- and up-country areas are smaller, while in the
dry zone they are larger.
Farm-size distribution is another important feature of the small farm sector in Sri
Lanka. Eighty-eight percent of all farms (nearly 47% of land in the small-holding sector)
are smaller than 2 ha. Land fragmentation continues to take place due to social
conditions in Sri Lanka. In the future, therefore there will be more "parcels" of small-
holdings that will have to be considered when dealing with the small farm sector.
Rainfed cropping in dry zone highland
Most of the dry zone gets its rainfall from the northeast monsoon and hence
farmers in this zone are usually assured of a single crop. If rainfall is poor and
inadequate, a yala-season crop is missed, except for a crop of sesame, which may be
obtained from the intermonsoonal rains.
In the dry zone, the main type of agriculture in rainfed areas is chena cultivation,
which is the traditional slash-and-burn system of crop production. Prior to the onset of
the rains, farmers slash the jungle and set fire to it. With the first rains in late October,
crops such as maize, finger millet, cowpea and sometimes upland paddy are sown.
The planting calendar for the chena is illustrated in Figure 2.2.
land
preparation planting harvesting
I ------------------------------- I ---------------I ------------------ I ------------------I ------------ .
Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar
Figure 2.2 Planting calendar for chena.
The technology available to the chena farmer requires few inputs and minimizes
risk. It is the first parcel of land that he cultivates and consequently it becomes an
insurance policy against the failure of other crops sown. The produce from chena is
primarily for home consumption. The profitability of chena cultivation is difficult to
assess, due to the mixture of crops grown and because no records are maintained of
what is consumed by the farmer. Three to four crops are intercropped and expenses,
particularly for labour, are difficult to assess.
Integration with livestock in the chena is minimal as it is situated at a distance
from the main landholding, including the homestead.
In addition to the chena, upland areas are also cultivated under rainfed conditions.
Crops such as paddy, chilli, cowpea, soybean and millet are grown as monocrops.
Farmers use inputs such as fertilizer and chemicals for pest and weed control. The level
of management is high and the improved technologies available are used by the
farmers.

24. 3
Maize Cultivation and Production in Sri Lanka
Area under cultivation
Maize is traditionally cultivated during the maha season throughout Sri Lanka,
except in the southwest coastal districts (Matara, Galle, Kalutara, Colombo and
Gampaha) and Kegalle district in the mid-country. The extent of cultivation is
relatively small in the northern districts of Jaffna, Vavuniya, Mullaitivu and Mannar,
ranging from 25 to 200 ha. Maize is not an important crop in these districts. Major
maize-cultivating districts are Anuradhapura, Ampara, Badulla, Moneragala, Matale
and Batticaloa, where the area of land in cultivation is over 2,000 ha (Table 3.1). The
cultivation in these districts accounts for over 80% of the land planted to maize in Sri
Lanka (Table 3.1).
The extent of land planted to maize for each district in Sri Lanka for the period
1977-1984 is indicated in Table 3.2. During the 1970s the national figure for land
planted to maize was in the range of 23,000-28,000 ha. This increased in the 1980s.
The largest area recorded to date was 47,000 ha in the 1982/1983 maha season.
Table 3.1 Main maize cultivation districts of Sri Lanka.
1984/1985 Maha 1983/1984 Maha 1982/1983 Maha
District
% Of % Of % Of % Of % Of % Of
national national national national national national
acreage productions acreage productions acreage productions
Anuradhapura 19.55 17.39 18.81 18.33 1758 4.42
Ampara 18.18 15.66 12.55 28.1 21.81 30.44
Badulla 17.66 23.71 19.83 15.09 21.26 18.53
Moneragala 12.53 14.06 11.56 8.88 9.53 8.23
Matale 7.96 8.85 9.24 3.88 7.3 5.49
Batticaloa 7.76 4.31 5.2 6.07 5.97 10.4
Source: Dept of Agriculture.
Production of maize
Sri Lanka produces approximately 35,000 t of maize annually. The highest
recorded production was 50,859 t during the 1982/1983 maha season (Table 3.3).
Except for this peak in production, over the years the annual production level has
increased only slightly. During the 1979/1980 maha season, production was 31,000 t,
which gradually increased to 38,600 t in the 1983/1984 maha season.
The main cultivating areas are usually the main producing areas. However, since
the factors that determine the extent of land under cultivation are different from those
that determine production, the most important, districts for production are not
necessarily those most important for cultivation. This relationship is shown in Table
3.1, and in Table 3.4, where the yield per hectare is shown to fluctuate from year to
9

25. 10 Maize Cultivation and Production in Sri Lanka
year. Even within a season there is a wide variation in yield per hectare among the
districts. During the 1983/1984 maha season, the yield fluctuated from 0.14 t (in
Ratnapura district) to 6.18 t (in Mullaittivu district). Even the major producing
districts (Badulla, Moneragala, Anuradhapura and Batticaloa) show variations in yield
from season to season.
Table 3.2 Extant of cultivation of maize in ASC districs Unit: hectars
District 1977/ 1978/ 1979/ 1980/ 1981/ 1982/ 1983/
1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984
Colombo - - - - - - -
Gampaha - - 7 - - - -
Kalutara - - - - - - -
Galle 1 - 3 - - - -
Matara 1 - - 4 4 - -
Puttalam 706 497 315 543 582 531 972
Kurunegala 716 544 401 1576 866 1536 1026
Kegalle - - - - - - -
Ratnapura 1035 552 511 743 583 - 864
Kandy 554 641 206 630 817 485 2291
Matale 777 681 2218 2234 1419 3435 4168
Nuwara Eliya 151 383 389 279 573 663 285
Badulla 4640 5643 7324 5437 5971 10108 9020
Moneragala 3750 3012 2648 4450 3848 4577 5263
Jaffna 4 3 7 4 43 37 44
Vavuniya 84 68 49 70 111 138 118
Mullaitivu - - - 20 14 21 27
Mannar 2 9 16 23 11 26 19
A nuradhapura 5584 3023 2775 3615 5797 8270 8484
Polonnaruwa 782 804 316 610 876 1148 1217
Trincomalee 1179 887 1126 1202 2898 1797 2330
Batticaloa 2445 1555 1309 1921 2518 2810 2345
Ampara 4564 4033 2856 3224 6655 10259 5670
Hambantota 1465 1075 901 707 551 536 630
Udawalawe 191 205 116 184 - 291 -
Mahaweli `H' - - 871 619 - 608 641
Sri Lanka 28631 23615 24364 28095 34137 47276 45414
Source: Dept. of Agriculture
Table 3.3 Productions of maize in Sri Lanka
Maha Production
(t)
1977/1978 33,612
1978/1979 25,505
1979/1980 31,085
1980/1981 34,971
1981/1982 37,619
1982/1983 50,859
1983/1984. 38,641
Source: Dept of Agriculture

26. Maize Cultivation and Production in Sri Lanka 11
Table 3.4 Yeild per hectare of maize Unit : kg/ha
District 1984/1985 1984/1985 1984/1985
Maha Maha Maha
Puttalam 1050 1000 760
Kurunegala 530 1000 680
Ratnapura - 140 -
Kandy 1250 1240 1180
Matale 1000 360 810
Nuwara Eliya 300 - 300
Badulla 1210 650 940
Moneragala 990 660 930
Jaffna - 290 4000
Vavuniya 1000 1490
Mullaitivu - 6180 1240
Mannar 1000 - 770
A nuradhapura 800 830 270
Polonnaruwa - 500 3380
Trincomalee 500 - 1200
Batticaloa n.a. 1000 1880
Ampara n.a. 1920 1510
Hambantota 1000 1000 1000
Mahaweli `H' 2000 2000 3700
Udawalawe - -
Source: Dept of Agriculture
Imports of maize
There is no regular trend in the import of maize to Sri Lanka. The main industrial
use of maize is in the provender industry, and imports are determined by local
production. During the eight-year period 1977-1984, maize was imported in only four
years and in varying quantities (Table 3.5). During 1983, the imports were only 21 t
(possibly orders placed during 1982).
The largest quantity of imported maize (4,200 t) was imported in 1984, nearly
twice the quantity imported in 1982, and four times the quantity imported in 1979.
Maize is imported mainly from Thailand, Taiwan and India.
Table3.5 Imports of maize
Year Imports Value
(t) (Rs/t)
1977 - -
1978 - -
1979 1000 2.9
1980 - -
1981 - -
1982 2461 12.3
1983 20.6 0.8
1984 4200 17.1
Source: Dept of Agriculture
Other subsidiary food crops
All seasonal food crops, other than paddy, are classified as subsidiary food crops,
these include coarse grains (maize, sorghum, millet), pulses (cowpea, black and green

27. 12 Maize Cultivation and Production in Sri Lanka
gram, soybean), spices (chilli and onion) and oil crops (sesame). Since all the subsidiary
food crops are cultivated in highlands (using both permanent and shifting types of
cultivation), some of them compete with maize. Farmers take advantage of the plant
type of maize as well as the spacing it allows, and often intercrop maize with other
subsidiary food crops. Main food crops that compete for cultivation with maize are
cowpea, green gram, groundnut, chilli and kurakkan (finger millet).
The extent of land planted with competing subsidiary food crops (for maha
seasons) is given in Table 3.6. The national extent of land planted to cowpea during
the maha season ranges from 17,000 to 35,000 ha, and green gram from 10,000 to
27,000 ha. Groundnut is cultivated to a lesser extent (6,000-12,000 ha) and chillies are
cultivated over an area of 15,000-23,000 ha. The extent of kurakkan is around 7,000-
20,000 ha.
The production levels of these crops are lower than the production level of maize.
The maha season production level of cowpea is about 20,000 t and green gram, chilli
as well as groundnut range from 10,000 to 15,000 t. Finger millet production level is
around 10,000 t (Table 3.7).
Table 3.6 Cultivation of subsidiary food crops other than maize, maha season only Unit: hectares
Maha season Cowpea Green gram Groundnut Chilli Kurakkan
1977/1978 19705 10189 6975 23282 17346
1978/1979 25207 10840 4180 11204 10756
1979/1980 17614 10761 7006 13990 7651
1980/1981 27646 11857 9789 14950 12770
1981/1982 20911 12719 11220 14529 13091
1982/1983 34949 19389 11811 18970 19355
1983/1984 27687 26849 6034 15139 16482
Table 3.7 Production of subsidiary food crops other than maize, maha season only Unit: hectares
Maha season Cowpea Green Groundnut Chilli Kurakkan
1977/1978 15948 6761 6163 16740 14368
1978/1979 15839 8839 3944 6182 8165
1979/1980 16948 10103 11390 11866 5586
1980/1981 28058 13057 11628 11055 1 1119
1981/1982 21084 11307 10413 12109 10752
1982/1983 23184 12708 15943 14930 11233
1983/1984 19115 15213 4733 7197 6570
Marketing. of maize
The structure of the market for maize is not very different from the market for
other subsidiary food crops. In general, there are three significant types of
intermediaries between the producer and the consumer:
1. primary assemblers (local collectors, local merchants and co-operatives), who buy
the crops directly from the producers;
2. intermediate buyers, traders who buy from other traders;

28. Maize Cultivation and Production in Sri Lanka 13
3. wholesalers, final purchasers in Colombo or other towns, who buy from primary
assemblers or from intermediate buyers.
Studies have shown that, in marketing maize, more than 70% of the maize
produced in various parts of the country passes through primary assemblers. In most
areas, the largest group of primary assemblers (40-60%) are the local traders, followed
by local collectors. These studies also indicate that maize producers generally receive
81-88% of the wholesale price (in Colombo) of maize.
Agricultural extension for maize
Agricultural extension for all food crops, including maize, is handled by the
Department of Agriculture, under the Training and Visit (T&V) system of agricultural
extension.
Under the T&V system of agricultural extension, village-level extension officers
meet a pre-identified group of farmers known as contact farmers. Each contact farmer
is met by an officer every fortnight on a pre-determined day of the week, and extension
messages relevant for the current stage of the crop are delivered. The contact farmers
in turn inform other farmers ("follower" farmers) about the messages. The extension
officers also gather information on field problems, which they bring to the attention of
the research officers.

29. 4
Maize research in Sri Lanka
Earlier studies on maize
The need for improvement of maize production in Sri Lanka was recognized in the
early 1950s and the agricultural research station, Maha Illuppallama, was entrusted
with the task of conducting research on maize related to breeding, agronomy, pest and
disease control. However, with the regionalization of agricultural research, maize
research is now conducted at seven stations with Maha Illuppallama as the main
centre.
The earliest research on maize was mainly on varietal improvement, which resulted
in the release of the first open-pollinated variety (T-48) in the early 1960s. At this time
attempts were also made to develop hybrids locally using the conventional inbred-line
technique. A few hybrids showed promise but their yield levels, compared with the
open-pollinated varieties, were not high enough to encourage their release.
Hybrids introduced from the US were not adapted to local conditions and gave
almost the same or lower yields than the popularly grown, open-pollinated varieties.
Hybrids popular in India were introduced and evaluated during the rainy season
of 1968/1969 at Maha Illuppallama. Grain yield for these hybrids ranged from 3870 to
4350 kg/ha, with Ganga-3 hybrid giving about a 32% higher yield than T-48. However,
Ganga-3 was not recommended for cultivation as hybrid seed has to be imported every
year, involving a considerable amount of foreign exchange. At this time the
development of hybrid varieties, without resorting to the conventional procedure of
using inbred lines, was attempted by crossing selected varieties. These hybrid varieties
are easier and cheaper to produce. The results obtained were encouraging and the best
hybrid variety gave a yield of 6540 kg/ha with a yield increase of 38% over T-48.
However, seed production was a major problem.
Production of hybrid seed is a specialized process and in most advanced countries
this task is undertaken by private seed companies. In Sri Lanka there are no organized
seed companies that handle the production of hybrid seeds. Moreover, without
improved management practices, hybrids may not have any impact on production.
Owing to these limitations a maize-improvement programme based on hybrids was
considered to, be impracticable and emphasis was directed towards the development of
open-pollinated varieties, with the following objectives:
1. high yield and wide adaptability,
2. maturity: 110-115 days,
3. shorter plant height with good husk cover,
4. resistance to diseases, i.e. stalk rot, leaf blight, banded leaf and sheath spots,
15

30. 16 Maize Research in Sri Lanka
5. tolerance to drought, and
6. acceptable grain type (preferably yellow/orange flint).
Breeding
Local varieties
A wide range of local varieties is grown by the farmers. Almost all local varieties
are flint types and they differ in grain, colour and maturity.
Sithamparanathan (1958), after studying the local varieties, came to the following
conclusions.
1. The prevalent practice of selecting maize seed for the following season from within
a small population of maize in, each individual chena has conceivably led to steady
inbreeding of the local maize varieties, particularly when a single variety is grown
in a chena and chenas are far apart;
2. When different varieties of maize have been grown in adjacent chenas, natural
hybridization over the years has probably obliterated all traces of the original
varieties.
Both conditions are known to exist locally and the indigenous maize varieties may
therefore be expected to be highly mixed or inbred.
Table 4.1 shows the performance of some of the local varieties collected from
different maize-growing areas. Most of the local varieties are tall, leafy and late-
maturing. They tend to lodge at normal densities and in general their yields are lower
than those of the improved varieties.
Table 4.1 Grain yield ind agronomic data of eight local varieties of maize evaluated during the rainy season
of 1981/1982
Variety Days to Plant Ear Yield
50% ht. ht. Lodging % (kg/ha)
silking (cm) (cm)
Root Stalk
Local 1(Mahiyangana) 71 247 156 20 0 4470
Local 2 (Walapane) 68 320 155 7 1 4800
Local 3 (Nidandahinna) 69 236 129 10 2 3867
Local 4 (Mapakada) 68 358 164 13 1 3841
Local 5 (Tabbowa) 2 203 121 21 1 3339
Local 6 (Moneragala) 62 254 151 15 0 3779
Local 7 (Masspanna) 62 257 159 8 2 4369
Local 8 (Anuradhapura) 66 191 93 19 7 2332
Bhadra 1(Check) 64 195 104 0 10 4972
C.V.% 22.65
L.S.D.(P= 0.05) 352
Due to the fact that these local varieties have existed for a long time and due to
selection by the farmers, resistance or tolerance to local hazards such as drought, pests
and diseases has developed. In order to retain desirable characteristics of local

31. Maize Research in Sri Lanka 17
varieties, a population was formed by combining local varieties collected from different
maize-growing areas. Some of the promising varieties introduced from the International
Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre, Mexico (CIMMYT), were also incorporated
into this population. It could serve as a valuable source for developing varieties or
hybrids adapted to local conditions.
Varietal improvement
Since 1968 close links have been established with the Inter-Asian Corn
Improvement Centre in Thailand and with CIMMYT in Mexico and, as a result, there
has been a regular flow of improved germplasm into the local programme. In 1970 a
broad-based composite (Thai Composite), formed by combining 36 varieties, was
introduced from Thailand. It was a good source for developing varieties owing to its
wide genetic base and tropical adaptation. When the original composite was first tested
at Maha Illuppallama in 1971, it gave a slightly lower yield than T-48 but it responded
well to selection. A variety developed from Thai Composite was evaluated in multi-
location trials from 1974 to 1977. It gave a mean yield increase of 23% over T-48 (Table
4.2). This variety was released in 1977 under the name Bhadra 1. It has now become a
popular variety with the farmers.
Table 4.2 Mean grain yield of two promising maize varieties evaluated at four locations during the
rainy season of 1974/1975 and seven locations in 1975/1976 and 1976/1977
Season Mean
Variety
yeild
1974/1975 1975/1976 1976/1977
Bhadra 1 4724 3912 4116 4250
Cupurico X Flint Compesto 4031 3932 4109 4024
Local Variety (Check 1) - 2698 - 2698
T - 48 (Check 2) 3493 3394 3466 3451
The process of developing better varieties is also in progress. A composite formed
by combining Bhadra 1, Cupurico x Flint Compesto and Poza Rica 7425 (introduced
from CIMMYT) has shown promise in the multi-location trials conducted from 1981
to 1985 and has given 10% greater yield than Bhadra 1.
White maize
Even though the demand is greater for yellow maize, there is also a limited
demand for white maize, particularly for the biscuit industry. Across 7843 and Across
7929 are two of the white varieties of maize that have shown promise. These varieties
were introduced from CIMMYT.
Early-maturing maize varieties
Early-maturing varieties are required for drier areas and during the dry season.
Varieties that mature in three months are suitable for these situations. Table 4.3 shows
the grain yield of some of the early-maturing maize varieties. These are about one week
to 10 days earlier than Bhadra 1.

32. 18 Maize Research in Sri Lanka
Table 4.3 Mean grain yield of early-maturing maize varieties
evaluated at two locations during the rainy season of
1982/1983.
Variaty yield (kg/ha)
Pop. 31 X Suwas 2 (S) C5 5098
KUC # 2F7 4760
Suwan 2 (S) C7F2 3842
Thai Comp. 1 Early DVR (S) C4 3449
Bhadra I (Check) 4835
Quality protein maize
Maize is deficient in the essential amino acids lysine and tryptophane. This
deficiency is a major constraint on the use of maize in human and animal diets.
Normal maize contains 9-11% protein, of which lysine constitutes 2% and tryptophane
0.5%. These amino acids should be doubled to 4% lysine and 1% tryptophane to support
normal body growth.
CIMMYT has been able to improve the nutritional quality of maize without
sacrificing the yield through the use of opaque 2 gene in combination with other
genetic modifiers. These varieties now have better grain characteristics than the soft-
endosperm opaque 2 varieties which have reduced yield potential and high
susceptibility to ear rot and stored-grain pests.
Several improved-quality-protein maize varieties obtained from CIMMYT were
tested under local conditions. Table 4.4 shows the yields of some of the promising
varieties. Poza Rica 8140 and Across 8140 have given slightly higher yields than
Bhadra 1(normal variety). These varieties may be more suitable for areas in Sri Lanka
where maize is traditionally consumed as food.
Table 4.4 Mean grain yield of four quality protein maize varieties and
one normal variety evaluated at two locations during the
rainy season of 1983/1984.
Variaty yield (kg/ha)
Poca Rica 8140 4419
Acros 8140 4370
Acros 7940 R.E. 3995
San Jeronimo 8140 3781
Bhadra I (normal variety) 3977
Agronomic investigations
Fertilizer studies
Maize is generally grown in a shifting system of cultivation in the highlands of the
dry zone where the farmers cultivate the land for two to three seasons after clearing the
jungle, and then abandon it. Soils of these newly cleared lands (chenas) have a good
supply of nutrients and no need for fertilizers for the first few seasons. As a result of
scarcity of land for shifting cultivation, the farmers in future will have to adopt a more
stable type of cultivation on the rainfed highlands. When such a system is adopted the

33. Maize Research in Sri Lanka 19
fertility status of the soils will decline rapidly and use of fertilizer will be important to
maintain yield levels.
Soils of the major proportion of the highlands of the dry zone where maize is
grown are reddish-brown earths. These are sandy clay loams, slightly acid to neutral in
reaction, low in organic matter, nitrogen and available phosphorous. Potassium,
however, is present in fair amounts. Several fertilizer experiments were carried out to
determine the optimum rate of NP and K fertilizer. The economical fertilizer rate for
most areas was 70 N, 45 P205 and 30 K20 kg/ha. Investigations were also carried out to
determine the effect of split application of nitrogen fertilizer at different growth
stages, as time of application of nitrogen fertilizer is important to prevent nutrient
losses due to heavy rains and leaching. Base application of one-quarter of the
recommended rate of nitrogen and application of the remaining three-quarters, four to
five weeks after planting, gave the best results.
Studies on fertilizer management in the uplands of the dry zone
To enable continuous cropping of rainfed highlands, a system of crop cultivation
under simulated forest conditions was initiated by Handawela in 1977. A tree stand of
Gliricidia maculata was established in one block and the adjacent block was left bare
without any trees. The purpose of the tree stand was to reduce the pace of
degeneration of surface soil tilth by reducing erosion and by improving the soil
organic matter level to what is possible under a forest cover, to fix nitrogen, to recycle
nutrients and to smother weeds. Tree loppings were added to the simulated forest
fields. In both fields the crop and weed residues were left on the ground.
Results of a maize experiment conducted in maha season 1983/1984 in these fields
to study the effect of five levels of nitrogen are presented in Table 4.5. The results
show that in the simulated forest fields, zero and low nitrogen treatments (30 kg/ha)
gave higher yields than the corresponding treatments in the bare field (without trees).
However, at higher levels of nitrogen, the differences were not apparent. This
experiment is being continued to gather further information.
Table 4.5 Grain yield of maize in simulated forest and bare fields
at five nitrogen levels. Unit : kg/ha
Levels of nitrogen Simulated forest field Bare field
(kg N/ha)
0 3100 1323
30 3215 2822
60 3380 3361
100 3777 3978
150 3788 4116
Mean yield 3452 3120
Sourch: Handawela 1985
Studies on plant density
Plant density is an important factor that determines the yield of maize. Plant
density studies were conducted in research stations as well as in farmers' fields using
different fertilizer rates with local and recommended varieties. Based on these studies,

34. 20 Maize Research in Sri Lanka
the following recommendations were made:
1. with adequate fertilizer and moisture, 55,000 plants/ha (two plants/hill - 60 cm x
60 cm) is best for grain production for improved varieties such as Bhadra 1;
2. tall leafy local varieties should be grown at lower densities, 37,000 plants/ha (one
plant/hill - 60 cm x 60 cm) to prevent lodging and poor ear development;
3. plant density should be reduced at low fertilizer levels or when maize is grown
without any fertilizer.
Studies on weed control
Under shifting cultivations, farmers rarely practise weed control as the incidence
of weeds is minimal. But as the cropping frequency increases beyond two or three
seasons, there is a progressive build-up of weeds. Initially, weed flora include both
broadleaves and grasses, but if cultivation continues for six years or more the grassy
weeds, both perennial and annual types, become more prominant. Common weeds in
continuously cropped lands include grasses such as Chloris barbata Sw., Cynodon dactylon
(L.) Pers., Dactylocterium aegyptium (L.) Beauv., Digitaria marginata Link, Eleusine indica
(L.) Gaertn., and broadleaves such as Mimosa pudica L., Melochia corchorifolia L., Tridax
procumbens L., Euphorbia heterophylla L., Sida rhombifolia L., Passiflora foetida L.,
Ocimum gratissimum L., Abutilon triloba L., and Acanthospermum hispidium L.
Heavy weed growth is one of the factors that reduces the yield of maize in
continuously cropped lands. Yields could be reduced by about 30-40% if weeds were not
controlled.
Methods of weed control
Weeding with land preparation
The primary objective of land preparation is to eliminate weeds and provide an
environment for good germination and vigorous growth of seedlings. In land where
shifting cultivation is practised, minimum tillage methods, such as scraping the soil, are
sufficient to get a weed-free seed bed. A blade harrow was found to be an efficient
implement for this purpose. There are other simple and light animal-drawn implements
that also can be used effectively.
More intensive land preparation methods must be used for continuously cropped
lands to minimize weed growth. This may involve ploughing followed by one or two
harrowings. Few farmers can afford this type of land preparation.
Weedings with inter-cultivation
Emergence of weeds after crop establishment is inevitable and the most common
method of controlling them is by inter-row weeding. Usually two to three weedings are
required to control weeds in maize and these weedings must be done during the first
30-40 days of crop growth. Several manually operated implements (such as the Swiss
hoe, wheel hoe and three-point inter-cultivator) were found to be suitable for inter-row
weeding.

35. Maize Research in Sri Lanka 21
Use of herbicides
Farmers are not using herbicides for maize. However, studies indicate that
Atrazine and Butachlor are effective as pre-emergent herbicides in controlling weeds.
Water requirements and irrigation studies
During the rainy season there is a 75% probability that rainfall alone will satisfy
the water requirements of a 120-day cereal crop like maize (Panabokke and Walgama
1974). However, during the dry season (April-August), the chances of getting a
successful crop of maize under rainfed conditions are low and the crop must be
irrigated during the dry periods. Mean total rainfall for the dry season varies from 300-
400 mm, most of which falls during the month of April. The dry season is also
characterized by high temperatures and strong dry winds.
Average maximum and minimum temperatures are 34°C and 24°C respectively.
Relative humidity is around 80% and wind speeds are nearly 165 km per day for the
season. The "Class A pan" evaporation rates are high and often exceed 5-6 mm per
day.
The reddish-brown earths have a narrow range of available moisture. The
available moisture per metre of soil is 135 mm and about 85% of this is released at a
tension of one atmosphere.
The total water requirement of a 115-day maize crop during the dry season at
Maha Illuppallama was found to be 615 mm. Maize yields decreased significantly
when irrigated below the 50% depletion level of available soil moisture. Grain yield of
maize, when irrigated at 50% depletion level of available moisture, was 4100 kg/ha,
whereas at 75% depletion level, the yield dropped to 2226 kg/ha. Thus, due to the
adverse weather and soil conditions, maize grown during the dry season has to be
irrigated at least once every three-to-four days to prevent moisture stress.
Research activities - continuing planned breeding
Development of hybrids
In addition to the programme for the development of open-pollinated varieties of
maize, a programme will be initiated to develop hybrids as they will have a much
greater impact on production.
Breeding for shorter plant height
There is a wide yield gap between temperate and tropical maize. There are factors
in addition to low management that contribute to low yield levels in tropical maize.
Research done at CIMMYT shows that tropical maize is not "grain efficient" because
it is too tall, leafy and subject to lodging. It also has a large tassel and low grain/stalk
ratio. CIMMYT's physiologists have shown that reducing the plant height of tropical
maize improves its yield.
In order to develop shorter plant-height varieties, a population has been developed
using a local variety and another introduced from CIMMYT. This population is
undergoing improvement.

36. 22 Maize Research in Sri Lanka
Selection for drought tolerance
Maize will continue to be grown under rainfed conditions and it is important to
incorporate drought tolerance in these varieties. A programme will be undertaken to
breed for drought tolerance.
Breeding for disease resistance
Some common diseases observed in maize are leaf blight, stalk rot, and banded
leaf and sheath spot. Breeding for resistance to these diseases will be continued.
Agronomic investigations
1. Fertilizer trials in farmers' fields to determine the economic levels.
2. Investigation of efficient methods of fertilizer application to minimize wastage
and loss.
3. Plant density studies using newly developed varieties.
4. Inter-cropping studies using different crop combinations.
5. Studies of avenue cropping using leguminous trees such as ipil-ipil (Leucaena
leucocephala Link) and Gliricidia (Gliricidia maculata Steud.) to improve the
physical, biological and chemical properties of soil.
6. Studies of simple and less expensive methods of weed control.
7. Studies of irrigation.

37. 5
Characteristics of Moneragala District
Physical features
Area and population
Moneragala district lies in the southeastern quadrant of Sri Lanka. It has the
largest land area among the districts, with 5587 sq km (8% of Sri Lanka). Its
population is 273,000 (1981) with an average density of 10 persons per sq km. This
density is very low compared with the national average, of around 193 per sq km. The
district is essentially rural. The districts of Hambantota, Ratnapura, Badulla and
Ampara form the boundaries of Moneragala district (Figure 1.1).
Moneragala is one of the few districts without an urban agglomeration. The
largest population concentration within the district is 100 to 150 persons per sq km in
the small area of Medagama, Badalkumbura and Moneragala Assistant Government
Agent's divisions, which lies in the centre and along the western border. The
remaining vast expanses stretching to the southern, northern and eastern boundaries
are very sparsely inhabited, with less than 50 persons per sq km.
Moneragala has no urban areas administered by municipal or urban councils. The
only locality with any urban character is the Moneragala Town Council, where only
2.2% of the population lives.
The total labour force is estimated at about 76,000 persons and the majority are
engaged in work in the agricultural sector. School-age children constitute a major
portion of the total population.
The school attendance of the 10 to 14-year-olds improved from 54.4% in 1971 to
78.8% in 1981. Among the older children of 15-19 years, school attendance improved
from 20.5% to 32.6%.
Of all the employed persons, 73.5% are in agricultural occupations (males 74.7%
and females 66.6%).
Moneragala district has a fairly low unemployment rate of 9.2%. Unemployment is
12.6% in the urban sector and 9.2% in the rural sector.
Climate
Moneragala district has two broad climatic zones: the dry zone in the south and
east and the intermediate zone in the northwest. Annual and seasonal rainfall varies
widely. The seasonal rainfall pattern is markedly bi-modal. All areas receive rainfall
during the October-December period from the northeast monsoon (maha). A shorter
period of rainfall is also experienced in all areas during April from the southwest
monsoon (yala). Mean annual rainfall generally increases from about 122 cm in
Thanamalwila and Kataragama areas to 254 cm in the northwest. Nearly half of the
district receives a mean annual rainfall of 190 cm. In general, rainfed cultivation is
possible in the maha season, and yala cultivation is possible only with supplementary
irrigation, especially in the dry zones.
23

38. 24 Characteristics of Moneragala District
Topography and soils
Elevation within the district varies from 656 m above mean sea level in the south
to 6560 m in the northeast. Most of the areas are plane or gently undulating with
frequent patches of rock-knob hills.
The common soil group within the district is the reddish brown earths, alternating
with low-humic clays. Immature brown loams appear on the steeper slopes, while in
the areas around Moneragala towns there are localized Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with
strongly mottled sub-soils or with hard and soft laterites.
Water resources and drainage
The major rivers are the Walawe, Krindi-Oya, Menik Ganga, Kumbukkan-Oya
and Gal-Oya. Many of these streams feed irrigation tanks. Within the district there are
major irrigation tanks serving 1820 ha, with a cultivated area of 2168 ha, and anicut
(raised irrigation water distribution canals) schemes serving a cultivated area of 2550
ha. The Department of Agrarian Services administers 2834 ha cultivated under minor
irrigation schemes.
The number of major and minor irrigation tanks under different ASC areass are
shown in Table 5.1
Table 5.1 Major and minor irrigation tanks in ASC areas
ASC No. of major tanks No. of minor tanks
Kataragama - 5
Thanamalwila 2 44
Wallawaya 5 14
Buttala 8 5
Moneragala 2 6
Badalkumbura - 21
Madagama 1 55
Bibila 3 29
Kotagama - 5
Dambagalla 1 5
Siyambalanduwa 2 6
Muthukandiya 1 -
Total 25 195
Chena cultivation is prevalent and serves as a major source of food and income.
Paddy cultivation is normally delayed in maha season due to operations in chena and
this delay results in low productivity and reduced capacity in tanks for yala cultivation.
Land use
]The total land area of the district is 558,898 ha. National parks occupy 63,967 ha.
Only 60,728 ha are utilized for agricultural purposes: 5668 ha are under forests,
25,910 ha are under perennial crops, 10,242 ha are under paddy, 12,955 ha under
temporary crops (mainly chena) and 133 ha are under pasture lands.
The traditional export crops are tea, rubber and coconut, and these occupy 1270
ha, 3615 ha and 2327 ha respectively. Remaining crop areas are mainly home gardens.
Sugar-cane-and other subsidiary food crops cover 4736 ha.

39. Characteristics of Moneragala Distric 25
Chenas are mainly under maize, manioc, kurakkan, sesame, chilli, groundnut,
green gram and cowpea. Most chena cultivations are in the dry zone.
There are 32,350 operational holdings, with an average holding size of 1.6 ha.
Paddy holdings constitute only 13,454 holdings or 41.6% of the total, with an average
size of 0.6 ha. A large portion of the holdings is illegal encroachments on crown land.
The area under major crops in Moneragala district during 1984/1985 maha and
1985 yala is given in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Extent of major crops in Moneragala district
Extent in 1984/1985 Extent in 1985
Crop
maha yala
Paddy 10681 4129
Chilli 768 68
Maize 4639 35
Finger millet 1586 92
Cowpea 2227 632
Green gram 1074 232
Groundnut 1279 673
Sesame 236 969
Cassava 1707 258
Agricultural extension service
Agricultural officers, agricultural instructors and village-level extension officers
(KVSS) work in the main offices in Moneragala and in 12 ASC regions. The spread of
staff within the district is shown in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 agricultural extension service staff in Moneragala district
Main office Asst. Director of Agriculture 1
Agricultural instructors 1
KVSS 3
Subject matter officers 3
Field stations Agricultural officers 1
Agricultural instructors 9
KVSS 60
Subject matter officers 8

40. 6
Result of the Socio-Economic Survey of Maize
Cultivation
Family information
Family composition
The average family size of maize-cultivating farmers in Moneragala district is 5.5
persons. The largest families are among the farmers in Siyambalanduwa ASC, with 6.3
members, and the smallest in Wellawaya, with 5.1 members (Table 6.1). More families
in Bibila report having adult male children than in any other ASC area. Overall, 45% of
families have adult male children and 39% of families have adult female children. The
average number of adult males and females per family is approximately the same,
around 1.75. In addition to the children of the family, about one-third of the families
report having close members of the extended family, namely, brothers, sisters, in-laws,
parents. The average household or extended family size is therefore 6.0.
Table 6.1 Family composition.
Ave. Male Adult Female Adult Other Average
ASC family Children males children females members hosehold
area size over 16 over 16 sizea
yrs yrs
Bibila 5.8 1.4 60 1.4 52 38 6.4
Moneragala 5.3 1.7 42 2.0 30 88 6.0
Buttala 5.2 1.6 40 2.1 30 34 6.5
Badalkumbura 5.4 1.8 42 1.6 44 20 5.9
Siyambalanduwa 6.3 2.4 54 1.9 42 4 6.4
Wellawaya 5.1 1.7 32 1.5 34 12 5.3
Kotagama 5S 1.8 42 1.5 42 12 5.9
Dist. ave. 5.5 1.8 44.5 1.7 39.1 29.7 6.0
a
including other member
Educational level
About 7% of farmers in the district have not received any education, but
Moneragala and Buttala ASC areas report higher percentages of farmers without any
education. Nearly one-third of the farmers in these areas have received an education up
to the 5th Standard and another one-third up to the 8th Standard. Senior School
Certification (SSC) has been achieved by 16% of farmers, who are mostly young (Table
6.2).
Farmers' wives have a lower level of education, as indicated in Table 6.3. Twenty-
one percent of wives have no education, and 40% have studied only up to the 5th
Standard. However, the percentage of SSC-qualified wives is about the same as for
husbands.
27

41. 28 Results of the Socio-Economic Survey of Maize Cultivation
Compared with their parents, the adult children in the farming families have
received a better education, reflecting improvements in the educational facilities. Fifty-
three percent of adult children have achieved the SSC. Only 4% of children have no
education (Table 6.4).
Table 6.2 Educational level of the farmers unit: % farmers
ASC No Up to 5th 6th to 8th Above
SSCa
area education standard standard SSC
Bibila 6 24 62 8 -
Moneragala 10 40 24 24 2
Buttala 10 42 26 16 6
Badalkumbura 8 34 32 24 2
Siyambalanduwa 6 46 40 6 2
Wellawaya 6 44 36 12 2
Kotagama 4 32 44 20 -
Dist. ave. 7.1 37.4 37.7 15.7 2
a
senior School Certificate
Table 6.2 Educational level of farmers’ wives unit: % wives
ASC No Up to 5th 6th to 8th Above
SSC
area education standard standard SSC
Bibila 8.2 40.8 40.8 10.2 -
Moneragala 17.1 34.1 19.5 29.3 -
Buttala 30.2 30.2 18.6 21.0 -
Badalkumbura 18.6 39.5 25.6 11.6 4.7
Siyambalanduwa 26.5 49.0 16.3 6.1 2.0
Wellawaya 26.7 35.5 26.7 6.7 4.4
Kotagama 17.8 51.1 13.3 17.8 -
Dist. ave. 20.6 40.3 23.2 14.3 1.6
Table 6.2 Educational level of children over 16 years of age unit: % children
ASC No Up to 5th 6th to 8th Above
SSC
area education standard standard SSC
Bibila - 4.8 44.0 38.1 7.1
Moneragala 3.1 15.4 22.0 32.3 29.2
Buttala 7.9 22.2 22.2 23.8 23.8
Badalkumbura 4.1 13.9 26.4 36.1 19.4
Siyambalanduwa 3.8 19.2 35.6 30.8 10.6
Wellawaya 5.7 11.3 39.6 30.2 13.2
Kotagama 2.8 7.0 11.3 56.3 22.5
Dist. ave. 3.7 13.6 29.4 35.9 17.3
Participation of family in farming
Most farmers work full-time on their own farms. Over 90% are full-time farmers in
three of the seven ASC areas. On a district basis, 86% of farmers farm full-time (Table
6.5). The full-time involvement of farmers' wives in the farm is difficult to isolate. In
some cases wives are working a full day on the farm while attending to household
work as well. According to their own classification, most of the wives are involved in