1. Homework
Describe on one piece of paper how
electropheresis works
MUST: isoelectric point
Zwitterions
SHOULD: Buffer effect, PAGE
COULD: Effect of bonding on pH

2. Task One
• Protein Structure
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lijQ3a8yUYQ
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iaHHgEoa2c8
&NR=1

4. What are Proteins For ?
• Enzymes
• Structure to; hair, nails
• Energy
• Hormones, e.g. FSH – menstrual cycle
stimulant……

5. Chromatography

6. • http://www.chemie.uni-
regensburg.de/Organische_Chemie/Didaktik/K
eusch/D-Fehling-e.htm

7. Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides - structure

8. Fructose isomers

9. Glucose Isomers
• http://www.biotopics.co.uk/JmolApplet/alpha
betajglucose2.html

10. Condensation Rxns of the
Monosaccharides
• Formation of
– Starch
– Glycogen
– Cellulose

11. What do Carbohydrates do for us ?
• Energy source (glucose), energy reserves
(glycogen) and precursors for other
biologically important molecules.

12. Humans can Digest Starch NOT
Cellulose
• Both are polymers of glucose units.
• Starch has two forms: amylose, which is a
straight-chain polymer (α-1,4 linkage), and
amylopectin, which is a branched structure
with both α-1,4 and α-1,6 linkages.
• Cellulose has a β-1,4 linkage; this can be
hydrolysed by the enzyme cellulase, which is
absent in most animals, including mammals.

13. Dietary Fibre
• Dietary fibre may be helpful in the prevention
of conditions such as diverticulosis, irritable
bowel
syndrome, constipation, obesity, Crohn’s
disease, hemorrhoids and diabetes mellitus.

14. Fehlings’ Test

15. Lipids
• triglycerides (fats and oils),
– http://tinyurl.com/yda73qr
• phospholipids (lecithin)
• steroids (cholesterol )

16. HDL
and LDL cholesterol
• http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jht
ml?identifier=180
• LDL =
• HDL =

17. Saturated and unsaturated
fatty acids.
• Naturally occurring fatty acids have a mixture
of unsaturated, saturated and
polyunsaturated fatty acids.
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid

18. Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids
• Omega 6
• Omega 3

19. Iodine number
• The number of moles of I2 reacting with one
mole of fat/oil indicates the number of double
bonds present in the fat/oil molecule.

20. Enzyme-catalysed
hydrolysis of triglycerides
• Ester hydrolysis to carboxylic acid + alcohol

21. Energy content
• Fats v Carbohydrates
• Carbs – quick rapid absorption
• Fats – slow release of energy over time, roughly
2x the amount of energy contained in a carb
• http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec12/ch152/ch1
52b.html

22. Roles of lipids
• energy storage
• insulation and protection of organs
• steroid hormones
• structural component of cell membrane
• omega-3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids reduce
• the risk of heart disease
• poly-unsaturated fats may lower levels of LDL
cholesterol

23. Negative Effects
• increased risk of heart disease from elevated
levels of LDL cholesterol and trans fatty acids;
• the major source of LDL cholesterol is
saturated fats, in particular lauric
(C12), myristic (C14) and palmitic (C16) acids
• obesity.

24. Micronutrients
• Micronutrients are substances required in
very small amounts (mg or μg) and that
mainly function as a co-factor of enzymes
(<0.005% body weight).
• Examples include vitamins and trace minerals
(Fe, Cu, F, Zn, I, Se, Mn, Mo, Cr, Co and B).

25. Macronutrients
• These are chemical substances that are
required in relatively large amounts (>0.005%
body weight).
• Examples include proteins, fats, carbohydrates
and minerals (Na, Mg, K, Ca, P, S and Cl).

26. (vitamin A), calciferol (vitamin D) and
ascorbic acid (vitamin C).
• Structural comparison

27. Deduce whether a vitamin is water- or
fat-soluble from its structure.
• water-soluble—vitamins B and C
• fat-soluble—vitamins A, D, E and K.

28. Homework
• Discuss the causes and effects of nutrient
deficiencies in different countries and suggest
solutions
• (word doc)

29. Hormones
• Hormones are micchealmessengers. They are
crtdeese directly into the blood by endocrine
glands.
ExampleslucenidADH, aldosterone, estrogen,
progesterone and
testosterone, insulin, epinephrine (adrenaline)
and thyroxine.

30. The structures of cholesterol
and the sex hormones

31. The mode of action of oral
contraceptives.

32. The use and abuse of steroids.

33. Higher Level
• Enzymes
• Nucleic Acids
• Respiration
• In GREAT chemical detail 

34. Enzymes
• enzymes are proteins; activity depends on
tertiary and quaternary structure; and the
specificity of enzyme action.

35. Compare inorganic catalysts and
biological catalysts (enzymes).

36. The relationship between
substrate concentration and enzyme
activity.

37. Vmax and the value of the
Michaelis constant (Km) by graphical
means

38. Mechanism of Enzyme Action
• enzyme substrate complex, active site and
induced fit model.

39. Competitive inhibition and
non-competitive inhibition
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Comp_inhib.
svg

40. Enzyme Activity
• Effect of :-
– Heavy metal ions
– Temperature
– pH
– http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/573i
nhibit.html

41. Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids are polymers made up of nucleotides.
• A nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a pentose
sugar and an organic nitrogenous base.
• Students should recognize, but do not need to
recall, the structures of the five bases: adenine
(A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T) and uracil
(U).
• Nucleic acids are joined by covalent bonds between
the phosphate of one nucleotide and the sugar of the
next, resulting in a backbone with a repeating pattern
of sugar–phosphate–sugar–phosphate. Nitrogenous
bases are attached to the sugar of the backbone.

42. RNA and DNA
• RNA has ribose as its pentose sugar; DNA has
deoxyribose. Deoxyribose lacks an oxygen
atom on C2. RNA has uracil instead of thymine
as its base.
• RNA is a single-strand nucleic acid; DNA is a
doublestrand nucleic acid.

43. DNA double helix
• The structure has two nucleic acid strands that
spiral around an axis.
• Describe the hydrogen bonding between
specific pairs of nucleotide bases

44. The role of DNA
• repository of genetic information.
• explain its role in protein synthesis……….
• DNA is the genetic material that an individual
inherits from its parents. It directs mRNA
synthesis (transcription) and, through
mRNA, directs protein synthesis (translation)
using a triplet code.

45. DNA Profiling
• Uses in forensic and paternity cases.

46. Respiration
• Aerobic and anaerobic respiration 
• In aerobic respiration, glucose is converted into
pyruvate, which, in the presence of
oxygen, changes to carbon dioxide and water.
Overall, glucose undergoes oxidation and oxygen
undergoes reduction. In anaerobic
respiration, pyruvate is converted to lactate in
human beings whereas yeast converts pyruvate
to ethanol and carbon dioxide.
• Redox equations should be used.

47. The role of Cu
• Cytochromes
• Hemoglobin