3. Introduction
Like Philosophical and Psychological foundations, the scientific and logical
way of thinking is also a basis of Education.
The thinking process in the development of Education may be logical in its
rational domain and may use a scientific method to bring Education into the
domain of science
4. EDUCATION AS SCIENCE
Education: Art or Science
It the history of Education we see that it is the humanistic applied knowledge,
i.e. the techniques of teaching.
The humanistic paradigm, which had its origin in the view advanced by
Aristotle, seeks an interpretation or understanding of events in terms of
intentions, motives and stated reasons.
The Scientific Paradigm, which began with the investigations of Galileo, has
sought causal explanations. Modem researches in the field of Educational
Psychology have developed a notion of scientific foundation of Education.
5. Definition of Science
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the
form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
'Science' is defined as a systematized knowledge derived through
observations, experimentation or any other systematic method or procedure
in order to determine the nature of the phenomena being studied or the
causes behind specific events.
6. Science as a Body of Knowledge
The scientific knowledge can be divided into several branches on the basis of
areas covered by them and on the basis of their structural differences.
Rationalistic Science: Philosophy & theology.
Formal Science: That deals with logic and pure mathematics.
Applied Science: Medicine and Engineering.
Natural Science: Physics, Chemistry and Biology.
Social Science: Sociology, Political Science, Psychology, Economics,
Education and so on.
7. Science as a System of Procedures and
Methods
Emphasizing the importance of scientific methods in collection of the
information about facts, Mr. Karl Pearson in his book "The Grammar of
Science" says, "There is no short-cut to truth, no work to gain knowledge of
the universe except through this gateway of scientific method".
Many sociologists, social scientists, Educationists and scientists hold this
second definition of science.
As between the two approaches, scientists would perhaps lay more stress on
the method and the process rather than on knowledge and the results.
Hence, this is our notion of scientific basis of Education.
8. The Basis of Science
Science is empirical, based on facts: a scientist faced with a problem started
with systematic observation and/or experiment to gather as many partinent
facts as possible.
Science is logical and objective: it is not mere opinion, it does not operate by
subjective impressions or wayward fancies, nor is it swayed by personal
sentiments, but it treads a rigorous path, so that every right minded person,
once he understands, must assent.
Science gives answers which are not indefinite and woolly but definite and
precise: frequently they are exact and quantitative. When possible the
scientist measures, so that he can and himself of mathematical reasoning and
most powerful form of logic yet devised.
9. Cont…
Science gives answers which are not indefinite and woolly but definite and
precise: frequently they are exact and quantitative.
When possible the scientist measures, so that he can and himself of
mathematical reasoning and most powerful form of logic yet devised.
Partly as consequence of this type of approach, science is a highly specialized
activity. The realm above all others where it is the voice of the experts that
counts.
10. General view of science
Empirical, based on fact,
Logical and objective,
Quantitative
Analytical and
A specialized activity
11. Important Points
Education is humanistic applied knowledge. It is Art in its application
and Science in its techniques and basis like medicine.
Humanistic paradigm advanced by Aristotle and Scientific by Galileo.
In 20111 Century, educational researches especially Piagetian
constructively, after Thorndike gave it scientific foundation.
Science is a body of knowledge and a system of procedures and methods.
Three functional levels of science are (a) Philosophical (b) Research
(c) Instrumental.
There are at least ten postulates working under science.
12. Cont…
The method of science is more important in Education. This is called
activity.
Science is empirical, logical, objective, certain, definite, precise,
exact, quantitative, analytical, specialized activity.
Practical aspect of science is analytical, functional & operational.
Science and common sense are inter-related. Sometimes the two help
each other.
13. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
A scientific research means "an investigation carried on through systematic
procedures." Thus, investigation carried on in the field of any science
comes under scientific research. In this sense research in social sciences or
Education is also scientific.
Definition of scientific research has been given by Fred N. Kerlinger in his
book, foundations of Behavioural Research.' To him, "Scientific research is
systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.“
14. Research Paradigms
Thomas Kuhn, himself a historian of science, contributed to a fruitful
development in the philosophy of science with his book The Structure
of Scientific Revolutions published in 1962.
It mapped out how established thinking, research strategies and methods
in a scientific field in Kuhn's terminology "normal science," were
established.
It brought into focus two streams of thinking about what could be regarded
as "scientific," the Aristotelian tradition with its
15. The Two Main Paradigms in Education
The twentieth century has seen the conflict between two main paradigms
employed in researching educational problems.
The one is modelled on the natural sciences with an emphasis on empirical
quantifiable observations which lend themselves to analyses by means of
mathematical tools.
The task of research is to establish causal relationships, to explain. The other
paradigm is derived from the humanities with an emphasis on holistic and
qualitative information and to interpretive approaches.
16. Three Strands of Educational Research
There are at least three strands for the other main paradigm in educational
research.
The Continental idealism of the early nineteenth century has been
mentioned.
A second strand was represented by the phenomenological philosophy
developed by Edmund Husserl ( 1859-1938) in Germany.
The third strand in the humanistic paradigm consists of the critical philosophy
not least the one of the Frankfurt schools (Adorno, Horckheimer and
Habermas) which developed with a certain amount of the nee-Marxism.
17. The Need for Pluralism in Approaches
Scientific Research is systematic, controlled and empirical.
Thomas Kuhn described "scientific" as paradigm in science.
A paradigm is the criteria according to which one selects and defines problem
for inquiry.
18. Important Points
Scientific Research is systematic, controlled and empirical.
Thomas Kuhn described "scientific" as paradigm in science.
A paradigm is the criteria according to which one selects and defines problem for
inquiry.
Thorndike developed the scientific basis of Education using the method
of exact sciences in quantitative terms.
The Scientific Management concept was advanced by Bobbitt.
Then Judd explained how research was related to the teachers training
and educational practice.
Ernst Meumann developed "experimental Education" and Binet studied
intelligence.
The dogmatic attitude of the philosopher must be criticised in the light
of scientific researches. The two paradigms are complimentary.
19. SCIENCE OF THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
An important social scientist defines science in terms of its six major
processes that take place within it.
"These are testing, verification, definition, classification, organization and
orientation which include prediction and application".
Above definitions indicate that scientific method is a system of techniques
and processes. Techniques may differ from one science to other.
20. Procedures of Scientific Method
Formulation of the Problem and Hypothesis
Formulation and Application of Method of Data Collection
Classification and Interpretation
Generalization and Formulation of Laws
21. Goals of Science and Scientific Method
Any science or scientific study aims to explain the occurrence of events in
terms of their causes.
Education, in its social sense, as a science, aims to explain the different
events.
Natural or physical sciences are able to provide explanations or show
relationship among the events more specifically than the social sciences and,
therefore, are able to provide more exact predictions.
Types of Studies
a) Exploratory
b) Descriptive
c) Analytical.
22. Steps in a Scientific Method
Observation, by which knowledge of certain facts is obtained through sense
perception.
Location and Definition of the Difficulty
Suggested Solutions of the Problem-Hypothesis
Deductively Reasoning about the Consequences of the Suggested Solutions
Testing the Hypothesis by Action
23. The Logical Thinking
Logic is a term for reasoning or argumentation. An argument is valid only
when the conclusion necessarily follows from the assumptions.
Logic is of two types. One giving generalization from one or general instance
is called deductive; second, giving generalization from maximum possible
instances is called induction. It may be said that deduction is reasoning from
particular to general and induction is from general to particular.
24. The Use of Mathematics
Mathematics is also a powerful tool in the scientific method, because
the scientific efforts involve the problem of measurement.
"The twin questions of what to measure and how to measure, comprises a
central problem of all scientific methods".
The questions rest upon. mathematics and statistics to find a law.
"Every careful measurement in science is always given with the
probable error, which is a technical term conveying a precise meaning".
This meaning we have discussed as a probability meaning. It means that
"a scientific law may be quite scientific while also being quantitative".
25. Empirical Observations
Reasoning depends upon empirical observations. All the hypotheses,
theories and laws are deduced and all the tests and experiments are
measured by means of observation.
It is a basic and commonly used tool. This is based on evidence. The
empirical observation of evidence is further interpreted by means
of logical employment.
"In its strict sense the term observation signifies a 'taking note' of
something seen, heard, felt, tasted, smelled or given in some other
way as an irreducible element in our own experience".
The observations are taken empirically; by means of senses. Hence,
these are sensory experiences. Some observations may be given a
different interpretation. People interpret their observations differently.
26. Experimentation
The controlled observation is called experiment. In its true terminological
sense, experiment means. "an act or operation carried out under
conditions determined by the experimenter in order to discover some
unknown principle or effect or to test, establish or illustrate some
suggested or known truth".
Control
Experiments could be done only in a controlled situation. The control is
of three descriptions:
a) Control of universe, making samples
b) Delimitation of the study.
c) Control of variables.
27. THE ART OF SCIENTIFIC BASIS
The relevant literature is critically reviewed.
A thorough collection of field data or equivalent observational enquiry is
conducted and supplemented if necessary by experimentation.
The information is correlated and the problem is defined.
Intelligent guesses are made to answer the questions, as many hypotheses as
possible being considered.
Experiments are derived to test first the likeliest hypotheses
28. Important Points
The scientific research in applied form is not an exact science.
Research must be started from a problem not too difficult.
There is a cause-effect relationship.
Their is a chain of causes behind effect Regularity theory.
Their is a logical necessity between the causes-Entailment theory. It leads
towards experimentation that is unable to demonstrate a
supposition.
In social sciences the desires and ambitions of persons can not be fulfilled.
The scientific method is limited to the experiences of abstract
character. (Imagination, Intuition, Reasoning, etc.).
