Li-Fi stands for Light-Fidelity. Li-Fi is transmission of data using visible light by sending data through an LED light bulb that varies in intensity faster than the human eye can follow. If the LED is on, the photo detector registers a binary one; otherwise it‟s a binary zero. The idea of Li-Fi was introduced by a German physicist, Harald Hass, which he also referred to as “Data through Illumination”. The term Li-Fi was first used by Haas in his TED Global talk on Visible Light Communication. According to Hass, the light, which he referred to as „DLight‟, can be used to produce data rates higher than 1 Giga bits per second which is much faster than our average broadband connection. This Project discusses the implementation of the most basic Li-Fi based system to transmit Sound signal from one device to another through visible light. The purpose is to demonstrate only the working of the simplest model of Li-Fi with no major consideration about the data transfer speed. This model will demonstrate how the notion of one-way communication via visible light works, in which Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are employed as the light sources or Transmitter antennas. the sound is transferred by light and is detected at the receiver without fading.

1. 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Over the past few years there has been a rapid growth in the utilization of the RF region
of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is because of the huge growth in the number of mobile
phones subscriptions in recent times. This has been causing a rapid reduction in free spectrum for
future devices. Light-fidelity (Li-Fi) operates in the visible light spectrum of the electromagnetic
spectrum i.e. it uses visible light as a medium of transmission rather than the traditional radio
waves.
Li-Fi stands for Light-Fidelity. Li-Fi is transmission of data using visible light by sending
data through an LED light bulb that varies in intensity faster than the human eye can follow. If
the LED is on, the photo detector registers a binary one; otherwise it‟s a binary zero. The idea of
Li-Fi was introduced by a German physicist, Harald Hass, which he also referred to as “Data
through Illumination”. The term Li-Fi was first used by Haas in his TED Global talk on Visible
Light Communication. According to Hass, the light, which he referred to as „DLight‟, can be
used to produce data rates higher than 1 Giga bits per second which is much faster than our
average broadband connection.
The high speed achievement of Li-Fi can be explained using frequency spectrum of
Electromagnetic Radiations. From the electromagnetic spectrum we can see that the frequency
Band of the visible light is in between 430THz to 770THz and that of Radio Frequency Band is
in between 1Hz to 3THz, Hence the Frequency Bandwidth of the visible light is about 400 Times
greater than the Radio Frequency Bandwidth. So more Number of bits can be transferred through
this Bandwidth than in the radio frequency bandwidth. Hence Data rate will be higher in the Li-
Fi and higher speed can be achieved. Using Li-Fi we can transmit any data that can be
transferred using conventional Wi-Fi network. That can be Images, Audio, Video, Internet
connectivity, etc.. but the advantages over the Wi-Fi Network are High speed, Increased
Security, More Number of Connected Devices, and Less cost. In coming years number of
devices that support Li-Fi will hit the Market. It is estimated that the compound annual growth of
Li-Fi market will be of 82% from 2015 to 2018 and to be worth over $6 billion per year by 2018.

2. 2
Fig. 1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum
This Mini Project discusses the implementation of the most basic Li-Fi based system to
transmit Sound signal from one device to another through visible light. The purpose is to
demonstrate only the working of the simplest model of Li-Fi with no major consideration about
the data transfer speed. This model will demonstrate how the notion of one-way communication
via visible light works, in which Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are employed as the light sources
or Transmitter antennas. The model will transmit digital signal via direct modulation of the light.
The emitted light will be detected by an optical receiver. In addition to the demonstration
purpose, the model enables investigation into the features of the visible light and LEDs
incorporated in the communication model.

3. 3
CHAPTER 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Fig.2.1 Block Diagram
2.1 DESCRIPTION
The basic block diagram consist of
 Input from the Source
 Comparator.
 Lamp Driver.
 LEDs.
 Photo Detector.
 Amplifier and Speaker.
 Output at the Destination

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2.1.1 INPUT
Input consists of analog signal, which is usually taken from the Audio output of the
Mobile Phone, Laptop or any other Musical Instruments. The signal will be at low voltage
level which is not enough to drive an LED, So in order to drive the LEDs we have to amplify
the signal using amplifiers.
2.1.2 COMPARATOR
The input signal from an audio device will be at low voltage level, so in order to
modulate the signal using visible light, we have to convert the signal in to a Pulse wave format
(signal representing 0 & 1). to accomplish this task we use an Op-Amp Comparator which uses
µA 741 Op-Amp IC. The comparator compares the input signal with a reference voltage and
produces an output which will be in Pulse wave form. The pulse wave so formed is amplified
and modulated at the Lamp Driver.
2.1.3 LAMP DRIVER
The pulse wave from the comparator has to be amplified to drive the LEDs. And
Modulation of the input signal and Carrier Light signal is also taking place at the Lamp driver
using a Transistor called BC 548, which is general purpose Silicon Transistor uses as
Amplification transistor as well as Modulation transistor.
The amplified and modulated pulse signal is used to drive the LEDs. These LEDs transmit the
modulated signals to the receiver.
2.1.4 LEDs
In Li-Fi Transmission, the most important requirement of light source is its ability to
turn ON and OFF Repeatedly in very short intervals (in ns range). So we use LEDs which have
very low switching time. These LEDs turn ON and OFF in Nano second based on the Pulse
signal. Since the switching taking at a faster rate, it cannot be detected by Human eye. So it

5. 5
will appear as illuminating even though they are blinking. Thus modulated signal is transmitted
to receiver via Visible Light.
2.1.5 PHOTO DETECTOR
The transmitted signal from the LEDs has to be detected, demodulated and
acknowledged. So in order to detect the message signal from the blinking LED light, we use a
photo cell or a Solar Cell (which comprises large no of photo cells connected in series). The
solar cell detects only the variation of the light, since the blinking can be easily detected and
output of the solar cell will be the message signal in the analog form. So using solar we could
detect and demodulate the message signal transmitted.
2.1.6 AMPLIFIER AND SPEAKER
The demodulated signal will be at low voltage range. So it is Amplified to the arbitrary
voltage level using an amplifier. This amplifier will be same type of amplifier which we used
in transmitter side. This is due to the fact that if any phase errors occurred, it will be cleared at
this stage. The speaker will convert the electrical signal to the audible form using electro
magnets present in the speaker.
2.1.7 OUTPUT
The demodulated audible signal is transmitted from speaker to its final destination. So
that the audience can listen to the message that has been transmitted from the source

6. 6
CHAPTER 3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM &WORKING
3.1 TRANSMITTER CIRCUIT
Fig.3.1.1 Li-Fi Audio Transmitter Circuit
3.2 CIRCUIT WORKING
The above figure depicts the transmitter circuit of the Li-Fi circuit. We know that
carrier waves can take signals along destinations, so this is simple concept when we put
photons with speed of light by source to destination it can also carry signals of low frequency
to destination. so we build a circuit which can modulate light with low frequency signals.
Take input from an audio device, the input will be very low audio signals of 20Hz to
20KHz. These signals paces through C1 (100nf) where DC (Direct Current) components are
filtered and removed. Through R3 100kΩ which is a current limit for comparator µA741 (Op-
Amp) to protect it from the high current which cause destruction of the Op-Amp. Through R1
100kΩ and R4 100kΩ, voltage at the inverting terminal of the Op-Amp limit to 5v/2 = 2.5v.
Input signal at pin 3 of op-amp and compare with pin 2 of Op-Amp and output will be present
at the Pin No 6 of the Op-Amp IC. 470kΩ pot or feedback gain controller to control volume at
output of the Op-Amp If there is no input is fed to the Comparator, a Positive DC wave will
present at pin 6 of Op-Amp, which make transistor Q1 keep alive and LED starts to glow

7. 7
Continuously. The Capacitors C3, C4 (Both are 470µF) are filters to reduce AC components
spike in circuit.
Whenever signals interrupt through pin 3 of op-amp (input from Audio device). The
Comparator compares the input signal with the Reference Voltage and produce an Pulse wave
output at the Pin 6. The width of the pulse wave is controlled by the Input signal Frequency.
The Pulse signal is equivalent to the ON/OFF Signal which control the intensity of the Light
Source aka LED (D1). The Pulse wave is further Amplified and Modulated using Transistor
BC548 (T1), which is an Amplifier Modulator having high current gain. The transistor will act
as a Lamp Driver and drives the LED. LED emits light according to the pulse wave form and
make VLC (Visible light communication) alive. Since the blinking of the LED is controlled by
the input signal, it will take place in Nano Seconds (ns) it cannot detect by Human eyes.
3.3 CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
The Basic Components of the Transmitter Circuits are
 Power Supply (5V Supply)
 Capacitors
 Resistors
 Op-Amp IC - µA 741
 Potentiometer (Audio / Feedback Controller)
 Transistor – BC 548
 Light Source – LEDs
3.3.1 POWER SUPPLY
The power supply is the most indispensable part of any project. IC Regulators are
versatile and relatively inexpensive and are available with features such as current/voltage
boosting, internal short circuit current limiting, thermal shutdown and floating operation for
high voltage applications. The regulated circuit is used to maintain constant output level. The
regulator IC here used is LM 7805. It provides regulated 5V to the Circuit. Its maximum input
voltage is 35V and minimum voltage is 8V.Output is Constant 5V.
The Pin out diagram of LM 7805 IC is given below
LM 7805 Have several Features, they are listed below.

8. 8
Fig.3.3.1.1 LM7805 – Regulator IC
Features of LM 7805 Regulator are
 Output current is up to 1.5A
 Output Voltage of 5,5.2,6,8,8.5,9,12,15,18,24V
 Thermal overload Protection
 Short circuit Protection
 Output Transition SOA Protection
 Maximum input Voltage = 35V
We can also use 5V DC Cell for the power supply of the circuit.
Fig.3.3.1.2 5V Battery

9. 9
3.3.2 CAPACITORS
Fig.3.3.2.1 Capacitor
A capacitor is a two-terminal, electrical component. Along with resistors and inductors,
they are one of the most fundamental passive components we use. What makes capacitors
special is their ability to store energy; they‟re like a fully charged electric battery. Caps, as we
usually refer to them, have all sorts of critical applications in circuits. Common applications
include local energy storage. Capacitance is its Unit. Not all capacitors are created equal. Each
capacitor is built to have a specific amount of capacitance. The capacitance of a capacitor tells
you how much charge it can store, more capacitance means more capacity to store charge. The
standard unit of capacitance is called the farad, which is abbreviated F. It turns out that a farad
is a lot of capacitance, even 0.001F (1 milli farad – 1mF) is a big capacitor. Usually we‟ll see
capacitors rated in the Pico- (10-12
) to microfarad (10-6
) range.
3.3.3 RESISTORS
Fig.3.3.3.1 Resistors
Resistors are the most commonly used component in electronics and their purpose is
to create specified values of current and voltage in a circuit. The unit for measuring resistance
is the OHM. (The Greek letter Ω - called Omega). Higher resistance values are represented by
"k" (kilo-ohms) and M (Mega ohms). For example, 120 000 Ω is represented as 120k, while
1200000 Ω is represented as 1MΩ. The dot is generally omitted as it can easily be lost in the
printing process. In some circuit diagrams, a value such as 8 or 120 represents a resistance in
ohms. Another common practice is to use the letter E for resistance in ohms. The letter R can
also be Resistor Markings.

10. 10
Resistance value is marked on the resistor body. Most resistors have 4 bands. The first
two bands provide the numbers for the resistance and the third band provides the number of
zeros. The fourth band indicates the tolerance. Tolerance values of 5%, 2%, and 1% are used.
The following table shows the Color Code used to identify resistor values.
COLOR DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE TC
Silver x 0.01 W ±10%
Gold x 0.1 W ±5%
Black 0 x 1 W
Brown 1 x 10 W ±1% ±100*10-6
/K
Red 2 x 100 W ±2% ±50*10-6
/K
Orange 3 x 1 kW ±15*10-6
/K
Yellow 4 x 10 kW ±25*10-6
/K
Green 5 x 100 kW ±0.5%
Blue 6 x 1 MW ±0.25% ±10*10-6
/K
Violet 7 x 10 MW ±0.1% ±5*10-6
/K
Grey 8 x 100 MW
White 9 x 1 GW ±1*10-6
/K
Table 3.3.3.2 Resistor Color Codes
3.3.4 Op-Amp IC - µA 741
Fig.3.3.4.1 Op-Amp IC - µA 741

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An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage
amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. In this configuration, an
op-amp produces an output potential (relative to circuit ground) that is typically hundreds of
thousands of times larger than the potential difference between its input terminals.
Operational amplifiers had their origins in analog computers, where they were used to
do mathematical operations in many linear, non-linear and frequency-dependent circuits. The
popularity of the op-amp as a building block in analog circuits is due to its versatility. Due to
negative feedback, the characteristics of an op-amp circuit, its gain, input and output
impedance, bandwidth etc. are determined by external components and have little dependence
on temperature coefficients or manufacturing variations in the op-amp itself.
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast
array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a
few cents in moderate production volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational
amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small quantities.
Op-amps may be packaged as components, or used as elements of more complex integrated
circuits. The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier
include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with two outputs), the
instrumentation amplifier (usually built from three op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to
the instrumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to common-mode voltages that would destroy
an ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from one or more op-amps
and a resistive feedback network).
Features of Op-Amp IC
 Short-Circuit Protection
 Offset-Voltage Null Capability.
 Large Common-Mode and Differential Voltage Ranges.
 No Frequency Compensation Required and Latch up
 A-741is general Purpose operational amplifier.
 The device exhibits high stability.
 It can be configured in inverting and Non-Inverting Mode
 It can be used to implement comparators, Astable, Monostable Multvibrators.
Amplifiers, etc..

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3.3.5 POTENTIOMETER
Fig.3.3.5.1 Potentiometer
A potentiometer, informally a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating
contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and
the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat.
The measuring instrument called a potentiometer is essentially a voltage divider used
for measuring electric potential (voltage); the component is an implementation of the same
principle, hence its name.
Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls
on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position
transducers, for example, in a joystick. Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control
significant power (more than a watt), since the power dissipated in the potentiometer would be
comparable to the power in the controlled load.
3.3.6 TRANSISTOR – BC 548
Fig.3.3.6.1 BC 548 Transistor

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It is general purpose silicon, NPN, bipolar junction transistor. It is used for
amplification and switching purposes. The current gain may vary between 110 and 800. The
maximum DC current gain is 800.Its equivalent transistors are 2N3904 and 2SC1815. These
equivalent transistors however have different lead assignments. The variants of BC548 are
548A, 548B and 548C which vary in range of current gain and other characteristics. The
transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of its
characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification applications, the
transistor is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is
amplified and taken at the emitter. BC 548 is used in common emitter configuration for
amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching
applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In the
absence of base signal, it gets completely off.
3.3.7 LIGHT SOURCE – LED
Fig.3.3.7.1 LED
The most important requirement that a light source has to meet in order to serve
communication purposes is the ability to be switched on and off repeatedly in very short
intervals. By utilizing the advantage of fast switching characteristics of LED‟s compared with
the conventional lightning, the LED illumination is used as a communication source. Since the
illumination exists everywhere, it is expected that the LED illumination device will act as a
lighting device and a communication transmitter simultaneously everywhere in a near future.
Typically, red, green, and blue LEDs emit a band of spectrum, depending on the material
system. The white LED draws much attention for the illumination devices. Comparing the
LED illumination with the conventional illumination such as fluorescent lamps and

14. 14
incandescent bulbs, the LED illumination has many advantages such as high efficiency,
environment-friendly manufacturing, design flexibility, long lifetime, and better spectrum
performance.
LEDs emit light when energy levels change in the semiconductor diode. This shift in
energy generates photons, some of which are emitted as light. The specific wavelength of the
light depends on the difference in energy levels as well as the type of semiconductor material
used to form the LED chip. Solid-state design allows LEDs to withstand shock, vibration,
frequent switching (electrical on and off shock) and environmental (mechanical shocks)
extremes without compromising their famous long life typically 100,000 hours or more.
The basic LED consists of a semiconductor diode chip mounted in the reflector cup of a
lead frame that is connected to electrical (wire bond) wires, and then encased in a solid epoxy
lens. The architecture of LED is shown in Fig.
Fig.3.3.7.2 LED Architecture

15. 15
3.4 RECIEVER CIRCUIT
Fig.3.4.1 Receiver Circuit
3.5 CIRCUIT WORKING
The Solar cell is used to detect the Light from the Transmitting LEDs. And it produces
an Analog output corresponding to the input signal. The frequency of the analog will be same
as that of input signal, since the flickering of LED is controlled by the input signal and solar
cell detects only the fluctuation in the LED signal and produces the output. The output is then
amplified using BC 548. It also helps in removing any phase changes occurs in the transmitted
signal. The Amplified signal is fed to the speaker. The speaker converts the analog signal to the
Audible Sound signal using the electromagnet present in the Speaker.
3.6 CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
The basic Components of the Receiver Circuits are
 Photo Detector – Solar cell
 Transistor - BC 548
 Speaker

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3.6.1 PHOTO DETECTOR – SOLAR CELL
Fig.3.6.1.1 Solar Cell
A Solar cell is an electrical device that converts the energy of Light Directly to electric signal
or analog signal by the photovoltaic effect, which is a chemical physical phenomenon. When
photons are strikes on its walls electron flow occurs which will store as electrical energy. It
have slower Time response as their area increases. Solar cells are formed connecting large
Number of Photo Detectors connected in series. It works in the Reverse Biased Mode. Usually
the Efficiency of solar cell is Low. Even though it regarded as Green Technology.
3.6.2 SPAKER
Fig.3.6.2.1 Speaker
In this project we use Speaker which has in-built Amplifier, which Amplifies the
Analog signal received from the output of the Solar cell. It also helps to remove any phase
errors that may occurred during the Transmitting or Processing of the input signal. The main
Function of a speaker is to convert Electrical or Analog Signals in to the Audible form to reach
the Receptor. It converts the sound signal with the help of Electromagnets Present in the
Speaker. Hence the Receptor Receive the input that has been transmitted from the Transmitter.

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3.7 THE PCB LAYOUT
3.7.1 PCB DESIGN
Design of printed circuit board (PCB) can be considered as the last step in electronic
circuit design as well as the first step in production. It plays important role in the performance
and reliability of electronic circuits, the productivity of the PCB‟s its assembling, and its
service ability depends on design. All these factors get reflected in a piece of electronic
equipment. It is clear that task of PCB design is not very simple or always straight forward.
The schematic is follower by layout generation. Layout design is the stage where engineering
capacity combined with creativity is the governing inputs.
3.7.2 ELECTRONIC DESIGN AUTOMATION TOOLS
Most product testing is being done is done with the help of computer programs. The
term Electronic Design Automation (EDA) is being used to describe the use of these tools.
With the help of advanced powerful computing systems and interactive software tools and
development of electronic circuits has undergone automation. Thus the software and hardware
tools, which enables this automation includes PCB designing, IC design, circuit simulation etc.
These tools help us in such a way that we can draw the circuit; test the functioning of the
circuit in response to test inputs in simulation software.
After successfully simulation we can get the PCB art work done by replacing the
routing software. The design automation tool used here is ORCAD.
3.7.3 PCB DESIGN PROCEDURES
The PCB designing procedure consists of following steps:
3.7.3.1 DRAWING THE CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC
Drawing of circuit is done through ORCAD CAPTURE. It includes many libraries
with thousands of component symbols. We can select the required symbol from the library and
place it in the schematic page. After placing the component symbols, we can complete the
interconnection using wire or bus control.

18. 18
The next step is to assign part reference. Each component has to be assigned footprint
or PCB pattern name. The footprint gives the actual size physical representation of components
on the PCB artwork. The component symbol and foot symbol should correspond in all
respects.
3.7.3.2 DESIGN RULE CHECK AND NET LIST CREATION
After the circuit schematic is completed with all required information such as part
reference and footprints, the design rule check can be used for checking errors in the design. It
will check for duplicate symbols, overlapped lines and dangling lines.
After the schematic design file passes the DRC check, it is processed by a program
called an electric rule checker (ERC) that checks for writing errors. The final operation to be
done before starting PCB artwork is the net list creation.
A net list creation of the components and interconnection along with other information
such as foot prints, track width etc. A net list software or tool can take the circuit schematic as
input and generate net list. The net list can be used as an information source for the remaining
stages.
3.7.3.3 CREATING THE PCB ARTWORK
In automatic design, the net list obtained from the previous stage is used for getting the
required foot print and interconnections. The software used for the PCB artwork design in the
ORCAD LAYOUT.
3.7.3.4 PCB FABRICATION
You need to generate a positive (copper black) UV translucent art work film. You will
never get a good board without good art work, so it is important to get the best possible quality
at this stage. The most important thing is to get a clear sharp image with a very solid opaque
black. Art work is done using ORCAD software. It is absolutely essential that your PCB
software prints holes in the middle of pads, which will act as center marks when drilling. It is
virtually impossible to accurately hand-drill boards without these holes. If you are looking to
buy PCB software at any cost level and want to do hand-prototyping of boards before
production, check that this facility is available when defining pad and line shapes, the

19. 19
minimum size recommended (through-linking holes) for reliable result is 50 mil, assuming
0.8mm drill size; 1 mil=(1/1000)th
of an inch. You can go smaller drill sizes, but through
linking will be harder. 65mil round or square pads for normal components.
ICs, with 0.8 mm hole, will allow a 12.5mil, down to 10mil if you really need to.
Center-to-center spacing of 12.5 mil tracks should be 25 mil-slightly less may be possible if
your printer can manage it. Take care to preserve the correct diagonal track-track spacing on
mitered corners; grid is 25 mil and track width 12.5mil. The art work must be printed such that
the printed side is in contact with PCB surface when exposing, to avoid blurred edges. In
practice, this means that if you design the board as seen from the component side, the bottom
(solder side) layer should be printed the „correct‟ way round, and top side of the double-sided
board must be printed mirrored.
3.7.3.5 ETCHING
Ferric chloride etchant is a messy stuff, but easily available and cheaper than most
alternatives. It attacks any metal including stainless steel. So when setting up a PCB etching
area, use a plastic or ceramic sink, with plastic fitting and screws wherever possible, and seal
any metal screws with silicon. Copper water pipes may be splashed or dripped-on, so sleeve or
cover them in plastic; heat-shrink sleeve is great if you are installing new pipes. Fume
extraction is not normally required, although a cover over the tank or tray when not in use is a
good idea. You should always use the hex hydrate type of ferric chloride, which should be
dissolved in warm water until saturation. Adding a teaspoon of table salt helps to make the
etchant clearer for easier inspection. Avoid anhydrous ferric chloride. It creates a lot of heat
when dissolved. So always add the powder very slowly to water; do not add water to the
powder, and use gloves and safety glasses. The solution made from anhydrous ferric chloride
doesn‟t etch at all, so you need to add a small amount of hydrochloric acid and leave it for a
day or two. Always take extreme care to avoid splashing when dissolving either type of ferric
chloride, acid tends to clump together and you often get big chunks coming out of the container
and splashing into the solution. It can damage eyes and permanently stain clothing. If you are
making PCBs in a professional environment where time is money you should get a heated
bubble-etch tank. With fresh hot ferric chloride, the PCB will etch in well under 5 minutes.
Fast etching produces better edge-quality and consistent line widths. If you aren‟t using a

20. 20
bubble tank, you need to agitate frequently to ensure even etching. Warm the etchant by
putting the etching tray inside a larger tray filled with boiling water.
3.7.3.6 DRILLING
If you have fiber glass (FR4) board, you must use tungsten carbide drill bits. Fiberglass
eats normal high-speed steel (HSS) bits very rapidly, although HSS drills are alright for older
larger sizes (> 2mm). Carbide drill bits are available as straight-shank or thick-shank. In
straight shank, the hole bit is the diameter of the hole, and in thick shank, a standard size
(typically about 3.5 mm) shank tapers down to the hole size.
The straight-shank drills are usually preferred because they break less easily and are
usually cheaper. The longer thin section provides more flexibility. Small drills for PCB use
usually come with either a set of collets of various sizes or a three-jaw chuck. Sometimes the
3-jaw chuck is an optional extra and is worth getting for the time it saves on changing collets.
For accuracy, however, 3-jaw chucks are not brilliant, and small drill sizes below 1 mm
quickly formed grooves in the jaws, preventing good grip. Below 1 mm, you should use
collets, and buy a few extra of the smallest ones; keeping one collect per drill size as using a
larger drill in a collet will open it out and it no longer grips smaller drills well. You need a
good strong light on the board when drilling, to ensure accuracy. A dichroic halogen lamp,
under run at 9V to reduce brightness, can be mounted on a microphone gooseneck for easy
positioning. It can be useful to raise the working surface above 15 cm above the normal desk
height for more comfortable viewing. Dust extraction is nice, but not essential and occasional
blow does the trick! A foot-pedal control to switch the drill „off‟ and „on‟ is very convenient,
especially when frequently changing bits. Avoid hole sizes less than 0.8 mm unless you really
need them. When making two identical boards, drill them both together to save time. To do
this, carefully drill a 0.8 mm whole in the pad near each corner of each of the two boards,
getting the center as accurately as possible. For larger boards, drill a hole near the center of
each side as well. Lay the boards on the top of each other and insert a 0.8 mm track pin in two
opposite corners, using the pins as pegs to line the PCBs up. Squeeze or hammer the pins into
boards, and then into the remaining holes. The two PCBs are now „nailed‟ together accurately
and can be drilled together.

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3.7.3.7 SOLDERING
Soldering is the joining together of two metals to give physical bonding and good
electrical conductivity. It is used primarily in electrical and electronic circuitry. Solder is a
combination of metals, which are solid at normal room temperatures and become liquid
between 180 and 200 degree Celsius. Solder bonds well to various metals, and extremely well
to copper. Soldering is a necessary skill you need to learn to successfully build electronics
circuits. To solder you need a soldering iron. A modern basic electrical soldering iron consists
of a heating element, a soldering bit (often called a tip), a handle and a power cord.
The heating element can be either a resistance wire wound around a ceramic tube, or a
thick film resistance element printed on to a ceramic base. The element is then insulated and
placed into a metal tube for strength and protection. This is then thermally insulated from the
handle. The heating element of soldering iron usually reaches temperatures of around 370 to
400 degree Celsius (higher than need to melt the solder). The strength or power of a soldering
iron is usually expressed in watts. Irons generally used in electronics are typically in the range
of 12 to 25 watts. Higher powered iron will not run hotter. Most irons are available in a variety
of voltages; 12V, 24V, 115V and 230V are most popular.
Today most laboratories and repair shops use soldering irons, which operate at 24V.
You should always use this low voltage where possible, as it is much safer. For advanced
soldering work, you will need a soldering iron with temperature control. In this type of
soldering irons, the temperature may be usually set between 200 and 450 degree Celsius.
Many temperature control soldering iron designed for electronics have a power rating
of around 40 to 50 watt. They will heat fast and give enough power for operation, but are
mechanically small.
You will occasionally see gas-powered soldering irons which use butane rather than the
main electrical supply to operate. They have a catalytic element which once warmed up,
continues to glow hot when gas passes over them. Gas powered soldering irons are designed
for occasional „on the spot‟ used for quick repairs, rather than for main stream construction or
for assembly work.
Currently, the best commonly available, workable, and safe solder alloy is 63/37. That
is, 63% lead, 37% tin. It is also known as eutectic solder. Its most desirable characteristic is
that it solids („pasty‟) state, and its liquid state occur at the same temperature -361 degree

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Fahrenheit. The combination of 63% lead and 37% tin melts at the lowest possible
temperature. Nowadays there is tendency to move to use lead free solders, but it will take years
until they catch on normal soldering work. Lead free solders are nowadays available, but they
are generally more expensive or harder to work on than traditional solders that they have lead
in them.
The metals involved are not the only things to consider in a solder. Flux is vital to a
good solder joint. Flux is an aggressive chemical that removes oxide and impurities from the
parts to be soldered. The chemical reactions at the point(s) of connection must take place for
the metal to fuse. RMA type flux (Rosin Mildly Active) is the least corrosive of the readily
available materials, and provides an adequate oxide. In electronics, a 60/40 fixed core solder is
used. This consists of 60% lead and 40% tin, with flux cores added to the length of solder.
There are certain safety measures which you should keep in mind when soldering. The tin
material used in soldering contains dangerous substances like lead (40-60% of typical
soldering tins are lead and lead is poisonous). Also the various fumes from the soldering flux
can be dangerous. While it is true that lead does not vaporize at the temperature at which
soldering is typically done.
When soldering, keep the room well ventilated and use a small fan or fume trap. A
proper fume trap of a fan will keep the most pollution away from your face. Professional
electronic workshops use expensive fume extraction systems to protect their workers. Those
fume extraction devices have a special filter which filters out the dangerous fumes. If you can
connect a duct to the output from the trap to the outside, that would be great.
Always wash hands prior to smoking, eating, drinking or going to the bathroom. When you
handle soldering tin, your hands will pick up lead, which needs to be washed out from it before
it gets to your body. Do not eat, drink or smoke while working with soldering iron. Do not
place cups, glasses or a plate of food near your working area.

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3.7.4 PCB LAYOUT
Fig.3.7.4.1 Li-Fi Transmitter Layout

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CHAPTER 4
4.1 COMPARISON BETWEEN Li-Fi and Wi-Fi
Li-Fi is a term of one used to describe visible light communication technology applied to high
speed wireless communication. It acquired this name due to the similarity to Wi-Fi, only using
light instead of radio. Wi-Fi is great for general wireless coverage within buildings, and Li-Fi is
ideal for high density wireless data coverage in confined area and for relieving radio interference
issues, so the two technologies can be considered complimentary.
Technology Speed Data Density
Wireless (Current)
Wi-Fi – IEEE
802.11n
150 Mbps *
Bluetooth 3 Mbps *
IrDA 4 Mbps ***
Wireless (Future)
WiGig 2 Gbps **
Giga-IR 1 Gbps ***
Li-Fi >1Gbps ****
Table.4.1 Comparison between current and future wireless Technology
The table also contains the current wireless technologies that can be used for transferring
data between devices today, i.e. Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and IrDA. Only Wi-Fi currently offers very
high data rates. The IEEE 802.11.n in most implementations provides up to 150Mbit/s (in theory
the standard can go to 600Mbit/s) although in practice you receive considerably less than this.
Note that one out of three of these is an optical technology.

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CHAPTER 5
RESULT AND ANALYSIS
In our project we Designed and implemented a wireless communication device which
Transmit Audio Message wirelessly known as LIGHT FIDELITY (Li-Fi). The project contains
two sections 1 – Transmitter Section and 2 – Receiver Section. The transmitter section Modulate
the incoming message audio signal and transmit towards the receiver in the form Visible Light
using LEDs. The receiver section interprets the incoming light which is detected using a solar
panel and converts to the audible sound signal with the help of Speaker.
Fig.5.1 Li-Fi Transmitter
Fig.5.2 Li-Fi Receiver

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5.1 ADVANTAGES
Li-Fi technology is based on LEDs or other light source for the transfer of data. The
transfer of the data can be with the help of all kinds of light, no matter the part of the spectrum
that they belong. That is, the light can belong to the invisible, ultraviolet or the visible part of the
spectrum. Also, the speed of the communication is more than sufficient for downloading movies,
games, music and all in very less time. Also, Li-Fi removes the limitations that have been put on
the user by the Wi-Fi.
5.1.1 CAPACITY
Light has 400 times wider bandwidth than radio waves. Also, light sources are already
installed. So, Li-Fi has got better capacity and also the infrastructures are already available.
5.1.2 EFFICIENCY
Data transmission using Li-Fi is very cheap. LED lights consume less energy and are
highly efficient and long lasting.
5.1.3 AVAILABILITY
Availability is not an issue as light sources are presents everywhere. There are billions of
light bulbs worldwide, They just need to be replaced with LEDs for proper transmission of data.
5.1.4 SECURITY
Light waves do not penetrate through walls. So, they can„t be intercepted and misused.
5.1.5 NO LIMIT FOR CONNECTIVITY
The High speed capability of Li-Fi enables large number users can be connected, since
speed will not be throttled or slowed down.

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5.2 LIMITATIONS
The major Limitations of this technology are
5.2.1 Li-Fi CANNOT PENETRATE THROUGH WALLS
The artificial light cannot penetrate into walls and other opaque materials which radio
waves can do. So a Li-Fi enabled end device (through its inbuilt photo-receiver) will never be as
fast and handy as a Wi-Fi enabled device if any obstacle is present between Transmitter and
Reciever.
5.2.2 REQUIRES LoS.
To function Li-Fi with full efficiency, It Requires Line of Sight. That is the Transmitter Antenna
and Receiver Antenna should be in a line (Face to Face).
Still, Li-Fi could emerge as a boon to the rapidly depleting bandwidth of radio waves. And it will
certainly be the first choice for accessing internet in a confined room at cheaper cost.
5.3 APPLICATIONS
There are numerous applications of this technology, from public internet access through
street lamps to auto-piloted cars that communicate through their headlights. Applications of Li-Fi
can extend in areas where the Wi-Fi technology lacks its presence like medical technology,
power plants and various other areas. Since Li-Fi uses just the light, it can be used safely in
aircrafts and hospitals where Wi-Fi is banned because they are prone to interfere with the radio
waves. All the street lamps can be transferred to Li-Fi lamps to transfer data. As a result of it, it
will be possible to access internet at any public place and street. Some of the future applications
of Li-Fi are as follows
5.3.1 EDUCATION SYSTEMS
Li-Fi is the latest technology that can provide fastest speed internet access. So, it can
replace Wi-Fi at educational institutions and at companies so that all the people can make use of
Li-Fi with the same speed intended in a particular area.

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5.3.2 MEDICAL APPLICATIONS
Operation theatres (OTs) do not allow Wi-Fi due to radiation concerns. Usage of Wi-Fi at
hospitals interferes with the Mobile and PC which blocks the signals for monitoring equipments.
So, it may be hazardous to the patient's health. To overcome this and to make OT tech savvy Li-
Fi can be used to accessing internet and to control medical equipments. This can even be
beneficial for robotic surgeries and other automated procedures.
5.3.3 CHEAPER INTERNET IN AIRCRAFTS
The passengers travelling in aircrafts get access to low speed internet at a very high rate.
Also Wi-Fi is not used because it may interfere with the navigational systems of the pilots. In
aircrafts Li-Fi can be used for data transmission. Li-Fi can easily provide high speed internet via
every light source such as overhead reading bulb, etc. present inside the airplane.
5.3.4 UNDERWATER APPLICATIONS
Underwater ROVs (Remotely Operated Vehicles) operate from large cables that supply
their power and allow them to receive signals from their pilots above. But the tether used in
ROVs is not long enough to allow them to explore larger areas. If their wires were replaced with
light say from a submerged, high-powered lamp then they would be much freer to explore. They
could also use their headlamps to communicate with each other, processing data autonomously
and sending their findings periodically back to the surface. Li-Fi can even work underwater
where Wi-Fi fails completely, thereby throwing open endless opportunities for military
operations.
5.3.5 DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Li-Fi can be used as a powerful means of communication in times of disaster such as
earthquake or hurricanes. The average people may not know the protocols during such disasters.
Subway stations and tunnels, common dead zones for most emergency communications, pose no
obstruction for Li-Fi. Also, for normal periods, Li-Fi bulbs could provide cheap high-speed Web
access to every street corner.

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5.3.6 APPLICATIONS IN SENSITIVE AREAS
Power plants need fast, inter-connected data systems so that demand, grid integrity and
core temperature (in case of nuclear power plants) can be monitored. Wi-Fi and many other
radiation types are bad for sensitive areas surrounding the power plants. Li-Fi could offer safe,
abundant connectivity for all areas of these sensitive locations. This can save money as
compared to the currently implemented solutions. Also, the pressure on a power plant„s own
reserves could be lessened. Li-Fi can also be used in petroleum or chemical plants where other
transmission or frequencies could be hazardous.
5.3.7 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
In traffic signals Li-Fi can be used which will communicate with the LED lights of the
cars which can help in managing the traffic in a better manner and the accident numbers can be
decreased. Also, LED car lights can alert drivers when other vehicles are too close.
5.3.8 REPLACEMENT FOR OTHER TECHNOLOGIES
Li-Fi doesn„t work using radio waves. So, it can be easily used in the places where Bluetooth,
infrared, Wi-Fi, etc. are banned.

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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
The possibilities are numerous and can be explored further. If his technology can be put
into practical use, every bulb can be used something like a Wi-Fi hotspot to transmit wireless
data and we will proceed toward the cleaner, greener, safer and brighter future. The concept of
Li-Fi is currently attracting a great deal of interest, not least because it may offer a genuine and
very efficient alternative to radio-based wireless. As a growing number of people and their many
devices access wireless internet, the airwaves are becoming increasingly clogged, making it more
and more difficult to get a reliable, high-speed signal. This may solve issues such as the shortage
of radio-frequency bandwidth and also allow internet where traditional radio based wireless isn‟t
allowed such as aircraft or hospitals. The main shortcoming however is that it only work in direct
line of sight.
6.1 FUTURE SCOPE
By using Li-Fi we can have Energy saving Parallelism. With growing number of people
and their many devices access wireless internet, on one way data transfer at high speed and at
cheap cost. In future we can have LED array beside a motorway helping to light the road,
displaying the latest traffic updates and transmitting internet information to wirelessly to
passengers Laptops, Notebooks and Smart phones. This is the kind of extra ordinary, energy
saving parallelism that is believed to deliver by this pioneering technology.

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REFERENCES
[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li-Fi
[2] www.YouTube.com – TED Talk by Harald Hass on Li-Fi
[3] “Li-Fi (Light Fidelity)-The future technology In Wireless communication?” by Jyoti
Rani. “Journal from International Journal of Applied Engineering Research” (IJAER);
ISSN 0973-4562 Vol.7 No.11 (2012)
[4] www.lificonsortium.org/
[5] Priyanka Dixit and Kunal Lala – Li-Fi the Latest Technology in Wireless; ISBN
978817515738
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