1. Chapter 2
SCIENTIFIC
INVESTIGATION

2. Definition of Scientific
Research
Scientific Research focusing on
solving problems and pursues a
step by step logical, organized and
rigorous method to identify the
problems, gather data, analyze
them and draw valid conclusions
from it.

3. Why Scientific Research?
• This research is not based on hunches, and
intuition.
• Findings are accurate.
• Scientific research focuses on problem
solving.
• Apply solutions to similar problems.
• It is more objective.
• It can be applied to both basic and applied
research.

4. The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
The hallmarks or main distinguishing
characteristics of scientific research may be
listed as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Purposiveness
Rigor
Testability
Replicability
Precision and Confidence
Objectivity
Generalizability
Parsimony

5. Hallmarks of Scientific Research
1. Purposiveness
 It has to start with a definite aim or purpose.
 The focus is on increasing employee
commitment.
 Increase employee commitment will translate
into less turnover, less absenteeism and
increased performance levels.
 Thus it has a purposive focus.

6. 2. Rigor
• A good theoretical base and sound methodological design
would add rigor to the purposive study.
• Rigor adds carefulness and the degree of exactitude in
research.
Example:
A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the level
of commitment. If solely on the basis of their responses the
manager reaches several conclusions on how employee
commitment can be increased, the whole approach to the
investigation would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for
the following reasons:

7. 1.
2.
3.
Based on few employees
Bias and incorrectness
There might be other influences on commitment
which are ignored and are important for a researcher
to know
Thus, Rigor involves good theoretical base and thought
out methodology.
• These factors enable the researcher to collect the
right kind of information from an appropriate sample
with the minimum degree of bias and facilitate
suitable analysis of the data gathered.

8. 3. Testability
After random selection manager and researcher
develops certain hypothesis on how to enhance
employee commitment.
Then this can be tested by applying certain
statistical tests to the data collected for the
purpose.
The researcher might hypothesize
that those employees who perceive
greater
opportunities
for
participation in decision making
would have a higher level of
commitment.

9. 4. Replicability
the results of the tests of hypotheses should
be supported again and yet again when the
same type of research is repeated in other
similar circumstances.
Example:
The study concludes that participation in
decision making is one of the most important
factors that influences the commitment.
More faith and credence in these finding and
conclusion if similar findings emerge on the
basis of data collected by other organizations
employing the same methods.

10. 5. Precision and Confidence
Precision
– Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to
“reality” based on a sample.
– It reflects the degree of accuracy and exactitude of the
results of the sample.
Example: If a supervisor estimated the number of
production days lost during the year due to absenteeism at
between 30 and 40, as against the actual of 35, the
precision of estimation is more favorable than if he has
indicated that the loss of production days was somewhere
between 20 and 50.

11. Confidence
– Confidence refers to the probability that our
estimations are correct.
– It is also important that we can confidently
claim that 95% of the time our results would
be true and there is only a 5% chance of our
being wrong.
– This is also known as confidence level.

12. 6. Objectivity
The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of
the results of data analysis should be objective; that is,
they should be based on the facts of the findings
derived from actual data, and not on our subjective or
emotional values.
Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greater
participation in decision making will increase
organizational commitment and this was not supported
by the results, it makes no sense if the researcher
continues to argue that increased opportunities for
employee participation would still help!

13. 7. Generalizability
It refers to the scope of applicability of the
research findings in one organization setting to
other settings.
Example: If a researcher’s findings that participation in decision
making enhances organizational commitment are found to be true
in a variety of manufacturing, industrial and service organizations,
and not merely in the particular organization studied by the
researcher, then the generalizability of the findings to other
organizational settings in enhanced. The more generalizable the
research, the greater its usefulness and value.

14. 8. Parsimony
Simplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problems that
occur, and in generating solutions for the problems, is always
preferred to complex research frameworks that consider an
unmanageable number of factors.
For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work situation are
identified, which when changed would raise the organizational
commitment of the employees by 45%, that would be more
useful and valuable to the manager than if it were
recommended that he should change 10 different variables to
increase organizational commitment by 48%.

15. The Building Blocks of Science in Research
Deduction and Inductions
Answers to issues can be
found either by the process of
induction or the process of
deduction, or by a
combination of the two.

16. Deduction
• Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a
reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a
known fact.
• Start with general theory and then apply to s specific
case.
Example: we know that all high performers are highly
proficient in their jobs.
If John is a high performer, we then conclude that he
is highly proficient in his job.

17. Induction
• Induction is a process where we observe certain
phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.
In other words, in induction we logically
establish a general proposition based on
observed facts.

18. The Hypothetico-Deductive Method
The seven-step process in the HypotheticDeductive Method
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Identify a broad problem area
Define the problem statement
Develop hypotheses
Determine measures
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Interpretation of data

19. Identifying broad problem area
– one senses that certain changes are
occurring or that some new behaviors,
attitudes and feelings are surfacing in
one’s environment (i.e., the work
place).
– Identify broad area which needs
inquiry

20. Define the problem statement
– Aim/objectives should be identified.
– It involves the seeking of information in depth, of
what is to be inquired.
– gathering preliminary information through
interviews
– Additionally by doing library research or obtaining
information through other sources, the
investigator would identify how such issues have
been tackled in other situations.
– Arriving at specific research problem.

21. Hypothesizing
– It is the next logical step after theory formulation.
– From the theorized network of associations
among the variables, certain testable hypotheses
can be generated.
– Hypothesis testing is called deductive research.
Sometimes, hypotheses that were not originally
formulated do get generated through the process
of induction.

22. Determine measures
• Operationalization
– We define each variable to measure it

23. Data Collection
–After the development of the
hypotheses, data with respect to
each variable in the hypotheses need
to be obtained.
–Data are collected to test the
hypotheses that are generated in the
study.

24. Data Analysis
– Data gathered are statistically analyzed
to see if the hypotheses that were
generated have been supported.
– Co relational method will be used to
analyze and determine the relation
ship of two or more factors in the
hypotheses for example: stock
availability and customer satisfaction.

25. Deduction
–Deduction is the process of
arriving at conclusions by
interpreting the meaning of
results of the data analysis.

26. Other Types of Research
• Case studies and action research
are sometimes used to study
certain types of issues.
1. Case Studies
2. Action Research

27. Case Studies
• Case studies involve in depth, contextual analyses of
similar situations in the other organizations, where
the nature and definition of the problem happen to
be the same as experienced in the current situation.
• Case study, as a problem solving technique, is not
often undertaken in organizations because such
studies dealing with problems similar to the one
experienced by a particular organization of a
particular size and in a particular type of setting are
difficult to come by.

28. Action Research
• The researcher begins with a problem that is already
identified and gathers relevant data to provide a
tentative problem solution.
• This solution is then implemented, with the
knowledge that there may be unintended
consequences following such implementation.
• The effects are then evaluated, defined and
diagnosed and the research continues on an ongoing
basis until the problem is fully resolved.