2. preface
The spoken word is not only the way people present information. The
rate at which words are spoken, the tone of voice used, and it’s pitch
and volume can all convery meaning, as can the way speakers are
dressed, their gestures, aye contact and body movement.
If we hear their words in isolation and ignore the accompanying non-
verbal signals, audio-vocal and visual gesture, we will miss important
information, and or understandning of the message we receive will be
incomplete
3. Arygle and Kendon (1967) make the point
that verbal utterances are closely
dependent on non-verbal signals, which
keep the speaker and listener attending
properly to each other, sustain the
smooth alternation of speaker and
listener and add further information to the
literal messages transmitted.
The relationship between verbal and non-verbal signals
4. repeating substituting accenting
complementing contradicing regulating
Knapp (1987) identified 6 different ways in which non-verbal behavior can
be related to verbal behaviour
The non verbal signal
simply repeats what
was said verbally
Non-verbal behavior
can elaborate a verbal
massage
Non-verbal behavior
substituting for the
verbal message
Non-verbal behavior
contradict verbal
behaviour
Non-verbal behavior may
used to emphasise or accent
part of the spoken message
Non-verbal behavior may
also be use to regulate the
communicative flow between
people
5. The expression of feelings
While Bolton (1986) acknowledges that there is considerable overlap between
the type of information that is transmitted verbally and non-verbally, he
maintains that words tend to be best for communicating factual infromation and
non verbal signals are best for communicating emotions.
DePaulo (1992) makes an obvious important point: people can decide to stay
silent and say nothing but they cannot ‘not act’ non-verbally.
Non-verbal behaviour is always a rich source of data. However, great care
needs to be exercised when interpreting non-verbal signals, otherwise their true
meaning may not be understood.
6. Determining meaning
Patterson (1998,1995) argues that when interpreting the meaning of non-verbal
signals we need to give attention to the relational nature behaviours and the
perceived function of the exchange. He also cautions againts adopting a
reductionist view and stresses the importance of a multi-channel approach that
involves attending to the independent and coordinated relationship between,
for example, facial expression, non-verbal vocal expression and other channels.
Einsberg and Smith (1971) have identified tow factors that have important
implications for the way we determine the meaning of non-verbal message;:
• Discrimination, the recognition of non-verbal element that has potential
message value
• Pattern recognition, the process weherby discriminated elements are sorted
into meaningful patterns
7. The face
In an attempt to determine how accurately emotions can be recognised from facial
expressions Ekman et al. (1971) developed a scoring system. It involved dividing the face
into three areas;
• the brows and forehead
• the eyes, lids and bridge of the nose
• (3) the lower face including the cheek, nose, mouth, chin and jaw.
Facial expressions may also be used to regulate an interaction. A greeting signal, which
has been observed across a wide range of cultures, is the eyebrow flash (Morris 1977). At
the moment of recognition the head tilts back, the eyebrows arch up and the face breaks
into a smile. Head nods and smiles, as mentioned in the previous chapter, may also play an
important role in the synchronising of conversations and in listening behaviour. A person’s
looking behaviour may also be important in this respect.
8. Looking behaviour can signal a desire to communicate. A glance across the room at
a manager engaged in conversation with others can tell her that you would like a
word when she has finished.
Looking behaviour can provide a lot of information about the nature of relationships.
Argyle (1975) reports that we tend to look most at those whom we like. This
conclusion is well supported by experimental evidence.
Looking behaviour can signal a desire to influence. Another study by Mehrabian
(Mehrabian and Williams 1969) showed that when people are trying to be more
persuasive they tend to look more.
Looking behaviour can also signal a desire to cooperate, to be included and an
interest in what the other is saying. A change in the pattern of eye contact can
provide the ‘listener’ with useful information. Cutting off gaze is a powerful signal
that, for example, a flirtatious glance has been recognised and the implied invitation
rejected or, in response to a threatening stare, that the person cutting off the gaze is
willing to submit or seek appeasement.
gaze
9. gestures
It is possible to distinguish between
gesture that are intended to
communicate something and those
that signal private reactions to what is
going on
10. Touching self
02
03
Unintentional gestures
Touching objects
Touching others
01
These are gestures that can provide others
with a rich source of information about what
a person is a really thinking and feeling.
They can take several forms.
They may manifest themselves as
‘unintentional’ illustration that either
complement or modify the verbal content of
a message.
They can also include gestures that may not
be directly related to a spoken message;
11. posture
It has been found that when people are presented with drawings of stick figures
they tend to attribute similar meanings to different postures (see Exercise 5.2).
Argyle (1975) cites a report by Goffman (1961) which supports this finding.
Goffman noticed that at meetings in mental hospitals it was the most important
people who sat in the most relaxed postures. Posture can be a good indicator of
feelings. At a team meeting a person who is sitting slumped in a chair is likely to
be feeling very different to somebody who is sitting on the edge of a chair and
leaning towards the team leader.
Similarly, if a colleague who normally ‘explodes’ into your office with an easy
stride and an erect posture shuffles in with stooped posture and eyes downcast,
you may safely assume that the colleague is not feeling their usual self. Changes
in a person’s posture in the course of a conversation are also worth observing. If
the slumped team member suddenly straightens up and sits forward in the chair
it might be worth considering what it was that prompted the change.
12. The use of furniture
Furniture may be used to key the climate for an interaction. Sitting
behind a desk with your back to a window so that a visitor can see only
a silhouette of your face deprives the other person of the opportunity to
observe your facial expression. Experiments suggest that the
silhouetted person is likely to be perceived as being more dominant,
especially so if the visitor is seated in a lower chair
13. The distance between people signals something about the nature of their relationship.
Four proximity zones have been suggested for different kinds of relationship (Hall 1959).
• Intimate: up to 18 inches. At this distance bodily contact is easy. Each person can smell
the other and feel their body heat. They can see, if not very well, and they can talk in a
low whisper.
• Personal: 18 inches to 4 feet. At this distance people can touch each other, but they are
sufficiently far apart to see better and not smell the other’s breath.
• Social-consultative: 9 to 12 feet. This is the distance at which important relationships are
conducted, for example, talking to somebody across a desk. A louder voice is needed.
• Public: 12 feet and above. This is the distance associated with public figures and public
occasions. Public figures addressing an audience often do so from a stage. Even where
there is no stage the public figure usually stands apart when speaking to a large group.
Spatial behaviour
14. appearance
Jupiter is the
biggest planet
Appearance is included here as an important element of non-verbal
communication because it is something that can be manipulated. People can
choose what clothes to wear and how they will wear them; they can choose the
kind of jewellery, badges and accessories they will adorn themselves with; they
can choose how to dress their hair or care for their skin. They can even choose
how they will smell and, to a lesser extent, what kind of physique they will have.
When people deliberately exercise this kind of choice they will usually be making
decisions which reflect the impact they wish to have on others, decisions
concerned with impression management. ‘Power-dressing’ is a modern term
which has come to mean choosing what to wear in order to create an
influential/dominant image.
Appearance can also convey messages about one person’s attitude towards
others. Certain kinds of clothes worn within a certain context may signal a
person’s sexual availability. Respect for another may also be communicated
through appearance.
15. Vocal cues
Davitz (1964) has summarised many of the research findings in the area of
emotional sensitivity in an attempt to produce an emotion-vocal cue
dictionary. The key variables identified by Davitz are loudness, pitch,
timbre, rate, inflection, rhythm and enunciation. Figure 5.14 presents the
different patterns of vocal expression for two emotional states: affection
and anger.
16. Deciphering contradictory signals
People are less likely to inhibit or manipulate certain signals. These
tend to be the signals they are least aware of, believe others pay little
attention to or are beyond their control. Morris (1977) has proposed a
‘Believability Scale’ for different kinds of action. He suggests that
autonomic signals are the most believable and verbalisations are the
least believable.
17. Autonomic signals
02
03
7 elements in his scale;
Leg and foot signals
Unidentified
gesticulations
01 05
04
06
07
Identified hand gestures
Facial expression
Trunk signals verbalisations
18. One final point. Remember that it can be dangerous to over-
interpret the meaning of an isolated behaviour. The art of
effective listening to non-verbal messages is to recognise
behaviours that may have potential message value and then to
search for other behaviours that suggest a pattern. It is these
patterns of behaviour, interpreted within context, that will enable
you to determine the meaning of what you have seen and heard
with a greater degree of confidence.
19. This chapter has considered how attention to non-verbal behavior can affect
the ability to diagnose emotional states and understand other people’s
intentions.
The relationship between non-verbal and verbal behavior has been examined
and the ways in which the face, gestures, touching, posture, the use of furniture
and space, personal proximity, appearance, and vocal cues can covery
meaning has been discussed.
Attention has also been given to a range of issues concerned with accurate
interpretation of the meaning of non-verbal signals and the deciphering of
contradictory signals.
summary
