psychology 1st unit

1. Topic : Introduction to Psychology
Unit I: INTRODUCTION
Duration: 3hours
Prescribed: 2hours
PRESENTED BY:
Mrs. Sukhbir kaur
Assistant professor
RN. BSN. PGDHM. MSN
Ph.D (N) Scholar
S.G.R.D. COLLEGE OF NURSING, AMRITSAR

2. Introduction
• Psychology is fairly a new science.
• Untill 19th century was recognized as separate field of study.
• The birth of formal psychology can be tracked back to 1879.
• It was found by Wilhelm Wundt in Leipizig, Germany.

3. • Word psychology used by Rudolf Gockle - 1590.
• Psychology derived from two Greek words
psyche logos
(spirit or soul, mind) (study)
Word- soul means spiritual or immortal elements in a person.
William James used word mind instead of soul in 1890.
Mind is abstract and could not be seen but behavior is what
mind do. Mind is a stream of consciousness.

4. • According to Aristotle psychology is study of soul. (not
accepted).
• Later on Philosopher Plato said Psychology is study of
mind.(incomplete).
• According to Sigmund Freud “ mind” is divided into three
parts – conscious, subconscious and unconscious.
• This was also rejected.
• Later on 18th century experimental psychology or scientific
psychology came into being – founder was William
Wundt.(1832-1920) : first psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany, 1879.

5. • Definition of Psychology changed to
• “ Psychology is the systematic study of behavior”
• By this definition psychology became as a subject of science
and it comes under Behavioral sciences.
• Scientific study of behavior by measuring tools or tests- called
as Psychological tests.

6. Why Psychology is science?
1. Method e.g. observation, recording, analysis etc.,
2. Cause and effect relationship
3. Study of facts : factual concepts like intelligence, memory,
learning.
4. Universality. E.g., laws of learning applicable to universe.
5. Validity and reliability e.g., intelligence tests.
6. Verification e.g., research
7. Statistical analysis
8. Predictability e.g., theories and principles can predict the
behavior of person.

7. Defintion
• Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and
behavior. It is study of mind and how it works.
- oxford dictionary.
• Psychology is the science of human and animal behavior
which includes the application of this science to solve human
behavior.
• - W.Hamilton
• Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and its
functions, especially those affecting behavior in given context.

8. • Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and
mental processes and how they are affected by an
organism’s physical state, mental state and external
environment.

9. Roots of Psychology:
• Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental
processes.
• Let’s break down the definition
• Behavior – Anything that you do that can be observed.
• Mental Processes – Internal experiences such as: thoughts,
feelings, sensations, and perceptions.
• Systematic Study: Systematic collection and examination of
data (empirical evidence) to support or disprove hypotheses
(predictions) rather than depending on common sense.

10. Sub- Fields /Areas/Scope of Psychology
• It is broad and diverse field and divided into two broad
categories :
• Pure psychology: provide framework and theory: basic
concepts of psychology. Formulation of psychological
principles and theories.
• Applied psychology: pure psychology is used in practical
form. Application of principles, rules and techniques of
psychology is done.

11. Branches of pure psychology
• General psychology
• Abnormal psychology
• Social psychology: scientific methods used to study social
influences, social interactions.
• Experimental psychology
• Physiological/ biological psychology. E.g., MRI, CT Scan,
EEG.
• Para Psychology; telepathy, re-birth
• Geo-psychology: effect of change in environment.
• Developmental psychology: growth and lifespan.
• Comparative Psychology: study of animal behavior.
• Coginitive psychology: thought process and cognition.

12. Branches of applied psychology
• Educational psychology.
• Clinical psychology: assessment, diagnosis and treatment of
mental disorder.
• Organizational psychology
• Legal psychology e.g., criminals behavior.
• Military psychology
• Political psychology
• School psychology.

13. Which subfield is most directly concerned with studying
how marketing effects human behavior?
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Clinical Personality
Engineering psych... Industrial- Organ...
Counseling
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0
32
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1. Clinical
2. Personality
3. Engineering
psychology
4. Industrial-
Organizational
5. Counseling

14. Which of the following individuals is also a
physician?
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20
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20
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20
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Clinical psycholo... Psychologist
Experimental psyc... Psychiatrist
Developmental Psy...
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1. Clinical psychologist
2. Psychologist
3. Experimental
psychologist
4. Psychiatrist
5. Developmental
Psychologist

15. A person working within this subfield of psychology might work
closely with their local police department to explain the
behavior of a suspect.
20%
20%
20%
20%
20%
Health Psy... Criminal P... Clinical P...
Forensic P... Counseling...
3
0
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21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
1. Health Psychologist
2. Criminal Psychologist
3. Clinical Psychologist
4. Forensic Psychologist
5. Counseling
Psychologist

16. History of Psychology:
• People have been studying
human behavior for
thousands of years.
(Examples: Romans,
Egyptians, Indians)
• This was good, but was not
done in an organized manner.
• Psychology as a science has
a very short history.
• Some scientists (like Mr.
Lark) still call psychology a
“soft” science.

17. Key Players in the History of Psychology:
• Roots of psychology can be
traced back 2000 years ago to
the early philosophers,
biologists, and physiologists of
ancient Greece.
• Hippocrates – Greek
Physiologist that thought the
mind or soul resided in the
brain.
• He believed that it was not
composed of a physical
substance.
• This is called mind-body-
dualism – seeing mind and
body as two different things that
interact.

18. Key Players in the History of Psychology:
• Plato (350 B.C.) – Greek philosopher that believed that
who we are and what we know are innate (inborn).
• Aristotle – Plato’s student believed that who we are and
what we know are acquired from experience.

19. Important People in the
Dev’t. of Psychology
Aristotle (384 –322 BC) – He made assumptions
out of observation regarding human behavior. He
believed that all beings, humans included, have
souls, which animate them. Humans, however,
compared to other animal, have rational souls.
Thus, humans are not only, physical, but also
rational. He also theorized about learning,
memory, motivation, emotion, perception and
personality.

20. Important People in the
Dev’t. of Psychology
Rene Descartes
(1596 – 1650) - supported the
view that humans enter the
world with an inborn store of
knowledge. He argued that
some ideas (such as God, the
self, perfection and infinity) are
innate. He is also notable for
his conception of the body as
a machine that can be studied.

21. Two historical roots of psychology are the
disciplines of:
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Philosophy and ch... Physiology and ch...
Philosophy and ph... Philosophy and ph...
1. Philosophy and
chemistry
2. Physiology and
chemistry
3. Philosophy and
physiology
4. Philosophy and
physics
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Remaining
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22. •Predict what will happen
•Systematically observe events
•Do events support predictions?
Life Before Psychology
René Descartes
(1596-1650)
Philosophy asks questions about the mind:
 Does perception accurately reflect reality?
 How is sensation turned into perception?
Problem- No “scientific” way
of studying problems
Physiology asks similar questions about the mind –
but with a biological perspective (ie chemicals, etc)
SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
Descartes believed that there was a link between the mind and body

23. Key Players in the History of Psychology:
• About 2000 yrs. later John Locke
and Rene Descartes had a similar
argument.
• John Locke – Believed that
knowledge comes from observation,
and what we know comes from
experience.
• He coined the term “tabula rasa” –
blank slate.
• “The mind is like a blank slate in
which the environment writes
upon.”
• Rene Descartes – Believed that
what we know is innate.
• Focused much of his research on
how the nervous system responds
• “I think therefore I am.”

24. The 17th century philosopher who believed that the mind is blank at birth
and that most knowledge comes through sensory experience is:
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Plato Aristotle Descartes Locke
1. Plato
2. Aristotle
3. Descartes
4. Locke
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25. The Greek philosopher who believed that
intelligence was inherited was:
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25
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Aristotle Plato Descartes Simonides
1. Aristotle
2. Plato
3. Descartes
4. Simonides
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30

26. Important People in the
Dev’t. of Psychology
Charles Darwin
(1809 – 1882) - He is the
author of the Law of
Natural Selection or
Theory of Evolution;
inspired the Psychological
school of thought,
Functionalism.

27. Important People in the
Dev’t. of Psychology
Francis Galton
(1822–1911) - He was
concerned with the study
of individual differences.
He was considered as the
“Father of Mental tests”

28. Important People in the
Dev’t. of Psychology
Ernst Weber (1795–1878); Gustav Fechner;
Herman von Helmholtz (1821–1894) German
Physicians who started experimenting with behavior
through scientific methodologies.

29. Important People in the
Dev’t. of Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt – Considered as the “Father of
Modern Psychology.” He established the first
experimental laboratory for the study of Psychology,
in Leipzig, Germany, 1879. He created a machine
that measured the time lag between people’s hearing
a ball hit the platform and their pressing a telegraph
key. Wundt has seeking to measure the “atoms of
the mind” – the fastest and simplest mental
processes.

30. Important People in the
Dev’t. of Psychology
G. Stanley Hall
A student of Wundt’s
who established what
many consider as the
first American
psychology laboratory
at Johns Hopkins
University in 1883.

31. Important People in the
Dev’t. of Psychology
Hermann Ebbinghaus
- A German who reported
on the first experiments
on memory, 1885.

32. American Psychological Association
(APA)
• Founded in 1892, has grown tremendously in size and today has
many different divisions.
• Now has a division for high school students.
• Oversees all current research not done in universities.
• http://www.apa.org/about/governance/president/past-presidents.aspx

33. APA: G. Stanley Hall
• First president of the APA
• established the first psychological lab in
the U.S. in 1883, at Johns Hopkins
University.
• Started the American Psychological Journal
(1887) now the American Journal of
Psychology.

34. Female significance…
Mary Whiton Calkins
• 1st female President APA
• 1905 (memory researcher)
Margaret Floy Washburn
• PhD in psychology
• Animal behavior researcher

35. Schools of Thought
1. Structuralism (Edward Titchener) – Study of the parts
of conscious experiences through introspection.
Conscious experiences are composed of sensations,
feelings, and images.
Introspection is a process of studying the self, or self-
examination. Introduced by St. Thomas of Aquinas.

36. Schools of Thought
2. Functionalism
(William James) – Defines
behavior or the mental
phenomena in terms of their
functions in man’s adjustment
to his environment. It is very
much influenced by Darwin’s
Theory of Evolution.

37. Schools of Thought
3. Gestalt Psychology
(Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka)
Believed that the human mind imposes meaning to
related experiences. It advocates that the study of
human behavior should be wholistic. “The whole is
greater than the sum of its parts.”

38. Schools of Thought
4. Behaviorism
(John B. Watson)
Emphasized the need to
study what is observable.
Its objective was to predict
and control behavior.
S-R Psychology.

39. Schools of Thought
5. Psychoanalysis
(Sigmund Freud) – Much of
our behavior is governed by
unconscious motive and
primitive biological instincts. It
considered all humans
basically would like to gain
pleasure and avoid pain.

40. This German philosopher and psychologist was the first to
set up a laboratory to gather empirical data related
to psychology.
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20
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Wundt, 1879 James, 1890
Freud, 1900 Watson, 1913
Wertheimer, 1950
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1. Wundt, 1879
2. James, 1890
3. Freud, 1900
4. Watson, 1913
5. Wertheimer, 1950

41. Contemporary Approaches
• Neuroscience - Views behavior from the perspective of
biological functioning
• Psychodynamic - Believes behavior is motivated by inner,
unconscious force over which a person has little control

42. Contemporary Approaches
 Behavioral - Focuses on observable behavior
 Cognitive - Examines how people understand and think about
the world
 Humanistic – Contends that people can control their behavior
and that they naturally try to reach their full potential

43. Work In Psychology (?)
Universities &
Colleges
27.2%
Elementary/
Secondary
Schools
4.2%
Hospitals,
Counseling,
Clinics, etc.
22.3%
Business,
Government or
Consulting
12.1%
Independent
Practice
33.1%

44. Specialties In Psychology
Clinical,
Community
& Counseling
51.1%
Research/university
3.6%
Cognitive
5.2%
Industrial
5.7%
Social/
Developmental
6.4%
Other
8.6%
School
19.4%

45. Methods of Psychology
• 1. Introspection method.
• 2. Observation method.
• 3. Scientific or experimental method.
• 4. Clinical method.
• 5. Case study method.
• 6. Co relational method.
• 7. Interview method.
• 8. Survey method.
• 9. longitudinal study method.
• 10. cross-sectional study method.

46. 1. Introspection method
Historically introspection is the oldest method of all, which
was formerly used in philosophy, and then in psychology to
collect data about the conscious experience of the subject.
Introspection means to see with in one self or self observation.
To understand one’s own mental health and the state of mind.
This method was developed by the structuralists in psychology
who defined psychology as the study of conscious experiences
of the individual. Introspection has some advantages and
disadvantages;

47. • Merits:
1. It gives information about one’s own self which is difficult
by other methods.
2. It is an easy method and needs no equipment
3. It makes a base for other methods such as experimental and
observation method

48. • Demerits:
1. This method is subjective in nature and lacks scientific
objectivity
2. The most serious objection against this method is that
human mind is not static like inanimate objects such as stone
or chairs etc. our mental process is under constant changes so
when one attempts to introspect, the sate of mental process
disappears and it becomes a retrospect.

49. 3. The human mind is divided in two parts. One is his own mental
operation and the other is the object to which this mental
operation is directed. To expect any individual to attend the
workings of his own mind during a mental process, specially
in a complex and emotional state such as anger or fear, is a
mistaken idea. Ross commenting on the limitation of
introspection said, “ The observer and the observed are the
same, the mind is both the field and the instrument of
observation
4. Introspection can not be employed on children and insane
propel.
5. There are conflicting reports, as regards the findings
collected from different introspectionists

50. 2. Observation method
With the development of psychology as an objective science of
behavior, the method of introspection was replaced by careful
observation of human and animal behavior. Observation
literally means looking outside oneself. It is a very important
method for collecting data in almost all type of research
studies. Different type of Observation used in research, direct
or indirect, scheduled or unscheduled, natural or artificial,
participant and non-participant. But there are two basic types
of observation. They are;

51. 1. Natural observation
In natural observation the observer observe the specific
behavioral and characteristics of subjects in natural settings
and the subject does not aware of the fact that their behavior is
being observed by someone. The teacher can observe the
behavior of his student in the playground or in any other social
gathering without making him conscious. Natural observation
can be done any where with out any tools.

52. 2. Participant observation
In participant observation the observer became the part of the
group which he wants to observe.
Observational study is particularly very important and
produces significant results on developmental characteristics
of children. No doubt that observation is a scientific technique
of collecting data, whose results can be verified and relied
upon to locate behavioral problems

53. • Merits:
1. this type of observation is a natural and normal way of
knowing the external world but also the mind of the subject
2. This method is objective in nature and free form personal
bias and prejudice.
3. Through this method we can observe as many children as
we like
4. This method id quite suitable for children and abnormal
person who can not be examined through introspection.
5. this can be used any time and anywhere

54. • Demerits:
1. Observation is useful only for collecting data about overt
behavior which is manifested in a number of activities. This
overt behavior does not provide reliable information regarding
the internal mental process. We can only guess about the
mental state of the individual on the basis of overt behavior
which may or may not be true. It becomes very difficult to
draw any conclusion in case of adults who can hide their actual
behavior in the presence of the observer.

55. • 2. Subjectivity of interpretation is another limitation of this
method. The observer may interpret his sensation of external
stimulus on the bias of his past experience. He may be biased
in his interpretation. It has also been found in some studies that
strong personal interests tend to make researcher see only
those things which he wants to see.
3. Observation is subject to two types of errors, sampling error
and observer error. The first error occurs because of
inadequacies of selecting situation to be observed. The
observer error may be due to knowledge and background of
the situation to be observed. Because some time the observer is
not familiar with the total situation and hence he may commit
error.

56. 3. The Scientific Method
• Form of critical thinking based on careful
measurement and controlled observation.

57. The Scientific Method (cont)
• Six Basic Elements
– Observation
– Defining a problem
– Proposing a hypothesis (an educated guess that can be tested)
– Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis
– Publishing results
– Building a theory

58. Some Terms
• Hypothesis testing: Scientifically testing the
predicted outcome of an experiment or an
educated guess about the relationship between
variables
• Operational definition: Defines a scientific
concept by stating specific actions or procedures
used to measure it

59. Experimental Method

60. The Scientific Method
• The approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire
knowledge and understanding about behavior and other
phenomena of interest.
1. Identifying questions of interest,
2. Formulating an explanation, (Theories and Hypotheses)
3. Carrying out research designed to support or refute the explanation.

61. • Merits:
1. This method is the most systematic procedure of solving
problems. It provides reliable information.
2. it is a revisable method
3. it makes psychology a scientific study
4. It provides objective and precise information about the
problems.
5. it give observer easy approach to the mind of an individual
6. It provides innovative ideas for the further experimentation.
7. It enable us to control and direct human behaviour
8. it is applicable in educational, individual and social
problems

62. • Demerits:
1. It is arranged in a laboratory like situation. This situation is
artificially arranged. Behaviour is a natural phenomena and it
may change under artificial environment.
2. This method is time consuming and costly. Moreover it
requires specialized knowledge and skills.
3. Psychologists have criticized the fact that mostly the
experiments have conducted on rats, cats and dogs. The results
are conducted and then applied on human beings.
4. It some times interferes with the very thing that we are
trying to observe.

63. 4 . Clinical Method
This method is primarily used to collect detailed information on
the behavior problems of maladjusted and deviant cases. The
main objective of this method is to study individual case or
cases of group to detect and diagnose their specific problems
and to suggest therapeutic measures to rehabilitate them in
their environment.
It involves the following steps;
1. Interview
2. Information gathering
3. A hypothesis formulate
4. Diagnoses are made
5. Planned a treatment programme

64. 5. Case Study
Case study is in-depth study of the subject. It is the in-depth
analysis of a person, group, or phenomenon. A variety of
techniques are employed including personal
interviews, psychometric tests, direct observation, and archival
records. Case studies are most often used in psychology
in clinical research to describe the rare events and conditions
of the subject; case study is specially used in education
psychology. It deals in education the following problems;

65.  Lack of interest in students
 Aggressive behaviour in student
 Day dreaming
 Poor academic performance
 Emotional problems
 Social problems
 Empathetic understanding
 Find the problem
 Establish rapport
 Treatment

66. 6. Correlation Method
The correlation method involves
systematically measuring the relationship
between two or more variables
Correlation Coefficient : +1.00 to -1.00
Positive Correlation
Negative Correlation

67. Correlational Method

68. 7. Interview Method
Today, for psychological researches, mainly, interview method has become very
popular. In this method there is direct face to face contact between the investigator
and the subject. Here the interviewer or the investigator asks questions to the
subject and records the answers usually without the latter knowing it. In the words
of Fred N. Kerlinger, “The interview is perhaps the ubiquitous method of obtaining
information from people. It has been and is still being used in all kinds of practical
situations, eg. the lawyer obtains information from his client, the physian learns
about a patient; the administrative officer or professor determines the suitability of
students for schools, departments and curricula.

69. • Only recently, however, interview has been used
systematically for scientific purposes, both in the laboratory
and in the field. He also said that it is a face to face inter-
personal situation in which one person, the interviewer asks a
person being interviewed, the respondent, questions designed
to obtain answers pertinent to research problems” According
to P.V. Young, “Interviewing is not a simple way to
conversation between an interrogator and informant. Gestures,
glances, facial expressions and pauses often reveal subtle
feelings”

70. Objectives of Interview Method:
• The main objective of the interview method is to collect
information about unknown fact of the subject, his inner
feelings,
• Another objective is to make sure that the interviewer and the
subject know each other quite well, so that the collected data is
verified well,
• Interview method aims at providing an opportunity to the
investigator to observe the subject very closely; as a result, at
times, the subject can provide new ideas to the investigator
which help the latter in research work.

71. • Types of Interview Method:
There are different types of interview – focused interview
repeated interview, clinical interview, diagnostic interview,
research interview personal interview etc.
• Merits of the Interview Method: The merits of the
interview method are-
• High participation of the subject or respondent. The subject
answers the questions in a free manner. Illiterate as well as
children provide proper in-depth information as compared to
other methods like observation, questionnaire method etc.
• This method is very flexible as it becomes possible for the
interviewer to reframe, repeat and rephrase the questions as
suitable for the subject.

72. • The subject’s emotions can be studied well. It is often
observed that during an interview, the subject may become
emotional and get excited, and may express freely his fears,
anxieties, and complexes.
• Through the interview method the investigator may get to
know the cause of any behavior pattern of the subject, the
historical background of each incident.
• The data collected through the interview method is reliable.
The interviewer analyses and crosschecks the information
provided, to find out whether the data is correct or not.
• The interview method can be applied on all types of people-
literate or illiterate children and adults and at times also on
mentally unbalanced persons.

73. • In the interview method, the subject and investigator are face
to face with each other. Both discuss the problems and during
discussion views can be exchanged and this is desirable in
order to study every social problem along with the subject’s
own problems.
Demerits of the Interview Method : The demerits of the
interview methods are :-
It is a costly method. It involves a lot of traveling on the part
of the interviewer. It is also time consuming as the interviewer
has to physically locate a subject.
• A lot of planning is required. The investigator has to provide a
number of stimuli to get information from the subject, must
make careful observation of the latter’s behaviour patterns so
the interviewer must remember a number of things at the same
time. So the whole process becomes too strenuous.

74. • The subject may not reveal his true feelings and emotions.
• Sometimes the interviewer may have preconceived notions
which may not hold true during interview, but he is reluctant
to change his views. P.V. Young said that biased and prior
thinking may distort and invalidate the results of the whole
interview.
• The interviewer’s perception of things may clash with those of
the interviewee’s. Their beliefs and values may be totally
different. So the Investigator must be very proficient and must
have proper insight into human nature.
• There can be difficulty in persuading the subject to be
interviewed. The subject may tend to be bored during the
process and then the data obtained will not be valid

75. Goals of psychology
• 1. Describe: understanding human behavior must begin with
careful description of how people think, feel and act in specific
situations.
• 2. Explain: to know why people behave in certain manners.
We want explanation
• 3. predict : to predict people’s behavior. One will behave in
certain way in a certain set of circumstances.
• 4. control: we can change or influence people’s behavior once
we know what is in their mind.

76. Importance of psychology
• 1. understanding behavioral factors: behavior which promotes
health.
• 2. Effects of disease: disease effect psychological well- being.
• 3. preventing illness: psychologist changes behavior to prevent
illness.
• 4. critical analysis of health policy: scope of health psychology
• 5. Improves relationship between health team members.
• 6. managing pain
• 7. improving adherence to medical advice.

77. Relevance of Psychology to Nursing
Nursing
and
Psychology
Understanding
self
Understanding
Patients
Understanding
Others

78. • 1. Development and maturation: By understanding
developmental stage, nurses will not misidentify normal
process as diseases.
• 2. Learning and motivation: When nurses need to give
education, they know when, where, and what to do.
• 3. Personality and behavior :
• Expand nurse’s perception.
• Understanding patient’s reaction. Change negative behavior to
positive.
• Practice effective interaction.
• Helps nurses to deal with her own emotion when dealing with
patient.

79. • 4. Adaptation :
• Nurses help patients to adapt with their diseases, anxiety and
disability.
• Help nurses to understand and deal with patient's reaction.
• 5. Counseling:
• Counsel regarding healthy behavior and how to get rid of
stress.
• 6. Research:
• To explore more about human behavior.
• To improve quality of care.

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