HRCU 351 Week 6 Paper 2 EthicsGuidelines and Grading Rubric

HRCU 351 Week 6: Paper 2 Ethics
Guidelines and Grading Rubric
Length: 3-4 double-spaced pages (excluding title and
references pages)
Due: Week 6 by Sunday Midnight
Value: 110 Points
Post: Week 6 Assignments
Prepare a 3 – 4 page (not including cover or reference pages)
research-based paper that: 1) identifies two (2) recent examples
of actual ethical workforce planning issues 2) details and
explain the ethical issues and impact on the workplace 3) makes
specific recommendations for solving/avoiding these ethical
issues and 4) identifies two (2) insights gained into navigating
workplace and staffing issues. Students should integrate 4 or
more scholarly sources including 3 journal articles and at least
one direct quote from the course textbook.
The analysis should:
· Identify two (2) recent examples of actual ethical workforce
planning issues
· Detail and analyze the ethical issues and impact on the
workplace
· Make specific recommendations for solving/avoiding these
ethical issues
· Identify two (2) insights gained into navigating workplace and
staffing issues.
· 4 or more scholarly sources including 3 journal articles.
· At least one direct quote from our course textbook.
Rubric: Evaluation Criteria
CriteriaExemplaryProficientDevelopingEmergingNo credit
Ethical Examples

20 - 23
Clearly and concisely describes 2 examples of a ethical
workplace issues.
22 - 17
Fairly clearly describes 2 best practices
16 - 12
Somewhat clearly describes 1 - 2 best practices
11- 1
Limited if any description of best practices
0
Assignment, meeting grading criteria, was not submitted.
Analysis
20 - 23
Provides a thorough analysis of each ethical issue that is
supported by citations of expert theories and research. Defines
and uses all key terms comprehensively.
22 - 17
Mostly provides a thorough analysis of each ethical issue that is
supported by citations of expert theories and research. Defines
most key terms and explains them to somewhat
comprehensively.
16 - 12
Analysis of each ethical issue that is supported by some
citations of expert theories and research. May not define key
terms and/or discuss why practices are effective.
11- 1
Analysis is not supported by research or citations. Does not
define key terms and/or discuss why practices are effective.

Recommendations
20 - 23
Accurately uses findings of comparing best and actual
organizational practices to make specific recommendations that
would strengthen ethical staffing strategies or practices.
22 - 17
Fairly accurately uses findings of comparing best and actual
organizational practices to make fairly specific
recommendations that may strengthen ethical staffing strategies
or practices.
16 - 12
Somewhat uses findings of comparing best and actual
organizational practices to make general recommendations; that
may or may not strengthen ethical staffing strategies or
practices.
11- 1
Recommendations if made to improve employee engagement are
not based on findings of comparing best and actual ethi cal
staffing strategies or practices.
Reflective Analysis
30 - 27
Clearly and concisely discusses 2 insights gained into effective
ethical practices. Identifies specific actions to enhance ethi cal
staffing practices.
26 - 21
Discusses 2 insights gained into ethically staffing organizations.
Identifies fairly specific actions to enhance ethical staffing
practices.
20 – 14
Discusses 1 - 2 insights gained into ethically staffing
organizations. Identifies general actions to enhance ethical

staffing practices.
13 – 1
Limited if any reflective analysis. May discuss 0 - 1 insights
gained into ethical staffing. May not identify actions to
enhance ethical staffing practices.
APA and Sources
10-8
Uses 4 or more scholarly sources including 3 journal articles
and at least direct quote from textbook. Accurately adheres to
APA standards; reference page and citations are correct. All
sources listed in References are cited in paper.
7-6
Uses 2 - 3 scholarly sources including 2 journal articles and one
direct quote from the course textbook. Adheres to APA
standards; reference page and citations are correct with minor
(1-3) errors. . All sources listed in References are cited in
paper.
5-4
Uses 1 - 2 scholarly sources including 1 journal article. APA
standards are somewhat followed in the paper and Reference
page; the work of others is cited but with numerous errors.
Sources listed in References and citations may not match
3 - 1
Uses 0 – 2 scholarly sources. Limited adherence to APA
standards in the paper and Reference page; work of others may
be cited but with multiple errors. Sources listed in References
and citations do not match

Writing Mechanics
10-8
Paper is logical and well-written; spelling, grammar and
punctuation are accurate. Paper is the required length of 3 – 4
pages of content, and includes a correctly prepared title page.
7-6
Paper is logical and well-written but with minor (1 – 3) errors
in spelling, grammar and/or punctuation. The content may be
5% too long or short; includes a correctly prepared title page.
5-4
Paper is somewhat logical and well-written but with several (4 –
10) errors in spelling, grammar and/or punctuation. Content may
be 10% too long or short; and may not include a correctly
prepared title page
3 - 1
The paper lacks clarity and may be confusing; may contain
numerous (11+) errors in spelling, grammar and/or punctuation.
The content may be 15% too long or short, and may not include
a title page
The Explanation Concept of Marketing Research
Marketing research is a process, or a collection of processes
that collects and analyzes primary data regarding a market for a
certain product or service in order to assist managers and
stakeholders in making strategic business decisions. Marketing
research is, “the function that links the consumer, customer, and
public to the marketer through information.” (Keller & Kotler,
2016).“Marketing research defines the evidence needed to

resolve these topics, plans the data collection process, conducts
and applies it, analyzes the analyses, and communicates the
conclusions and their consequences.” (Keller & Kotler, 2016).
The rudimentary institutional mechanism for conducting
marketing analysis involves identifying the problem and the end
purpose of the study, designing the research plan, conducting
the study properly, reviewing the research results, and taking
steps or making decisions based on the findings. (Keller &
Kotler, 2016).
Researchers define the problem they want to address as the first
step in the marketing analysis process. They also describe the
project's goals and analysis issues. Following that, researchers
create their orchestration by determining the details they will
need and the strategies they will employ. Marketing analysis
uses both qualitative and quantitative approaches to find
prospects and recognize threats. (Weitz & Wensley, 2002).
The next move is for researchers to begin doing studies. They
collect primary and secondary data and interpret it. Following
that, the findings are interpreted, reported on, and
recommendations are made. The choices are then assessed after
the decisions have been made. The selected alternative is given
careful consideration and orchestration, and the course is
changed when required. (Weitz & Wensley, 2002).
It is important for marketing campaigns to be well-structured
and well-thought-out not just because it makes good business
sense, but also because data is plentiful within an environment
during this time. (Grewal, 2017). In the past, marketing research
was difficult because data was scarce; now, marketing research
is difficult because there is so much data available that it can be
overwhelming. Since marketing analysis is a performance
metric, it is important whether actions or strategic decisions are
taken based on the findings.
A Practical Application/Example
The Net Promoter Score (NPS), is a well-known and useful
example of marketing science. NPS is a customer satisfaction
index or descriptive measure that is used in industrial market

analysis as a company's primary success indicator. (Rocks,
2016). Respondents complete the survey by ranking the
questions on a scale of zero to ten, and the sample data is
analyzed by the group doing the polling. Below is an example of
an NPS survey question: “How inclined are you to tell a friend
or family member about (product/accommodation)?” As
previously mentioned, the scale ranges from zero to ten: 0 is the
least likely to prescribe, while 10 is the most likely. The NPS is
calculated by adding up the results of these polls and their
scores.
In most NPS surveys, companies have at least one way for
customers to provide feedback. These comments will go into
more detail about their own encounter, but those experiences
can be linked together by similar characteristics, revealing a
larger narrative than just the score. The researchers wi ll
pinpoint pressing problems and determine whether or not steps
have been taken (or are being taken) to address them. (Rocks,
2016).
Most people have certainly taken part in a Net Promoter Score
(NPS) survey, which are often performed by retailers such as
Apple and Amazon, as well as lodging providers such as
Marriott. The NPS score is used as a measure of a customer's
loyalty as well as their experience with a product or service.
The findings will be analyzed to see if the firm is doing well
with its clients and where more testing is required (Rocks,
2016).
Questions for Classmates:
When was the last time a consumer retention survey was taken?
What was the retailer's or service provider's name? Please
explain the nature of the survey's questions and rating scales.
Replies:
· You must respond to at least 2 of your classmates’ original
posts with a reply of at least 250 words. Your replies must do
the following:

a. Answer the question posed by the classmate.
b. Respond to the practical example in the classmate’s post with
a practical example that differs from the one in the classmate’s
post.
c. Reference at least 1 scholarly source in addition to the course
textbook.
Note about Responses: Seek to understand your classmates’
posts (including the marketing management theory, the facts
presented in their posts, their points of view, and their real -
world examples). Aim to communicate your own understanding
of relevant facts, your values, and your perspective of the topic.
Concept
Customer loyalty is defined as “a customer’s
commitment to a company and its products and brands for the
long run” (Marshall, G.W. & Johnston, M.W., 2019, p. 56). The
primary goal of customer loyalty is to increase the ability of
companies to retain consumers, while reducing the number of
consumers that switch to another brand. Customer loyalty is
almost always related to the different forms of value that the
consumer gains from their relationship with the company and its
brands. With the exception of monopolies (in which as customer
is forced into the relationship), customers who have a strong
sense of loyalty to a certain brand/company also tend to have a
high level of satisfaction with said company (Marshall, G.W. &
Johnston, M.W., 2019). However, it is important to note that
customer satisfaction does not equate customer loyalty.
Oftentimes, satisfied consumers will easily switch to the
competitor if they perceive a better value can be obtained. The
loyal consumer is less likely to be swayed by the competition
(Marshall, G.W. & Johnston, M.W., 2019). Therefore, it is
vitally important for businesses to strive to keep high customer
satisfaction levels with long-term customers in order to retain
them for as long as possible.
Application/Example

A great example of long-term customer loyalty can be
found when looking at Amazon. Amazon has a strong desire to
create the best consumer experience possible in order to retain
current customers and gain new ones. One of the biggest ways
that Amazon does this is through its employees as it strives to
create a consumer based mindset. There are currently 14
Leadership Principles that guide Amazon employees, and the
very first one is customer obsession. It states: “To go from good
to great, to ‘see around the corner’ for your customer, or to
change an internal culture, obsession will deliver different
insights” (Denning, S., 2019, par. 10). This belief is evidenced
by the way in which Amazon goes above and beyond to
thoroughly research any new idea, including measuring how it is
received by potential consumers, before implementing any new
product or service (Denning, S., 2019). An example of a
successful idea that was created for the consumer’s benefit was
the introduction of Amazon Prime. Amazon Prime is a customer
loyalty subscription that consumers can sign up for at either a
yearly or monthly fee in order to gain benefits such as free two
day shipping and access to Amazon prime video.
It is clear that whatever Amazon is doing, it is indeed
working. A study in 2017 revealed that 85% of Amazon Prime
members visit the site at least once a week. Moreover, about
56% of non-Amazon Prime members also reported that they
visited the site at least once a week. Several customers further
reported that they will seek out Amazon to compare prices
before purchasing from another site, therefore indicating that
Amazon is their first choice. It is also notable that Amazon is
now ranked 8th out of the top ten most reputable firms in North
America, and it is ranked 18th globally (Danziger, P.N., 2018).
Question
When looking at customer loyalty, it is clear that it has
a significant affect on the success of a business. A business is
not a business without the money earned from its consumers.
Therefore, it is vitally important for businesses to ensure that
they consider the consumer in the implementation of any

process that could affect their consumer. With that in mind, if
you were starting a new company, what would you implement
(processes, customer service teams, etc.) in order to gain
customers and keep them as loyal consumers?
Quantitative Research Article Critique
Criteria
Your Evaluation
Points Possible
Article Citation in APA Format
Author(s), date, title, publisher, volume number, issue number,
pages, may include retrieved from and hyperlink or DOI
1
Abstract
What are the key terms in the abstract?
Are the key terms similar to your own search terms?
Is the journal peer reviewed and how do you know? (hint see
journal main web page. May have to click on information for
authors, or editorial review tab)
1
Introduction
Does the introduction include the purpose of the study?
Does the introduction include a theoretical framework?
Is the literature reviewed?
Are the independent/dependent variables defined?
What are the independent/dependent variables?
What is the research question/hypothesis?

1
Method
What is the Quantitative study method? E.g. RCT, survey,
cohort etc.
Are legal/ethical implications addressed (ALL have
legal/ethical implications. Consider principles in the Belmont
report and address 2 or more principles)
What is the sample?
What are the characteristics of the sample?
Does the article indicate who was excluded from the study?
What instruments were used in the study?
How did the researchers plan the analysis? (Did they use
statistics?)
3
Results
What were the findings?
Are statistically significant results reported?
1
Discussion/Recommendations
Was the research question answered?
What insights were uncovered by the research? What are the
future implications?
1
Summary
What is your overall impression? Was this a valid and useful
study? (internal/external validity addressed)
Is the research applicable in the real world?

Are the findings applicable/ generalizable to other populations?
2
Total
/10
Effectiveness of Mirror Therapy on Upper Extremity
Functioning among Stroke Patients
Rohini T. Chaudhari1, Seeta Devi2, Dipali Dumbre3
1MSc Nursing, 2Asst. Professor, 3Tutor, Symbiosis College of
Nursing, Symbiosis International
(Deemed University), Pune
ABSTARCT
Background: The prevalence of stroke in the general population
varies from 40 to 270 per 1000,000 in
India. Approximately 12% of all strokes occur in those older
than 40 years. Stroke may require a variety of
rehabilitation services. One of them Mirror therapy is a simple,
inexpensive and most importantly patient
directed treatment that may improve hand function after stroke.
Objective: To assess the effectiveness of mirror
therapy on upper extremity functioning among
stroke
patients at selected neurorehabilitation centres

Method: A quantitative research approach was used
in this study. Research design was Quasi-
experimental: pre-test post-test. Sample size was 50 post stroke
patients who receive stroke rehabilitation
at Neurorehabilitation centres. The 25 subjects were
randomly divided into two groups, experimental
group
and control group. The experimental group has received mirror
therapy with the conventional therapy for 3
days in a week for 4 weeks. Other side the control group has
received only conventional therapy for 4 weeks,
and 3 days in a week. The effectiveness was
evaluated by Modified Brunnstrom’s motor
function test
Result: An average hand functioning score in
pre-test was 8.2 which increased to 12.6 in
post-test and 7.6
which increased to 13.4 in post-test for upper extremity
functioning among experimental group, following
for the control group as in pre-test an average
was 8.3 which increased to 11.2 for hand and
8.1 which
increased to 11.7 of upper extremity.
Conclusion: The findings of the study show
that there is significant difference between
the scores of
experimental and control group.
Keywords: Mirror Therapy, Upper Extremity Stroke , Neuro
Rehabilitation Centre
INTRODUCTION
As human, we move our bodies to explicit our wants,

needs, emotions, thoughts, and ideas. Basically, how
well we move- and how much we move- decides how
well we engage with the world and make our full purpose
in life. Mostly the active movement helps us in function
completely, interact with the world, feel well physically
and emotionally, connect and build relationship with
others, and communicate and express ourselves. Also
the movement helps us recover if our brainis
injured
or inflamed. Body movements are comparable
important
for smooth and effective day to day activities.1
Nervous system is a one of the system of our body,
which perform all the sensory and motor function
of body. The reason a healthy nervous system is so
important is because it’s what runs everything in
our
body. When nervous system is functioning
correctly,
body is able to perform all the things it needs to do.
However, when the nervous system is compromised, or
not working efficiently, body begins to break
down.2
Stroke is the third biggest killer in India after heart
attack and cancer and is a major public
health concern.1
Stroke occurs when there is (1) lack of blood
flow to a
section of brain or (2) haemorrhage into the brain that
results in death of brain cells. The predominance of stroke
in the population varies from 40 to 270 per 1000,000 in
India. Approximately 12% of all strokes occur in those
olderthan 40 years. It was projected that by 2015

the
number of cases of stroke would be increase to 1666,372
DOI Number: 10.5958/0973-5674.2019.00026.1
Indian Journal of Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy,
January-March 2019, Vol.13, No. 1 129
in the country. A predicted 5.7 million people died from
stroke in 2005 and it is projected that these deaths
would
rise to 6.5 million by 2015.3
Impact on daily life, 4 out of 10 stroke survivors
leave hospital requiring help with daily living activities
but almost a third receive no social service visits. Around
a third of stroke survivors experience depression after
their stroke.4
15 million people suffer from stroke worldwide
each
year. Of these, 5 million die and another 5 million are
permanently DISABLED.5Ischemic stroke 10% in 30
days, 23% in 1 year and 52 % in 5 year. Same as Intra-
cerebral haemorrhage 52% in 30 days, 62% in 1 year
and 70% in 5 years. The sub-arachnoid haemorrhage
was 45% in 30 days, 48% in 1 year and 52 %
in 5 years.
They also concluded that this prevalence of stroke may
increase till 2020. Stroke patient may require a variety of
rehabilitation services like physiotherapy, occupational
therapy, speech therapy etc. One of them MIRROR
THERAPY is an inexpensive, simple and patient
directed treatment. The principle of mirror therapy i s use

of a mirror to create a reflective illusion of
an affected
limb in order to trick the brain into thinking movement
has occurred without pain. 5
METHODOLOGY
A quantitative research approach was used in this
study. Research design was Quasi-experimental: pre-test
post-test. Content validity was obtained by experts of
medical surgical nursing and physiotherapy opinion. Tool
reliability (0.8) was calculated by inter rated reliability
method. The consent was taken from the subjects
for
participation in study. Data collection was carried out
from 14/02/2018 to 15/03/2108. Sample size was
50
post stroke patients who receive stroke rehabilitation
at Neurorehabilitation centres. The 25 subjects were
randomly divided into two groups, experimental group
and control group. The experimental group has received
mirror therapy with the conventional therapy for 3 days
in a week for 4 weeks. Other side the control group has
received only conventional therapy for 4 weeks, and
3 days in a week. The effectiveness was
evaluated by
Modified Brunnstrom’s motor function test before
and
after intervention. Data was compiled and analysis was
done by using inferential and descriptive statistics.
RESULTS

Fig. 1: Effectiveness of mirror therapy in stroke
patients on the functioning of hand
In pre-test, all the experimental and control group stroke
patients had poor functioning of hand. In post-
test, 48% of
the experimental group samples had poor functioning of
hand and 52% of them had average functioning of hand.
In control group, 68% of the samples had poor
functioning
of hand and 32% of them had average functioning of hand.
This shows that the mirror therapy remarkably improved
the hand functioning of stroke patients.
Table 1: Paired t-test for effectiveness of mirror therapy in
stroke patients on the functioning of hand
N = 25, 25
Group Day Mean SD T Df p-value
Experimental
Pre-test 8.2 1.37
12.8 24 0.000
Post-test 12.6 1.71
Control
Pre-test 8.3 1.41
10.6 24 0.000
Post-test 11.2 1.72
Researcher applied paired t-test for effectiveness of
mirror therapy in stroke patients on the functioning of
hand. In experimental group, average hand functioning

score in pre-test was 8.2 which increased to
12.6 in post-
test. T-value for this test was 12.8 with 24 degrees of
freedom. Corresponding p-value was of the order of
0.000, which is small (less than 0.05), the null hypothesis
is rejected.
130 Indian Journal of Physiotherapy and Occupational
Therapy, January-March 2019, Vol.13, No. 1
In control group, average hand functioning score
in pre-test was 8.3 which increased to 11.2 in
post-test.
T-value for this test was 10.6 with 24 degrees of freedom.
Corresponding p-value was of the order of 0.000, which
is small (less than 0.05), the null hypothesis is
rejected.
Average for experimental group in post-test is higher
as compared to that for control group. Mirror therapy
is proved to be significantly effective in
improving the
hand functioning of stroke patients.
Fig. 2: Effectiveness of mirror therapy in stroke
patients on the functioning of upper extremity
In pre-test, all the experimental and control group
stroke patients had poor functioning of upper extremity.
In post-test, 56% of the experimental group samples had
poor functioning of upper extremity and 44% of them
had average functioning of upper extremity. In control
group, 92% of the samples had poor functioning of upper

extremity and 8% of them had average functioning of
upper extremity. This shows that the mirror therapy
remarkably improved the upper extremity functioning
of stroke patients.
Table 2: Paired t-test for effectiveness of mirror
therapy in stroke patients on the functioning of
upper extremity
N = 25, 25
Group Day Mean SD t Df p-value
Experimental
Pre-
test
7.6 1.15
14.6 24 0.000
Post-
test
13.4 1.80
Control
Pre-
test
8.1 1.17
11.0 24 0.000
Post-

test
11.7 1.51
Researcher applied paired t-test for effectiveness of
mirror therapy in stroke patients on the functioning of
upper extremity. In experimental group, average upper
extremity functioning score in pre-test was 7.6 which
increased to 13.4 in post-test. T-value for this test was
14.6 with 24 degrees of freedom. Corresponding p-value
was of the order of 0.000, which is small (less than 0.05),
the null hypothesis is rejected. In control group,
average
upper extremity functioning score in pre-test
was 8.1
which increased to 11.7 in post-test. T-value for this
test was 11 with 24 degrees of freedom. Corresponding
p-value was of the order of 0.000, which is small (less
than 0.05), the null hypothesis is rejected.
Average post
test score for experimental group is higher as compared
to that of control group. Mirror therapy is proved to be
significantly effective in improving the upper
extremity
functioning of stroke patients.
Table 3: Two sample t-test for comparison
of experimental and control group for hand
functioning
N = 25, 25
Group Mean SD T df p-value
Experimental 4.4 2.8

4.3 48 0.000
Control 1.7 1.3
Researcher applied two sample t-test for comparison
of average change in hand functioning score of
experimental and control group. Average change in hand
functioning score of experimental group was 4.4 which
was 1.7 for control group. T-value for this comparison
was 4.3 with 48 degrees of freedom. Corresponding
p-value was 0.000, which is small (less than 0.05).
This indicates that the mirror therapy has significantly
improved the functioning score of hand as compared to
that of control group.
Table 4: Two sample t-test for comparison of
experimental and control group for upper extremity
functioning
N = 25, 25
Group Mean SD t df p-value
Experimental 5.8 3.6
4.9 48 0.000
Control 2.0 1.6
Researcher applied two sample t-test for comparison
of average change in upper extremity functioning score
Indian Journal of Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy,
January-March 2019, Vol.13, No. 1 131
of experimental and control group. Average change

in upper extremity functioning score of experimental
group was 5.8 which was 2 for control group.
T-value
for this comparison was 4.9 with 48 degrees of
freedom.
Corresponding p-value was 0.000, which is small (less
than 0.05). This indicates that the mirror therapy has
significantly improved the functioning score of
upper
extremity as compared to that of control group.
This shows that mirror therapy was effective on
upper extremity function among stroke patients.
DISCUSSION
The literature includes some studies that support
the use of Mirror Therapy in post-stroke rehabilitation.
However, researches involving MT have evolved over
the past years, acquiring better methodological quality.
The studies found in this review assessed individuals
in the post-stroke and showed similar effects
concerning
the effectiveness of MT on recovery of the motor
function.
The above findings of the study are supported by
a study conducted by, Pournima Pawar, vijaykumar
biradar to evaluate the effectiveness of the constraint
induced movement therapy (CIMT) and combined
mirror therapy for patient’s rehabilitation of the
patients
with subacute and chronic stroke patients.Twenty

patients were enrolled and divided into two groups
CIMT group, CIMT with Mirror therapy group. CIMT
group 6 hours a day for 4 days per week for 4 weeks
,and CIMT with Mirror therapy group 30 minutes of
mirror with CIMT for 4 days per week for 4 weeks .
The fugl-meyer motor function assessment (FMS) and
Brunnstrom Voluntary control grading were evaluated
4weeks after the treatment. The score of the Brunnstrom
Voluntary control grading p value (P value 0.0001)
and Fugl-meyer scale P value (0.0001), mirror therapy
combined with CIMT showed more improvement than
the CIMT after 4 weeks of treatment.6
Kil-Byung Lim, Hong-Jae Lee, Jeehyun Yoo,
Hyun-Ju Yun, Hye-Jung Hwang conducted study on
efficacy of mirror therapy containing tasks in
post stroke
patients to investigate the effect of mirror
therapy on
upper extremity function and activities of daily living.
The samples were randomly divided into two groups
that were mirror therapy group and sham therapy
group, each group contains 30 samples. The mirror
therapy group has undergone a mirror therapy with
conventional therapy for 20 minutes per day on 5 days
per 4 weeks. The Fugl Meyer assessment, Brunnstrom
motor recovery stage and modified barthel index
were
evaluated 4 weeks after the treatment. After 4 weeks of
intervention, improvements in the FMA (p=0.027) and
MBI (p=0.041) were significantly greater in the mirror
therapy group than the sham therapy group. The mirror
therapy containing functional task was effective in
terms

of improving the upper extremity functions.7
CONCLUSION
The findings of the study show that there is
significant
difference between the scores of experimental and
control group. The finding shows that the mirror
therapy
brought a significantly effect in pre-test and
post-test on
upper extremity functioning.
Conflict of Interest: Nil declared
Source Funding: Self
Ethical Clearance: This study is ethically approved by
Symbiosis College of nursing, Symbiosis International
(Deemed University)
REFERENCES
1. Krista Scott-Dixon, The Real reasons
healthy
movement matters [Internet], Available From:
www.precisionnutrition.com/healthy-movement.
2. Lewis, Medical Surgical Nursing, Second
South
Asia edition, ELSEVIER publication, volume- II,
2015, pg no- 1445.
3. Snehal Narsinha Waghavkar and Suvarna
Shyam
Ganvir, Effectiveness of Mirror Therapy to

improve hand functions in acute and sub-acute
stroke patients, International journal of Neuro-
rehabilitation., 2015 2(4), 1-3. doi:10.4172/2376-
0281.1000184.
4. Rothgangel, S, Braun,S, Beurskens,A, Seitz,R,
Wade,D, The clinical aspects of mirror therapy in
rehabilitation: a systematic review of the literature,
Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 2011, 34(1);
1-13, doi: 10.1097/MRR.0b013e3283441e98.
5. Fiona c Taylor, Suresh Kumar, Stroke
in India –
factsheet (updated 2015), Available From : https://
www.researchgate.net/publication/264116605.
132 Indian Journal of Physiotherapy and Occupational
Therapy, January-March 2019, Vol.13, No. 1
6. Pournima pawar, Vijaykumar biradar,
Compare
the effect of cimt versus mirror therapy on
hand
function in sub-acute and chronic stroke, European
journal of pharmaceutical and medical research,
ejpmr, 2017,4(1), 535-540, ISSN 2394-3211.
7. Kil-Byung Lim, Hong-Jae Lee,
JeehyunYoo,
Hyun-Ju Yun, Hye-Jung Hwan, efficacy of mirror
therapy containing tasks in post stroke patients,
Ann Rehabil Med 2016;40(4):629-636, pISSN:
2234-0645 • eISSN: 2234-0653.

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CH. 6 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Developmental Psychology is the study of physical, emotional,
cognitive and social change across the life span.
To document change, a good first step is to determine what an
average person is like—in physical appearance, cognitive
abilities, and so on—at a particular age. This provides a good
starting point by which to compare individuals and determine if
their development is occurring along a normal continuum.
Nature vs Nurture
Stability vs Change
Continuity vs Stages
Conditioning vs Modeling
Passive vs Active Processes
What is Developmental Psychology?
Developmental psychology is divided into three main domains
of study:
Biological development, which development pertains to changes

in body, brain, perception, motor capabilities, and health
Cognitive development, which pertains to changes in thought
processes, intellectual abilities, and learning styles
Social and emotional development, which relate to the
development of emotions, self-understanding, interpersonal
skills, relationships, and moral reasoning
To collect information from people, researchers rely on
observation, reports from others, and physiological assessments
like movement tracking, eye scans, and brain waves. If possible,
data collection from interviews and self-reports can be used in
complex methodological designs.
Developmental psychologists compare physical, cognitive, and
social statuses of people at different stages and circumstances
throughout human lifespans. They do this through cross-
sectional design and longitudinal design.
Cross-sectional Design:
Research design that collects information from different groups
of people of different ages.
Longitudinal Design:
Research design that collects information from the same group
of people across time.
Prenatal Development
Prenatal development begins with conception and ends with the
birth. The process of prenatal development is best understood in
three stages: germinal period, embryonic period, and fetal
period.
Germinal Period:
First period of pre-natal development from conception to
implantation
Teratogens, any substances ingested, consumed, or experienced
by the mother that can cross the placental barrier and damage

the developing organism during pregnancy, can be:
Environmental influences like mercury, radiation, and lead
Legal drugs such as alcohol, smoking and vaping (and second-
hand smoke) and prescription or over-the-counter drugs
Illegal drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, methamphetamines,
and opioids
Maternal factors like genetics, disease, stress, aging, and
malnutrition.
The impact of teratogens on prenatal development depends on
the timing of exposure. Teratogens cause the most negative
outcomes when they are ingested during the sensitive period
when the major systems are still being formed and are most
vulnerable to damage.
© BlueRingMedia/Shutterstock.com
Delivery:
The second stage of the process of delivery in which the fetus
passes through the birth canal.
Process of Delivery:
The three-stage process of giving birth.
Prenatal Development & Birth
Babies are assessed using the APGAR Scale
at 1 minute and then again at 5 minutes after birth on the
following five items:
Activity level
Pulse
Grimace (reflex response)
Appearance
Respiration
Babies can receive 0 to 2 points for each item or 10 points total.
Scores between 7 and 10 are within the normal range. Babies in

the normal range will be cleaned and kept warm; it is unlikely
that medical intervention will be needed.
Scores between 4 and 6 indicate some medical intervention may
be needed, such as suction and oxygen. Scores below 4 mean
babies are in need of immediate medical interventions to save
their lives.
The primary reason for carrying out this quick and easy
assessment is to provide the necessary support if the baby is
experience any sort of crises especially around cardiac (i.e.,
heart) or pulmonary (i.e., breathing) issues.
© Sabelskaya/Shutterstock.com
Prenatal Development: Drug Exposure Results
Perinatal Drug Exposure Symptoms
Pregnancy complications
Prematurity
Decreased weight and length
Decreased head circumference
Small gestation age
Intraventricular hemorrhage (i.e., bleeding in the brain)
Fetal Abstinence syndrome
Still birth
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Increased infant mortality (i.e., death)
Life-long Symptoms:
Mental retardation
Attention deficits
Memory deficits
Hyperactivity
Difficulty with abstract concepts
Inability to manage money
Poor problem-solving skills

Difficulty learning from consequences
Immature social behavior
Inappropriately friendly to strangers
Lack of control over emotions
Poor impulse control
Poor judgment
Early Physical Development: Reflexes
Newborns come into the world with an array of reflexes that
disappear within the first 6 months of life. These refl exes help
newborns adapt to and engage with the world around them until
their motor skills adequately develop. Several reflexes are
dominant in those first few months ReflexDescriptionWhen
Reflex DisappearsSucking ReflexWhen something touches the
roof of his mouth, his lips close and he sucks.About 2
MonthsMoro ReflexThe Moro reflex is often called a startle
reflex. That’s because it usually occurs when a baby is startled
by a loud sound or movement. In response to the sound, the
baby throws back his or her head, extends out his or her arms
and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs back in.About 2
MonthsCrawling ReflexWhen placed on her stomach, she will
make crawling motions.About 2 MonthsBabinski ReflexWhen
the sides of her feet are stroked, she points her big toe and curls
up other toes.About 4 MonthsStepping ReflexWhen supporting
his weight and his feet touch the ground, he will make a
walking motion.About 3 MonthsRooting ReflexWhen her cheek
is stroked, she will turn her head toward the touch and open her
mouth.About 4 MonthsGag ReflexGag response to prevent
choking.Never Disappears
Early Physical Development: Growth Patterns

Most early physical development occurs from head to toe, using
the cephalocaudal pattern of development.
For example, infants will gain the ability to hold their heads up
before they can sit up without support and will sit up without
support before they can walk.
The other pattern of development is the proximodistal pattern,
which refers to the development of motor abilities that develop
from the center outward to appendages.
In reference to motor skills, infants are able to use their core
muscles to roll over before they can accurately grasp at items
and before they have the digital dexterity to pick up small items
These two patterns of development are consistent across all
stages of development, except an awkward period in
adolescence.
Cognitive Development: Piaget
Piaget’s theory is widely accepted because it highlights the
general abilities and limitations of children at stages across
their lives and because of its breadth and applicability to a
variety of developmental contexts.
Central to Piaget’s theory is the concept that children are
mentally and physically active in their own cognitive processes
(Piaget, 1969, 1973).
Children have a self-interest to organize and understand their
world. They are not passive while their cognitive abilities
change; instead, children are like “little scientists” undertaking
breaching experiments to test out their ideas and drawing
conclusions by actively engaging their social and physical
environments.
Children discover many important life lessons without the

assistance of others. Information is organized into cognitive
schemas, or frameworks, placing information into
classifications and groups
Cognitive Schemas:
Pattern of thought, based on experience, that organizes
information about objects, events, and things in the world.
Children use two basic processes, assimilation and
accommodation, to help organize experiences into cognitive
schemas
Assimilation:
The process of integrating new information in a form to match
the current schemas.
Accommodation:
The process of adapting the current schemas to match the new
information or experiences.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggested that
children progress through their cognitive development in a
series of stages (Piaget, 1969, 1973). Like all stage theories,
children move through the stages in the same order and each
new stage marks the advent of qualitatively different skills and
abilities than in the previous stages.
Cognitive Development: Piaget Cont.Stage of Cognitive
DevelopmentAge
RangeDESCRIPTIONSensorimotorBirth to 2 yearsDuring this
stage, infants rely on their senses and motor abilities to help
them understand their surroundings. The major achievement of
the sensorimotor stage is object permanence — the
understanding that objects exist even when out of
sight.Preoperational2–7 yearsIn this stage, children have object
permanence and begin to expand their understanding and use of
objects, but they still have limited cognitive ability. Perhaps the
greatest achievement of the preoperational stage is the
development of symbolic thought, wherein children are able to

substitute one object to for another, mentally. This manifest
itself in creative play.
In the preoperational stage children are severely limited in their
thought processes. They are egocentric, lacking the ability to
see the world from another person’s point of view. It also
includes centration, the fixation on one characteristic of an
object at the exclusion of other characteristics.Concrete
Operational7–12 yearsDuring this stage, children overcome
their previous cognitive limitation and begin the development of
logical thought. However, this logical reasoning does not extend
to hypothetical situations. Concrete-operational children still
engage in trial-and-error when problem solving. Formal
Operational12+ yearsIn this final stage, the limitations in
reasoning from the previous stage are overcome. Adolescents
are able to reason about situations and problems using
hypothetical thought.
Social and Emotional Development: Attachment
Social and emotional development includes areas such as the
bond between the caregiver and child, temperament, child
rearing, morality, and other social hurdles experienced in life.
Attachment is the emotional bond that connects two people
together. The first important relationship children have is with
their primary caregiver.
Scientific interest in attachment-bonds increased during the
1930s and 1940s after people noticed children—who were
orphaned or otherwise separated from their parents—often
struggled later in social environments, with other relationships,
and in parenting their own children.
Initial research by Harlow and associates with orphaned rhesus
monkeys demonstrated the importance of early attachment
between parent and child for social development. Additional
studies have examined the specific aspects of parental care that

were quintessential for the development of attachment.
Based on the pivotal ideas from Harlow, John Bowlby proposed
attachment theory, which was later extended by Mary
Ainsworth.
Bowlby postulated that infants were not simply dependent on
their mothers for survival but were innately motivated to
investigate the world around them.
Infants need to have a secure base. Infants rely upon this safe-
haven for encouragement in times of stress while learning on
their own. The quality and process of the development of
attachment shapes how infants and children view their world.
These attachments to caregivers help infants and children
develop internal working models setting the foundation for
future relationships, as well as the development of self-identity,
emotions, and self-worth.
Social and Emotional Development: Bowlby & Attachment
Secure Base:
A safe, supportive relationship that infants use to explore and
understand their world.NameTimeDescriptionPre-
attachmentBirth to about 2 monthsInfant does not discriminate
one individual from another—no fear of strangers.Attachment in
Process2 to about 6 monthsInfant directs behavior (cues) to a
specific individual. Infant is able to recognize parents but
shows limited protest when separated.Well-defined Attachment6
months to about 3-4 yearsInfant shows separation anxiety from
specific individual(s), often mother and father.Goal -directed
Relationship3-4 years and beyondSeparation protests decrease
as child begins to understand caregiving schedule as well as
develop skills for self-entertainment.
Bowlby’s Model of Phases Of Attachment:
Internal Working Model:

The expectations and understanding of the world formulated by
the first attachment with caregivers.
Social and Emotional Development: Attachment
This diagram shows the cycle of positive attachment and cycle
of disturbed attachment.
This model is important because how an infant interacts with a
parent or caregiver is generalized to other people.
Source: Brian Kelley
Social and Emotional Development: Ainsworth & Attachment
Ainsworth (1973) expanded upon the ideas of Bowlby by
providing empirical support for the different types of
attachments that infants and children can have with caregivers.
Based on her strange situation technique, Ainsworth developed
descriptions for secure and insecure attachments.
Strange Situation:
The procedure developed by Ainsworth to assess different
attachment styles.
Events During the Strange Situation Procedure:
Mother and infant enter research room with stranger. Stranger
leaves.
Infant plays with available toys and mother responds naturally.
Stranger enters and after a few minutes mother leaves.
Infant is alone in room with stranger. The two may interact
naturally.
Mother returns and stranger leaves. After a few minutes, mother
leaves.

Infant is alone in room for a few minutes.
Stranger enters and interacts with infant.
Mother returns.
Social and Emotional Development: Ainsworth & Attachment
Relationship Between Types of Attachment Across StagesStage
1:
AttachmentStage 2:
IndependenceStage 3:
AchievementStage 4:
Altruism SecureFriendship, cooperation, respect, trust,
affection, and love.Self-controlled, self-assured, self-sufficient,
responsible, and independent.Accomplished, problem solver,
creative, determined, and motivated.Caring, considerate,
compassionate, and empathetic.ResistantAttention-seeking,
thrives on attention, and often clingy.Rebellious, intimidates,
manipulative, hasty, and passive aggressive. Competitive,
sensation seeking, recognition focused, conniving, and
troublemaker.Selfish, co-dependent, overindulgent, and
degrading.AvoidantWithdrawn, rejected, lonely, overly
suspicious, and alienating.Learned helplessness, unconstrained,
false confidence, more easily misguided, and irresponsible.
Under-achiever, failure-focused, apathetic, immature, doesn’t
like change, and unmotivated.Focused on self, reward, and
pleasure; immediate needs outweigh long-term benefits.
Social and Emotional Development: Parenting and Family
Parenting is a complex and ever-changing concept. Quality,
consistency, and type of parenting affect attachments (and their
long-term outcomes). As children age, their needs change,
which requires parents to adapt their parenting styles. Each

parent has a different style that guides the way they interact
with their children.
Four different parenting styles have been established by
researchers:
Authoritative: characterized by high warmth/responsiveness and
high demands
Authoritarian: characterized by low warmth/responsiveness and
high demands
Permissive: characterized by high warmth/responsiveness and
low demands
Rejecting–neglecting: characterized by low
warmth/responsiveness and low demand
These parenting styles are based on the amount of
responsiveness, demands, and control placed upon children by
their parents. Parenting styles vary greatly depending upon
culture, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and environment.
Stressful situations such as economic hardship, physical/mental
health issues, and marital conflict place pressures on parents
that, in turn, alter parenting styles.
Social and Emotional Development: Temperament
Temperament is an infants’ and children’s biological
predisposition to respond to the world in predictable ways.
Temperament is relatively stable over time and affects parenting
style and parent–child interactions.
Thomas and Chess (1977) suggest three general temperamental
characteristics to describe most infants:
“Easy babies” have easygoing temperament, quick to adjust to
new experiences, establish predictable routines, are generally

happy, and typically remain calm.
“Difficult babies” tend to react negatively to new experiences,
show high levels of fear and distress, and have irregular
routines.
“Slow-to-warm-up babies” start out somewhat difficult but over
time become easier to manage over time.
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial DevelopmentStageCrisis to
ResolveAge RangeBasic Trust vs. MistrustTrusting in caregiver
and own ability to cope with challengesInfancyAutonomy vs.
Shame and DoubtMaking appropriate choices and having
confidence in skillsToddlerhoodInitiative vs. GuiltSetting and
attaining goalsPreschoolIndustry vs. InferiorityLearning the
rules and customs of the cultureChildhoodIdentity vs. Role
ConfusionDeveloping a coherent identityAdolescence–Early
Adulthood Intimacy vs. IsolationForming close, intimate
relationship bondsEarly AdulthoodGenerativity vs.
StagnationConsidering the legacy left behindMiddle
AdulthoodEgo Integrity vs. DespairReflecting back on lifeLate
Adulthood
Moral Development: Kohlberg
Morality, according to Lawrence Kohlberg reflects people’s
sense of fairness and justice.
Moral development is the process of learning what is
right/wrong, fair/unfair, or just/unjust.
Kohlberg was most interested in the development of the thought
processes behind moral decision-making rather than the
acquisition of “correct” moral choices.
Based on the rationale for their moral decisions, people are

classified into one of three general stages of moral
development:
Preconventional moral reasoning
Conventional moral reasoning
Postconventional moral reasoning
Moral Development: KohlbergPreconventional Moral
ReasoningConventional Moral ReasoningPostconventional
Moral Reasoning Kohlberg’s first stage of moral development
when children focus on receiving rewards or avoiding
punishments.
Typical during the preschool and early elementary school years,
this reflects thinking that seeks reward or the avoidance
punishment.
In this stage, thinking is very self-focused, reflecting the
egocentrism dominant in this level of cognitive development.
Children will make moral decisions to gain positive outcomes
(e.g., favor from others or tangible benefits) or will make moral
decisions to avoid negative outcomes (e.g., punishment or loss
of admiration). Kohlberg’s second stage of moral development
when people focus on maintaining social order.
This is the most common level of moral thinking. Most adults
reason using the conventional moral thinking approach, which is
focused on maintaining social order and laws.
Through logical thought and hypothetical reasoning, people are
able to move past self-centered cognitions and are better able to
consider the good of society overall.Kohlberg’s third stage of
moral development when people focus on equality and the
greater good.

This is believed to be only achieved by a small group of adults.
Interestingly, Kohlberg never officially interviewed a person
who could be classified at this level.
Theoretically, these thinkers have a flexible cognitive style
allowing them to understand universal truths and the need to
strive for a universal justice that transcends oppressive civil
codes.
Teens and Young Adults
Adolescence is a time of transition between childhood and
adulthood. Historically, the delineation between childhood and
adulthood was clearer; however, more modern cultures,
especially with a focus on extended formal education, have
contributed to this in-between period as well as expanding the
length of the period, creating confusion on when adulthood
actually begins and how to define it. StagesAge
RangeDescriptionEarly Adolescenceages 10-13This is
characterized by rapid changes in physical characteristics
including hair growth under the arms and around the genitals,
breast development in females and enlargement of the testicles
in males.
Adolescents tend to have more concrete/black-and-white
thinking, often noting in the communication that some things
are absolutely right or absolutely wrong. There is also a general
focus on themselves where they often overestimate the amount
of attention garnered by others. Often this is the age in which
increased need for privacy occurs. Middle Adolescenceages 14-
17This is characterized in males with continued and rapid
growth, often in spurts and can be uneven. Physical changes
may be nearly complete for females, and most girls now have
regular periods.
This is often the age that interest in romantic relationships

occurs and that adolescents become good thinkers, using reason
to solve and understand problems, but they tend to not be able
to apply those skills as effectively in managing their own
behavior and understanding risk. While they have increased
cognitive capabilities, they often use these new skills to
rationalize their own maladaptive behaviors. This thinking
process is often called the personal fable: they see themselves
as special and unique. Late Adolescenceages 18-21 and
olderThis is characterized by completed physical development
and grown to their full adult height.
They usually have more impulse control and are likely to be
better able to gauge risks and rewards accurately and establish
methods to achieve those rewards. They have a stronger sense
of their own individuality now and can identify their own values
and may become more focused on the future and base decisions
on their hopes and ideals.
Physical Growth and Development
Physical development during adolescence is characterized by
the following:
Along with overt physical changes, there are a number of
central nervous system (i.e., brain) changes that take place.
Rapid physical growth
Changes in sleep patterns
Change in appetite
Changes in hormones
Sexual maturation
Changes in body shape

Increases in strength and endurance
Menstruation in females
Changes in vocal sounds
Secondary sexual characteristics
Biologically based characteristics that distinguish males and
females are referred to as sex differences. These characteristics
include different reproductive functions and differences in
hormones and anatomy.
These differences are universal, biologically determined and
unchanged by social influence.
In contrast, gender is a psychological phenomenon referring to
learned, sex-related behaviors and attitudes. Cultures vary in
how strongly gender is linked to daily activities and in the
amount of tolerance for what is perceived as cross-gender
behavior.
Gender identity is an individual's sense of maleness or
femaleness; it includes awareness and acceptance of one's sex.
Gender roles are patterns of behavior regarded as appropriate
for males and females in a particular society. They provide the
basic definitions of masculinity and femininity.
Substance Use and Abuse in Adolescence
Teens tend to seek new, exciting experiences during this period,
but often lack the maturity to weigh the consequences of their
decision making. Therefore, drug experimentation, which is

almost universally initiated during adolescence, often results in
a plethora of primary and secondary adverse events.
The average age for first use of an abused substance in 2016
was about 18.2 for inhalants, 17.4 for alcohol, 18 for nicotine,
and about 19 for illicit drugs.
Initiating substance use during childhood or adolescence
increases the risk of developing dependence or SUD’s
(Substance Use Disorder) in the future (SAMHSA, 2014b).
Research supports the notion that substance abuse is a
pediatric/developmental disease. Research provides convincing
evidence of the “gateway model of drug abuse.”
Gateway Model of Drug Abuse:
This model suggests the typical pattern of substance use is to
start with more conventional, legal, and readily available
substances (e.g., nicotine, alcohol, and inhalants) followed by a
systematic elevation in the type of drug abused, like illicit
drugs (e.g., marijuana, cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin, and
ecstasy).
The majority of young people report using drugs for the first
time because of sociocultural factors such as the following:
Peer pressure
Curiosity
Advertising
Movies, television, and music
Parental use
Sibling use
Cost
Access
Not perceived of as a drug
Seen as a grown-up behavior.
They continue to use drugs because of the addictive properties

of drugs. Teens especially (and adults) routinely downplay the
significance of the social forces that act upon them.
Even though social factors provide a strong initiating force for
drug use, it is possible, even probable, that the “gateway” effect
may be due, in part, to neurochemical alterations in reward
systems.
Substance Use and Abuse in Adolescence Cont.
Emotions and Mental Health in Adolescence
The rapid neurobiological changes that transpire during
adolescence not only elevate the risk for substance abuse
problems, such changes also increase the risk for mood
disorders.
As a matter of fact, adolescence is the period of highest risk for
the onset of depression. Elevated risk for depression begins in
the early teens and continues to rise in a linear fashion
throughout adolescence.
According to a nationally representative survey of adolescents
(age 13-18 years) in the US in 2010, the most common mental
disorders by lifetime prevalence are anxiety (31.9%), behavior
(19.1%), and mood (14.3%).
The majority of people who experience mental health issues will
first experience them during adolescence.
Mental Health and Substance Use:
Unfortunately, too many adolescents deal with negative
affective states by using a variety of readily available
substances. While self-medicating is a common reason for teen
drug use, it is also likely that teen drug use results in the
development of psychological problems.

Drugs directly impact important brain centers involved in
emotional arousal and control of emotions, so damage to these
brain centers alone can result in the development of
psychological problems, which are then further medicated with
abused drugs, thus, drastically accelerating the problem.
Middle Adulthood
Early adulthood takes place generally between the ages of
21 to 35. In early adulthood, individuals may continue to add a
bit of height and weight. Hormonal changes also continue to
occur, often showing a gradual drop-off, but the effects are less
pronounced than they were during adolescence. In terms of
physical development, this period is the least dramatic.
Middle adulthood takes place between the ages of 35 and 65.
In middle adulthood, individuals often start to experience more
noticeable changes again but often in terms of decline. There is
great variability during this time and in many ways determined
by biological, social, and psychological factors.
The major development tasks that take place during middle-
adult include:
Death of one or more parents and experiencing associated grief.
Launching children into their own lives.
Adjusting to home life without children (often referred to as the
empty nest).
Dealing with adult children who return to live at home (known
as boomerang children in the United States).
Becoming grandparents.
Preparing for late adulthood including changes in career,
income, and retirement.
Redefining hobbies and interest given changes in physical
abilities.
Dealing with changing health status and potential chronic
illness

Acting as caregivers for aging parents or spouses (Lachman,
2004).
Aging and Older Adulthood
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the number of older
adults is growing in the United States and is projected to be the
largest segment of the population by the year 2030.
The driving force behind this trend is the fact that Baby
Boomers (individuals born after WWII between 1946 and 1964)
are aging and living longer than previous generations due to
improved healthcare. Named the “Graying of America,” this
aging of the Baby Boomer cohort will mean that older adults
will soon outnumber children for the first time in our country’s
history.
Older Adulthood, defined as people 65 years of age and older,
older adults are projected to make up 21% of the population by
2030.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2017
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2014
Chronic Illness in Older Adulthood
According to the National Council on Aging, approximately
80% of older adults have at least one chronic illness and 68%
have at least two.
Managing chronic illness is an important part of older
adulthood. In addition to the physical management of chronic
illness which often includes dietary changes and adherence to
prescribed medication, managing one’s chronic illness often

involves attention to quality of life and depression.
Individuals with chronic illnesses report lower quality of life
overall than those without chronic illnesses.
Because people are living longer than ever before, researchers
have changed the way they view health, looking beyond just
physical markers of health and to the quality of an individual
life.
In older adulthood, researchers have shown the following
factors to be related to quality of life:
physical and mental ailments
social connection
exercise and physical activity
sense of purpose
Source: Bailee Robinson
Cognitive Decline in Older Adulthood
Currently, 11% of older adults have been treated for
Alzheimer’s Disease or another form of dementia.
While some cognitive decline is normal in older adulthood (to
include slight memory loss or slower cognitive processing),
Alzheimer’s Disease and other forms of dementia are conditions
marked by memory loss and difficulty thinking or problem
solving that is usually progressive and interferes with everyday
activities.
Dementia
is caused by changes in the brain as an individual ages and is
not considered a normal part of aging.
Research on dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease has identified
the main risk factors for these conditions are ones that largely
cannot be controlled:

Age
Family history
Researchers have also identified other factors that may predict
onset and progression of dementia:
Diet
Cholesterol
Exercise
Sleep
These have all been identified as promoting brain health and
related to dementia. It appears that staying active, getting
proper amounts of sleep (at least 7 hours per night), and diet are
important to maintaining cognitive health.
Created by Bailee Robinson

HRCU 351 Week 6 Paper 2 EthicsGuidelines and Grading Rubric

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