Relationship between EI and Authentic Leadership in Navy SEALs
1. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND
AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP IN NAVAL SPECIAL WARFARE LEADERSHIP
by
Peter D. Berardi
MICHAEL T. WEBB, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair
JOHN HAWKINS, PhD, Committee Member
DEAN R. LARSON, PhD CAPT USN (Ret), Committee Member
Elizabeth Koenig, JD, Dean, School of Public Service Leadership
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
November 2015
4. Abstract
The purpose of this quantitative study was to examine the strength of the relationship
between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare
leadership. Participants (N = 168) consisted of a sample population of retired, separated,
and active duty U.S. Navy SEALs. Participants self-administered the Mayer, Salovey, and
Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) from Multi-Health Systems, Inc., and the
Authentic Leadership Questionnaire by MindGarden, Inc. Using Likert-type scale
questions, both surveys had been previously validated. Four research questions provided
the basis of analysis: (a) What is the relationship between overall emotional intelligence
and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership? (b) Which dimensions of
emotional intelligence are most predictive of authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare
leadership? (c) How does emotional intelligence vary by age of leadership among Naval
Special Warfare leadership? (d) How does authentic leadership vary by age of leadership
among Naval Special Warfare leadership? A correlation and regression analysis was
performed for each question to determine the potential strength and direction of any
potential relationship that might exist between the independent and dependent variables. A
Pearson’s r, R2, and P-value were calculated for each potential relationship. Results
indicated that there was no statistically significant relationship between overall emotional
intelligence or any particular dimension of emotional intelligence with authentic leadership.
Further analysis also indicated there was no statistically significant relationship between
age and emotional intelligence or between age and authentic leadership. Recommendations
are provided for further research into this area.
5. iii
Dedication
This research is dedicated to God Almighty, my grandfather Dominick and my
beautiful mother. I love you so much…you have made all that is good within me.
6. iv
Acknowledgments
No man is an island, and I would not have been able to accomplish this
educational endeavor without the motivation, support, and example given to me by my
family, friends, mentors, and associates. To my father: I am proud to be your son.
Admiral E. Olson and CDR Bo Bosiljevac: You exemplify positive leadership and set an
example for all to follow. If I become half of what you are I know I will be successful.
My fellow Frogs: I am proud to stand alongside each one of you. Not only do you run to
the sound of gunfire but also you fly to Brothers in need, and the support you give in all
situations is unparalleled. CAPT T. Chaby, my swim buddy at BUD/S, the friendship
and example you continue to give me has always provided me a solid and straight path to
follow. Mr. Pete Gleason: I can’t imagine growing up and enjoying life without a closer
friend or truer brother. CAPT T. Seniff: Your door has always been open to me and your
support unquestionable. I appreciate the time and insight you have always freely given
me. Senior Chief David Paaaina, you exemplify, fortitude, fraternity and focus, thank
you for what you taught me. Dr. Paul Lieber: Our discussions over coffee at Charly’s
and the perspective on analysis that you have given me enabled me to look at my work
from a broader perspective. Michael Hamm: Your efforts on my behalf saved me
countless hours and headaches, and you made it all seem so simple. Jeff Zuckerman:
Your editing and sense of humor through this process has made what would have been
very painful and enjoyable exercise in learning. You saved me from stumbling. Mr.
Ronald Fleisher: I can’t thank you enough for the mentorship and sage guidance that you
so selflessly provide me. From our first conversation you have made a difference in my
7. v
approach to life and work, my gratitude is immeasurable. Steve “Coach” Vacendak, you
started me out on this academic journey and have never failed to guide me in the right
direction, you are an amazing father and mentor. Don Hutchinson, your leadership skills
and the confidence and trust you both instilled and gave to me were and remain an
inspiration for me. My dissertation committee, Dr Michael Webb, Dr. Dean Larson, and
Dr. John Hawkins: You’ve taken this chunk of coal and made it a lot shinier. The
insights, direction, and perspective you have provided me gave me the incentive to work
harder, dig deeper, and communicate better than I could ever have done without your
efforts on my behalf. I am finally at my goal because of you. Finally, to my beautiful
Ann and my amazing children Dominick, Pierce, Isabella, and Bond: You have all
sacrificed time and opportunity because of me and put up with book-filled hours at home.
You are my reason for being, and I love you more than can ever be said.
8. vi
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments iv
List of Tables ix
List of Figures x
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
Introduction to the Problem 2
Background of the Study 5
Statement of the Problem 6
Purpose of the Study 6
Rationale 7
Research Questions 7
Significance of the Study 9
Definition of Terms 9
Assumptions 12
Limitations 18
Nature of the Study 18
Conclusion 19
Organization of Remainder of Study 20
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 21
Introduction to Literature Review 21
Theoretical Framework 24
Emotional Intelligence 27
9. vii
Authentic Leadership 31
Theoretical Synthesis 33
Current Literature 36
Methodological Literature 43
Conclusion 47
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 49
Research Design 49
Sample 49
Population 50
Setting 53
Instrumentation/Measures 53
Data Collection 56
Data Analysis 58
Assumptions and Limitations 63
Expected Findings 65
Ethical Considerations 66
Conclusion 69
CHAPTER 4. RESULTS 71
Introduction 71
Description of Sample Data 73
Research Methodology and Data Analysis 77
Summary of Results 92
10. viii
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS 95
Overview 95
Summary of Demographic Characteristics and Results 98
Results for Questions and Hypothesis 98
Results Within the Extant of Literature 101
Implications of Findings 104
Limitation of the Research 106
Recommendation for Further Study 107
Conclusion 112
REFERENCES 115
11. ix
List of Tables
Table 1. Leadership Theory Development 26
Table 2. Demographic Age Characteristics of the Sample (N = 168) 75
Table 3. Demographic Education Characteristics of the Sample (N = 168) 75
Table 4. Demographic Years in Service Characteristics of the Sample (N = 168) 75
Table 5. Demographic Highest Rank Achieved Characteristics of the Sample
(N = 168) 76
Table 6. Descriptive Statistics: Emotional Intelligence (EI) Components (N = 7) 76
Table 7. Authentic Leadership Score Data 77
Table 8. Emotional Intelligence and Authentic Leadership Correlation/Regression
Analysis Data 78
Table 9. Emotional Intelligence Reasoning Area and Authentic Leadership
Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 80
Table 10. Emotional Intelligence Experience Area and Authentic Leadership
Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 82
Table 11. Emotional Intelligence B1 Perceiving and Authentic Leadership
Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 84
Table 12. Emotional Intelligence B2 Understanding and Authentic Leadership
Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 85
Table 13. Emotional Intelligence B3 Using and Authentic Leadership
Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 86
Table 14. Emotional Intelligence B4 Managing and Authentic Leadership
Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 87
Table 15. Age/Emotional Intelligence Correlation/Regression Analysis Data 88
Table 16. Age/AL Summary Output 90
Table 17. Regression and Correlation Data Summary (IV/DV) 91
13. 1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study was to examine the strength of the relationship between
emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare (NSW)
leadership. Naval Special Warfare (also known as Navy SEALs) is the U.S. Navy
component of the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM). The
research problem addressed in this study was whether overall emotional intelligence is an
indicator of authentic leadership. The specific topic studied was the relationship between
emotional intelligence and the measures of authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare
leadership.
Whether a person is born with leadership abilities or is made into a leader has
been addressed by a number of scholars. Kouzes and Posner (2007), for example, argued
there is nothing in a person’s genetic make-up that predisposes him or her to leadership.
Stephenson (2004) notes that the best leaders earn to lead and that positive leadership
behavioral traits are learned by communicating and working with others. Various models
and theories related to leadership suggest that a person’s ability to interact with others is
critical to being an effective leader. The characteristics of this interaction include a
leader’s interpersonal skill, an ability to convey ideas, engagement with followers, a
vision for the future, and the ability to set viable goals (Kouzes & Posner, 2007).
Leadership, as defined by Northouse (2014), is “a process whereby an individual
14. 2
influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (p. 6). Homrig (2001)
described leadership development as a process whereby gained experience and innate
aptitude come together in a cumulative and symbiotic manner to produce a leader capable
of guiding and influencing an organization. This guidance and influence entails having
the awareness, vision, and maturity (Goleman, 2004) to enable a synergy, growth, and
longevity that surpasses the sum of abilities within the organization. This description of
leadership also includes a level of self-awareness that enables a person to evaluate how
things can be done better and how one can self-improve in order to be a well-rounded
leader who is able to persuade others to set and accomplish goals (Dearborn, 2002).
Goleman (2004) described this as maturity, and Rosenstein (2012) noted that such
maturity and self-awareness are critical to authentic leadership and success in meeting the
challenges of current and future leadership.
Introduction to the Problem
The United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) is an organization
within the Department of Defense described as a Unified Combatant Command (UCC).
A UCC is identified as such when its organization consists of forces from at least two
military departments. USSOCOM consists of forces from the Department of the Navy,
the Department of the Army, and the Department of the Air Force, and is responsible for
the management and resourcing of the Special Operations Forces (SOF) organic to each
of those departments. This SOF community includes U.S. Army Rangers, U.S. Army
Special Forces, U.S. Air Force Combat Controllers, and U.S. Air Force Para-Rescue
personnel, and associate fixed-wing and rotary-wing-air organizations. Naval Special
15. 3
Warfare (Navy SEALs), while a part of the U.S. Navy, falls into this SOF category, and
is also under the operational control of USSOCOM. Alongside these special operations
personnel are a variety of enablers that support special operations missions in positions
ranging from administrative to direct involvement in missions and that are essential for
mission success (HQUSSOCOM, 2012). The various military communities are
characterized by different organizational cultures. One unique culture, and one that has
faced troubles in recent times, is that of the Naval Special Warfare community
(Diffenauer, 2010). Snodgrass (2014) stated that 2013 “marked the worst in history [for
retention] for the special warfare community, with record numbers of lieutenant
commanders declining to stay for promotion to the next pay grade” (p. 64). A recent
organizational climate survey of Special Operations personnel, which included Naval
Special Warfare, indicated that leadership behavior negatively affects the organizational
climate and job satisfaction (USSOCOM, 2013). The issue of leadership behavior having
negative affects has both operational readiness and logistical implications. These
implications include retention of seasoned personnel who possess unique operational
experience, resource allocation for additional training because of the loss of corporate
knowledge, and the costs to family members and mental health associated with long-term
commitments to deployments (Snodgrass, 2014). This same organizational climate
survey also provided insight into areas that many members of the Special Operations
community members thought required improvement. Included in this insight were notes
regarding leadership and communication (USSOCOM, 2013). Northouse (2014)
discussed leadership traits and behavior in detail and suggested organizational strength
16. 4
and those in leadership positions can affect loyalty and environmental conditions within
an organization. In the dynamic operating environment within which the members of
Naval Special Warfare exist, the leadership throughout the ranks is the key to
organizational success.
Authentic leadership, as defined by Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, and Wernsing
(2008), is
a pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive
psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-
awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information,
and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers,
fostering positive self-development. (p. 94)
Emotional intelligence theory, as put forth by Goleman (1998), suggests areas of
social skills and self-awareness contribute to life success and fulfillment at home and
work. Goleman (1999) described effective leaders as being distinguished by a “high
degree of emotional intelligence, which includes self-awareness, self-regulation,
motivation, empathy, and social skill” (p. 9). Batool (2013) noted that emotional
intelligence is an effective measure for evaluating potential employees for future
leadership position, while Gardner, Cogliser, Davis, and Dickens(2011) stated that the
emotional intelligence of those in leadership positions may affect employee outcomes
within that organization. Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) argued that leaders who
are high in emotional intelligence are key to organizational success and that leaders must
have an awareness of themselves and those with whom they work. Stella (2015) asserted
emotional intelligence consists of several attributes, including self-awareness. It is this
self-awareness and awareness of others that provide the link between emotional
17. 5
intelligence and authentic leadership (Kiyani, Saher, Saleem & Iqbal, 2013; Rosenstein,
2012; Triola, 2007).
Background of the Study
Senior Naval Special Warfare personnel (personal communications, July, 2012)
have described a community attrition rate that is close to the personnel acquisition rate,
with minor fluctuations from year to year. The Naval Special Warfare community
comprises various support personnel in addition to those individuals with the U.S. Navy
SEAL qualification. In the U.S. Navy vernacular and for the purpose of this research
those personnel that have earned the SEAL qualification are known as operators. Naval
Special Warfare currently has an authorized manning of close to 6,000 operators, yet has
only been able to grow to approximately 3,000 operators (SOCOM document, 2013).
According to discussions with senior Naval Special Warfare personnel, the goal of 6,000
personnel may be obtainable over time if attrition rates are lowered (personal
communication, July 2012). Northouse (2014) discussed how organizational strength and
those in leadership positions affect loyalty within an organization. This perspective
provided by Northouse (2014), is also described by Laschinger, Wong, and Grau (2012),
who provided an analysis of the impact of authentic leadership on organizational
environment and employee retention.
The transitive nature of leadership traits and behaviors allow for them to apply to
various organizational disciplines. It is hoped that the perspectives and insights gained
from this research will apply to athletic, corporate, and other military communities and
contribute to stronger leadership development vehicles in those communities. This
18. 6
research may also contribute to viable resource management assessments, particularly
fiscal resources, as the return on investment of leadership training may lower the variable
costs associated with recruitment and training of additional personnel.
Statement of the Problem
The research problem addressed in this study is whether overall emotional
intelligence is an indicator of authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.
This study is designed to add to the body of literature on emotional intelligence, authentic
leadership, and add to the variety of sample populations from which these theories are
applied. This study may also provide data that increases the predictability of emotional
intelligence as related to authentic leadership styles and enhance overall authentic
leadership research and viability (Gardner et al., 2011).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this quantitative, non-experimental, correlational study is to
analyze the strength of how individual dimensions of emotional intelligence may
contribute to authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. The specific
topic to be studied is the relationship between emotional intelligence and the measures of
authentic leadership of Naval Special Warfare leadership. A theme in the various
leadership models and theories has been the need for an awareness of the impact of
engagement and interaction in accomplishing organizational goals (McClesky, 2014).
Kouzes and Posner (2007) argued a leader’s interpersonal skill, ability to convey ideas,
and a vision for the future, as well as the ability to set viable goals, set the path for
successful leadership. Analyzing the strength of relationship between emotional
19. 7
intelligence and authentic leadership may offer valuable insight into the acquisition of
these important skill sets.
Rationale
The quantitative method was most appropriate for the study. As noted by
Williams (2007), research is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and
interpreting data in order to understand a phenomenon, and the process, from defining the
objective to making inferences from the data, follows established methodological
guidelines. Creswell (2003) stated there must be alignment between research questions
and research methodologies. Quantitative researchers can utilize objective evidence to
perform objective analysis (Levine, 2011). This research utilized data that were obtained
through the use of measurement scales consisting of data that is ordinal and continuous
(Levine, 2011). Qualitative and mixed methods were less appropriate because this
research examined a relationship between variables (Creswell, 2009; Levine, 2011;
Zikmund, 2009). The study examined the relationship between two known variables,
emotional intelligence and authentic leadership.
Research Questions
The research questions for this study follow:
(RQ1) What is the relationship between overall emotional intelligence and
authentic leadership of leadership personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership?
Null hypothesis (Ho); No statistically significant relationship exists between
emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.
20. 8
Alternate hypothesis (Ha): There is a statistically significant relationship between
emotional intelligence and authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.
(RQ2) Which dimensions of emotional intelligence are most predictive of
authentic leadership personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership?
Ho. No dimensions of emotional intelligence are predictive of authentic
leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.
Ha. At least one dimension of emotional intelligence is predictive of authentic
leadership among personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership.
(RQ3) How does emotional intelligence vary by age of leadership among
personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership?
Ho. Emotional intelligence does not vary by age among personnel in Naval
Special Warfare leadership.
Ha. At least one dimension of emotional intelligence varies by age among
personnel in Naval Special Warfare leadership.
(RQ4) How does authentic leadership vary by age of leadership among personnel
in Naval Special Warfare leadership?
Ho. Authentic leadership does not significantly vary by age among personnel in
Naval Special Warfare leadership.
Ha. Authentic leadership significantly varies by age among personnel in Naval
Special Warfare leadership.
21. 9
Significance of the Study
Much of the relevant research conducted over the past few decades has examined
the relationship of transformational leadership as an effective leadership style and how
emotional intelligence might be a predictor of that type of leadership (Gardner et al.,
2011). Thomas, (2011), Awadzi (2010), and Leigh (2012) provided research on
transformational leadership relative to emotional intelligence. This study is intended to
add to the body of knowledge regarding authentic leadership theory and to further
validate the concept of authentic leadership as being a key description of effective
leadership, and to support the construct validity and nomology as discussed by Gardner
(2011) and Walumbwa et al. (2008). This research is also intended to examine the
viability of the authentic leadership theory as a theory describing effective leadership
traits and behavior. Both Gardner at al (2011) and McClesky (2014) discuss the
probability that the amount of leadership studies performed previous to the development
of the authentic leadership theory may be skewed towards transformational leadership
behavior instead of authentic leadership behavior due to the relative newness of the
authentic leadership theory. The significance of this research is that it will add to the
body of literature pertaining to the relationship between emotional intelligence and
authentic leadership theory.
Definition of Terms
Balanced processing: The degree to which the leader solicits sufficient opinions
and viewpoints prior to making important decisions.
22. 10
Empathy: The characteristic of considering others’ feelings when making
decisions. Empathetic people are good at leading teams, retaining talented employees,
and working with people from other cultures, all of which are vital skills in today's
marketplace (Goleman, 1999).
Internalized moral perspective: The degree to which the leader sets a high
standard for moral and ethical conduct.
Motivated people: Those who are driven not to acquire a large salary or a
prestigious title but to experience the joy that accompanies achievement. Like athletes,
they welcome challenges (Goleman, 1999).
Naval Special Warfare Leadership: Traits and behaviors demonstrated by any
member of the Naval Special Warfare community when interacting within a team
environment, peer group, or place of positional authority. Leadership in the Naval
Special Warfare community for the purposes of this research is not rank dependent but is
characterized by the actions, demeanor, and pragmatism of the individual.
Relational Transparency: The degree to which a leader reinforces a level of
openness with others and provides them with an opportunity to be forthcoming with their
ideas, challenges and opinions.
SEAL: An acronym for sea, air, land, to name the U.S. Navy maritime commando
force derived from the U.S. Navy Underwater Demolition Teams (UDT). This unit was
promulgated in 1961 and commissioned in 1962 by President Kennedy to conduct
clandestine and covert operations. Sea, air, and land also describe the operating
23. 11
environment within and from which Navy SEALs operate. U.S. Navy SEALs are the
U.S. Navy component of the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM).
Self-awareness: A description of a characteristic of people who understand and
are comfortable with their emotions, needs, weaknesses, strengths, and drives. This
understanding makes them self-confident (Goleman, 1999). Walumbwa et al. (2008)
described this as the degree to which a leader is aware of his or her strengths and
limitations.
Self-regulation: A description of a person’s ability to control his or her impulses,
including potentially destructive ones like anger and fear. Such people are often
described as mature (Goleman, 1999).
Socially skilled people: Those who are good at managing relationships. They
prize networking, knowing that few important jobs get done alone (Goleman, 1999).
Transactional leadership: A quid pro quo relationship between two entities.
Homrig (2001) suggested this type of leadership is “based on a transaction or exchange of
something of value the leader possesses or controls that the follower wants in return for
his/her services” (p. 1).
Transformational leadership: Leadership that develops followers into leaders by
elevating the followers concerns from personal safety and security to achievement and
self-actualization and that “increase[s] the followers’ awareness and consciousness of
what is important from a personal self-interest perspective to that of what is good for the
larger entity to which they belong” (Bass, 1995, p. 467).
24. 12
Unified Combatant Command (UCC): An organization consisting of forces from
at least two military departments. USSOCOM consists of forces from the Department of
the Navy, the Department of the Army, and the Department of the Air Force, and is
responsible for managing and resourcing the Special Operations Commands (SOCs)
organic to each of those departments.
United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM): An organization
within the Department of Defense described as a Unified Combatant Command (UCC).
Value Congruence – Domain of research that attempts to capture “the
Congruence between the characteristics of individuals (e.g., goals, skills, values) and the
characteristics of organizations (e.g., goals, values, resources, and culture).” Congruence
takes on two forms—supplementary and complementary (Stazyk, 2009, p. 8)
Assumptions
Topical Assumptions
Emotional intelligence and authentic leadership were chosen as the research
variables for this study because of the perceived organizational benefits derived when
evidenced in leadership. In addition to the many articles and studies by renowned
psychologist by D. Goleman, researcher’s Davis and Humphrey (2014) noted several
studies in addition to their own suggesting that emotional intelligence mitigates various
stressors and encourages adaption (p. 55). Naval Special Warfare personnel operate in a
highly dynamic environment and must deal with stressors that include those related to
combat, family separations, and social interactions (personal communication,
USSOCOM Preservation of the Force and Family Directorate, 2015). Success in this
25. 13
dynamic environment often depends on unconventional tactics and mindsets with ability
to think “outside the box” (McRaven, 1995). Noting this potential relationship between
emotional intelligence, personal resiliency, and interactions sparked keen interest on
other implications of emotional intelligence levels. Castro, Gomes, and de Sousa (2012)
found a positive relationship between a leader’s emotional intelligence and levels of
creativity amongst subordinates, leading to the consideration that this creativity
contributes to Navy SEALs’ high rate of mission success. Beyer (2010) stated that
authentic leadership is described as a root construct of leadership types premised on
attributes that positively influence subordinate intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Gardner,
Avolio, Luthans, May, and Walumbwa (2005) stated that outcomes of authentic leader–
follower relationships include heightened levels of follower trust in the leader,
engagement, workplace well-being and veritable, sustainable performance (p. 343).
Triola (2007) has described authentic leadership as starting with emotional intelligence
and linked the critical aspects of emotional intelligence directly with those of authentic
leadership. Ascertaining the strength of the relationship between these two areas of
interest was undertaken to increase the body and depth of knowledge related to each.
The topical assumption is that authentic leaders who can both relate to and enhance the
working environment of people will positively affect their organization. Northouse
(2010) provided an authentic leadership model delineating the attributes relative to this
positive form of leadership and how this type leadership affects an organization.
Sechelariu (2012) noted that emotions are a part of any human experience and a
26. 14
psychological response to a variety of stimuli. How a person understands, controls, and
utilizes these emotions (Goleman, 1999) is a broadly defined as emotional intelligence.
Emotional intelligence attributed to Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (as cited in
Brannick, Wahi, & Goldin, 2011) and built on by Goleman (1999) suggested specific
aspects of social skills and self-awareness lead to life success and fulfillment at home and
at work. Giltinane (2013) noted, “A leader’s role is to elicit effective performance from
others. This involves leading and influencing the development of shared values, vision
and expectations to enhance their organization’s planned goals and overall effectiveness”
(p. 35). Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) suggested the most effective leaders are
also emotionally intelligent. Palmer, Walls, Burgess, and Stough (2001) noted that
studies on emotional intelligence have found positive correlations between aspects of
emotional intelligence and leadership (p. 224) and that emotional intelligence has been a
viable predictor variable of transformational leadership.
Theoretical Assumptions
The key theoretical assumption is that leaders with higher emotional intelligence
exhibit behaviors that lead to increased departmental efficacy, retention, and overall
positive command environment. Kouzes and Posner (2007) posited that leaders who
engage their subordinates and peers and act with a positive form of behavior
characteristic are more effective leaders. According to Walumbwa et al. (2008),
authentic leadership is a leadership behavior that utilizes and encourages the development
of “positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate” (p. 94) to guide and
empower the organizational members to success. The assumptions of this theory follow:
27. 15
1. Authentic leaders foster great self-awareness. Goleman (2004) stated that “a
primary task of leadership is to direct attention” (p. 52), which is only
accomplished if leaders can focus both on themselves and “listen to their
inner voice” (p. 52). Eriksen (2009) noted that self-awareness is based on
internally constructed values and beliefs, while Avolio and Gardner (2005)
suggested increased self-awareness “fosters the development of authenticity
in followers” (p. 317).
2. Authentic leaders are unbiased in the processing of information. Diddams
and Chang (2012) argued this balanced processing is necessary to
adequately reflect upon information regarding self. Gardner et al. (2005)
discussed the relevance of human bias in self-reflection, noting that
authentic leaders have optimal self-esteem that mitigates denials, distortions,
and biases (p. 356).
3. Authentic leaders allow for relational transparency between leaders and
followers. Diddams and Chang (2012) discussed authentic leadership as
emphasizing a transparently connected relationship between leaders and
followers, encompassing a high level of self-awareness with internalized
beliefs and moral values.
4. Authentic leaders promote positive self-development within the
organization. Gardner et al. (2005) discussed the aspects of authenticity to
include heightened levels of follower trust in the leader, engagement,
workplace well-being, and veritable, sustainable performance. Diddams and
28. 16
Chang (2012) discussed organizational emulation of leadership that provides
positive modeling and positive environments, standards, and values (pp.
258-259).
According to Goleman (2004), emotional intelligence is defined as a person’s
ability to identify, assess, and control the emotions of one’s self and those of others.
Goleman (2004) lists five theoretical assumptions of emotional intelligence and
suggested the following:
1. Emotionally intelligent leaders have a higher self-awareness with regard to
their emotions, strengths, weakness, goals, values, and so forth. Goleman
(2013) enhanced this assumption to include the ability to focus inward and
outward, which enables people to increase their cognizance of their
environment, how they are affected by it and how they influence it.
2. Emotionally intelligent leaders self-regulate such that they can manage their
emotions and impulses and can adapt to changing environments. Goleman
(1999) describes this as being mature and not succumbing to impulses such
as anger or fear.
3. Emotionally intelligent leaders have increased social skills in understanding
and managing the emotions of others, networking, and knowing that jobs
require more than one person (Goleman, 1999).
4. Emotionally intelligent leaders are empathetic and recognize, understand,
and consider the emotions of and impact on others when making decisions.
Constantine and Gainor (2001) provide research demonstrating a positive
29. 17
correlation between emotional intelligence scores and the “interpersonal
strengths that enable [a person] to comprehend or be attuned to the
[experiences of others]” (p. 135).
Goleman (1999) also argued that emotionally intelligence leaders are self-
motivated and seek challenges for challenge sake, much like athletes are driven to
achieve. Hong, Catano, and Liao (2011) provided evidence that emotional intelligence is
positively related to a person’s motivation to lead and be proactive in guiding others.
Axiological Assumptions
The axiological assumptions that contributed to the selection of this methodology
are that analysis is not dependent on empirical evidence alone but is done in congress
with personal logic (Simons, 1998). The assumption of this aspect of the research is that
the logic of individuals who join the U.S. Navy SEALs do so for altruistic reasons,
including a sense of duty to family and country, and a clear distinction and personal view
of what is (ethically speaking) morally right and morally wrong. Others attempt to join
out of ego but it appears that ego alone is not enough to overcome the challenges faced in
becoming a part of the NSW community (SEAL-SWCC Official website, 2014).
Ontological Assumptions
Ontologically, the logical positivism perspective for this research problem
describes a world where intrinsic and extrinsic rewards need to be measured alongside
several behaviors exhibited by leaders within the NSW community. This is evidenced by
the unique relationships that exist within the culture of SEAL community. These
relationships are defined by a high level of trust, responsibility, and accountability
30. 18
(Northouse, 2009) across the rank structure and typically exhibit high levels of loyalty
and commitment to the organization.
The personal and foundational philosophies of this study are derived from the
assumption that a quantitative, quasi-experimental approach will provide valid and
reliable data from which to conduct a statistical analysis. It is assumed that the
instruments utilized will provide insight on which aspects of emotional intelligence, if
any, may have on the leadership style of NSW leadership.
Limitations
This design is limited by the size of the sample population in a single community
within the Department of Defense, and by the potential bias due to the researcher being a
retired Navy SEAL. The potential for bias does exist; however, utilizing objectivity via
quantitative, voluntary, self-moderated surveys removed the potential for any responses
to be guided or interpretations to be skewed.
Nature of the Study
The theories of authentic leadership and emotional intelligence guided this study by
providing the potential leadership model and characteristics to which Naval Special
Warfare leadership might ascribe. The research was conducted using the existing
Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) and Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional
Intelligence Survey (MSCEIT) survey instruments. As noted in Babbie (2012), the intent
of a survey is to provide an empirical portrayal of some opinions, attitudes, or trends of a
given population. Babbie (2012) suggested this portrayal is accomplished through the
use of a sample of the population. This study provides this empirical representation
31. 19
through the use of the MSCEIT (Multi-Health Systems, 2002) and Authentic Leadership
Questionnaire (MindGardens,Inc., 2002).
This quantitative correlational study was conducted as a self-administered survey to
a spectrum of active duty, separated, and retired Navy SEALs of various ages and ranks.
Participants were solicited in aggregate through social media, and the data obtained were
analyzed using the Microsoft Office Excel Statistical Program (2009). If it could be
determined that NSW leadership with higher emotional intelligence scores have a
propensity for authentic leadership traits, future Naval Special Warfare leadership
training may attempt to amplify emotional intelligence training in future training doctrine
and policies as well as potentially using this measure for evaluating personnel for
potential leadership positions within the NSW community.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to provide a substantive quantitative analysis that
explored the strength of the relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic
leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership. A recent organizational climate survey
of USSOCOM personnel indicates that leadership behavior within USSOCOM
negatively affects organizational climate and job satisfaction. The negative consequences
of poor organizational climate and low job satisfaction are decreased employee retention
levels (Saniewski, 2012), which in turn have a negative impact on resources and
readiness (Snodgrass, 2014).
Triola (2007) noted effective leadership begins with authentic leadership traits
and provided examples of how these traits are implemented in the health care industry.
32. 20
More recently, Batool (2013) observed that emotional intelligence is a popular measure
for identifying potentially effective leaders. Kiyani et al. (2013) discussed the
relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership and found a positive
relationship between emotional intelligence authentic leadership. A quantitative
correlational survey was performed on a sample population of Navy SEALs. It was
expected that there would be both a positive correlation between emotional intelligence
scores and higher authentic leadership scores and that SEALs greater in age would score
higher emotional intelligence scores than those of younger age. It was also expected that
the null hypothesis regarding both of these would be rejected.
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
Chapter 2 provides an explanation of pervious and current literature relevant
to the studies of emotional intelligence and authentic leadership. Chapter 3 discusses the
methodology utilized in conducting this research and includes a description of the
research design, population, sampling and survey distribution. Chapter 4 presents the
data acquired and the analysis of this data. Chapter 5 discusses insights and conclusions
drawn from data analysis, answers research questions, presents recommendations for
future research, recommendations to training curricula, and study conclusions.
33. 21
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction to the Literature Review
This literature review discusses the current studies and research regarding the
theoretical frameworks of emotional intelligence (Multi-Health Systems, 2002) and the
authentic leadership theory as described by Walumbwa et al. (2008). Much of the
material researched for this study was oriented to corporate organizations and athletic
teams, with several also focused on military organizations. Although this study is
directly related to a military organization, the theories and principles learned and applied
are transitive throughout leadership and organizational theory. There are many studies
relating emotional intelligence to effective leadership and authentic leadership as an
effective leadership style; yet there is a need for empirical data regarding the relationship
between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership.
This study explored the strength of the relationship between emotional
intelligence and authentic leadership using a sample population from the Naval Special
Warfare community known also known as U.S. Navy SEALs. This group was selected
because of its anecdotal reputation for leadership, cohesiveness, and its unique
organizational culture oriented to small teams operating in divers and dynamic
environments. The steps taken to determine the need for this studied began with a
discussion with the Naval Special Warfare community manager (V. Dreager, personal
correspondence, July, 2012), discussing the personnel shortfalls within the Naval Special
Warfare community. The NSW community manager provides guidance on career
34. 22
milestones to NSW personnel as well as internal community human resource information
and detailing assistance to NSW staff. This human resource information includes trends,
shortfalls, and pluses in the community population, and facilitates the recruiting and
billeting process (USSOCOM Staff, personal correspondence, August, 2015).
Further discussions with Naval Special Warfare senior leadership pertained to increased
recruitment efforts and increasing retention levels. Leaders discussed policies such as
cash bonuses, shorter deployment, and variable training periods and education. During a
discussion on Special Operations leadership, then Major General (MG) B. Sacolick (U.S.
Army) of the United States Special Operations Command, Force Management
Directorate (personal communication, July 30, 2013) indicated that although U.S. Special
Operations Forces (SOF) are continually placed in leadership position, no formalized
leadership courses discuss or teach leadership behaviors, traits, or anything related to
leadership theory; moreover, most training in the realm of leadership came through on the
job experience and ad hoc mentorship. This absence of leadership development training
may be the genesis of the responses to a recent Special Operations organizational climate
survey, which indicated a need for leadership development training (USSOCOM, 2013).
Northouse (2009) discussed leadership traits and behavior and noted those in leadership
positions affect organizational strength and loyalty within an organization. As Naval
Special Warfare and public service organizations in general endeavor to perform more
tasks with limited resources, leadership skills and positive organizational environments
will be critical nodes of success (Batool, 2013; Snodgrass, 2014).
35. 23
The theories of emotional intelligence and authentic leadership are relatively new
theories developed within the past century, as social scientists have sought to analyze and
explain various leadership behaviors, styles, and traits (McLesky, 2014). The emotional
intelligence theory began gaining traction in the early 1990s with the research and writing
of Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso and then with the applications of the theory by Goleman
(as cited in Multi-Health Systems, 2002). Similarly, the authentic leadership theory is
also a relatively new leadership theory that has just begun being a part of leadership
research in the past decade (Gardner, 2011). In addition to a leader’s personality, the style
of leadership that guides an organization can become an overall trait of that organization.
Palmer et al. (2001) discuss a spectrum of leadership that runs from a task and standard
oriented transactional style to the transformational leadership style that promotes self-
consciousness and the value of outcome and an awareness of how leadership actions
affect others. Tucker and Russell (2004) defined the difference between the two styles as
transformational being a leader of innovation and transactional being a manager of
planning and policy (p. 103). These variables are relevant to the study of leadership
within the Naval Special Warfare community as leadership is derived from within the
group and maintain a close relationship with the group throughout an individual career.
Knowing the relation between emotional intelligence and leadership style will provide
important information related to Naval Special Warfare leadership training and Human
Resource Development decisions.
This literature review is divided into three sections: theoretical framework, review
of current literature, and finally, a review of methodological literature.
36. 24
Theoretical Framework
The importance of effective leadership is evidenced by the historical depictions of
leadership throughout the millennia. Examples of leadership are noted throughout history
from Egyptian rulers, Greek heroes, and biblical patriarchs (Stone & Patterson, 2005)
through to members of today’s variety of private and public organizations. Whether
these leaders were effective or were for good or bad, all were able to successfully
influence those around them. As noted by Gardner (1990), leadership results are
produced by the combination of appropriate leadership qualities and context. The
academic analysis of leadership began in the early 19th
century with the promulgation of
the so-called great man theory (Raelin, 2015), and continues today with a broad spectrum
of theories such as the transactional and transformational offered by Burns (1978) and the
authentic leadership theory offered by Walumbwa et al. (2008). This spectrum of
leadership is broken down into categories related to leadership attributes and developed
over a continuum of time and contexts: great man theory, trait theory, behavioral theories,
contingency theories, transactional theories, transformational theories, and authentic
leadership theory. The philosophical perspectives of the great man theory are based in
the belief that successful leaders are born and not made. Studies conducted in the early
19th
focused on studying successful military leaders and were also influenced by
positions of power being handed down from father to son as well as the culture of women
not being in leadership positions (Bolden, Gosling, Marturano, & Dennison, 2003).
37. 25
Although the great man theory is not applicable to NSW, it did provide a starting
point for studies in leadership. The following table promulgated by Bolden et al. (2003)
provides a succinct description of these leadership theories. These different broad scope
theories have provided the basis for additional theoretical models (Bolden et al., 2003)
and changed alongside the shifts of organizational structures and philosophies through
time. Leadership and leadership opportunities exist in a multitude of contexts and
experience levels. What makes a good leader is a subjective question as opinions of how
leaders should lead may vary from person to person. Gardner (1990) described a good
leader as one who produces a good result per a combination of context and personal
qualities, and also described leadership as a process of persuasion. No matter if an
organization is profit motivated or a public bureaucracy, the leaders should lead the same
way—a way that influences and motivates members to succeed in their organizational
and personal goals as well as to instill a pride in performance and desire to succeed. How
they do this is based on their behavior and traits (Ortmeier & Meese, 2010). The
theoretical foundations of this study are the emotional intelligence theory (Multi-Health
Systems, 2002) and the authentic leadership theory (Walumbwa et al., 2008). The topical
assumption of this research is that leaders who (a) are in better communication with their
organization and (b) can both relate to and enhance the working environment of people
will positively affect the climate within their organization.
38. 26
Table 1. Leadership Theory Development
Leadership Theory Description
Great Man Theory
(Evolved around the
1840s)
Based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with innate
qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term 'man' was intentional since until
the latter part of the twentieth century leadership was thought of as a concept
that is primarily male, military and Western. This led to the next school of
Trait Theories.
Trait Theory
(1930s-1940s)
The lists of traits or qualities associated with leadership exist in abundance and
continue to be produced. They draw on virtually all the adjectives in the
dictionary that describe some positive or virtuous human attribute, from
ambition to zest for life.
Behaviorist Theories
(1940’s-1950’s)
These concentrate on what leaders actually do rather than on their qualities.
Different patterns of behavior are observed and categorized as 'styles of
leadership'. This area has probably attracted most attention from practicing
managers.
Contingency Theory
(1960s)
This is a refinement of the situational viewpoint and focuses on identifying the
situational variables which best predict the most appropriate or effective
leadership style to fit the particular circumstances.
Situational Leadership
(1970s)
This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which it is being
exercised. For example, whilst some situations may require an autocratic style,
others may need a more participative approach. It also proposes that there may
be differences in required leadership styles at different levels in the same
organization.
Transactional Theory
(1970’s)
This approach emphasizes the importance of the relationship between leader
and followers, focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of 'contract'
through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in
return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers.
Transformational Theory
(1970s)
The central concept here is change and the role of leadership in envisioning
and implementing the transformation of organizational performance.
Authentic Leadership
Theory (Walumbwa et
al. (2008)
(2000-2010)
Emphasizes building the leader’s legitimacy through honest relationships with
followers which value their input and are built on an ethical foundation.
Generally, authentic leaders are positive people with truthful self-concepts who
promote openness. By building trust and generating enthusiastic support from
their subordinates, authentic leaders are able to improve individual and team
performance (Gardner et al., 2011).
Note. Adapted from Exeter University Report for Chase Consulting and the Management Standards
Centre. P. 6, by R. Bolden, J. Gosling, A. Marturano, & P. Dennison, 2003, Centre for Leadership Studies.
39. 27
This research examines this assumption and provides potential impetus for
implementing specified leadership training curricula. The authentic leadership theory
guides this study by providing the potential model to which Naval Special Warfare
leadership might ascribe. If research provides evidence that those in Naval Special
Warfare leadership with higher levels of emotional intelligence also have higher levels of
authentic leadership then perhaps the relationship between these variables might be
further explored. The strength of the relationship between these variables may provide
reason for future Naval Special Warfare leadership training to try and amplify emotional
intelligence traits in Naval Special Warfare training policies and doctrine (USSOCOM,
2013). Batool (2013) noted emotional intelligence is an effective measure for evaluating
potential employees for future leadership positions, and Gardner et al. (2011) stated that
the emotional intelligence of those in leadership positions may affect employee outcomes
within that organization.
Emotional Intelligence
Current research on emotional intelligence is broader than what can be viably
addressed in this research, as the definitions, criticisms, and scope of usage is voluminous
(McLesky, 2014). Davis and Humphry (2014) note that emotional intelligence as
currently construed as either ability or a trait. Emotional intelligence as ability according
to Davis and Humphry (2014) is a “form of intelligence for reasoning about emotion and
emotions of others” (p. 54). Emotional intelligence as a trait is viewed as a “cluster of
emotion related self-perceptions and dispositions, partially determined by existing higher-
order personality dimensions (Davis & Humphry, 2014, p. 54). Mayer, Salovey, and
40. 28
Caruso recommended users of the emotional intelligence theory should use the abilities-
based model as promulgated in original emotional intelligence model McLesky (2014).
Stella (2015) wrote that emotional intelligence consists of (a) awareness of one’s own
emotions, (b) accurately express one’s own emotions, (c) awareness of others’ emotions,
(d) express others’ emotions accurately, and (e) empathy (p. 4). Goleman et al. (2002)
opined that leaders high in emotional intelligence are key to organizational success, and
leaders must have an awareness of themselves and those with whom they work. It is this
self-awareness that provides the link between emotional intelligence and authentic
leadership.
Although rooted in studies and discussions on leadership and behavior for many
years the concept of emotional intelligence as a theory began to coalesce in the early
1980s (McLesky, 2014). This gelling of a potential new leadership theory began with
various studies discussing alternate forms of measuring intelligence other than the IQ
measure (Gardner, 1983; Payne, 1983). Defined by Mayer et al. (2000) as “the ability to
perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with
emotion, and regulate emotion in the self and others” (p. 396), emotional intelligence
theory has opened the door to expansive amounts of research into the leadership dynamic.
Earlier notes on emotional intelligence can be traced back to E. L. Thorndike (1920), who
discussed the notion of “social intelligence” (Petrides, Frederickson, & Furnham, 2004)
and elaborated on alternate forms of intellectual intelligence.
Emotional intelligence is attributed to various life skills and social awareness that
are essential for life success and fulfillment of life at home and at work (Brannick, Wahi,
41. 29
& Goldin, 2011). Giltinane (2013) noted “A leader’s role is to elicit effective
performance from others. This involves leading and influencing the development of
shared values, vision and expectations to enhance their organization’s planned goals and
overall effectiveness” (p. 35). Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) stated the most
effective leaders were also emotionally intelligent. Palmer et al. (2001, p. 224) noted,
“Studies on emotional intelligence have found positive correlations between aspects of
emotional intelligence and leadership,”, and that emotional intelligence has been a viable
predictor variable of transformational leadership. The current research may help identify
what variables required for effective leadership. Batool (2013) stated that emotional
intelligence is now one of the most applied constructs in the study of leadership and it is
within this category that a vast amount of current literature exists. Stella (2015)
elaborated on Goleman’s 1998 work regarding emotional intelligence and discusses that
the social skills inherent to emotional intelligence continue to be important to leadership
development and social research and supports the continued study into the applications of
emotional intelligence. Dearborn (2002) suggested all people have a profile of attributes
regarding emotional intelligence. Furthermore Dearborn (2002) notes,
Emotional intelligence capacities uniquely contribute to performance, and certain
capacities may strongly interact and that these capacities build upon one another.
That possessing underlying emotional intelligence capacities does not guarantee
the competencies will be demonstrated; however, the organizational climate and
stimulation derived from the work one does encourage the manifestation of the
competencies. (p. 1)
Previously noted in this research was the fact that different organizational
communities within the Department of Defense also have unique cultures amongst
themselves (Snodgrass, 2014). The Dearborn (2002) study relates to this by noting,
42. 30
“Each organization has its own emotional intelligence reality or ecology; so different jobs
may require strengths in different competencies” (p. 1).
Dearborn (2002) discussed the link between emotional intelligence and the return
on investment that organizations achieve as they work with performance enhancing
training programs. Asserting that traditional training that focuses on leadership and
communication skills fails to produce lasting changes, Dearborn believed that focusing
on the study and development of a person’s emotional intelligence via an individualized
plan will have a stronger impact and longer influence in the climate and performance of
an organization. The Dearborn (2002) study serves as a starting point for joining the
concepts of emotional intelligence with the leadership models discussed by Kouzes and
Posner (2007), who wrote an extensive analysis of what it takes to be a strong and viable
leader. Their work in this area presents a great context from which to understand what
credible and forward moving leadership can look like. Kouzes and Posner (2007) also
presented a venue that, when coupled with Dearborn’s emotional intelligence study,
offers a way for a leader to find the necessary steps to improve themselves. Kiyani et al.
(2013) provided an analysis and explanation of transformational leadership and discussed
the differences between transformational leadership and a variety of leadership styles.
Kiyani et al. concluded that emotional intelligence provides a significant impact on
employee outcomes and that a leaders’ authentic leadership impacts this emotional
intelligence.
Homrig (2001) held that as a leader progresses though his or her career, the skills
of that leader progress as well and utilizes the P. Kegan’s six-stage developmental theory
43. 31
to describe this progression in leadership behavior. The Homrig (2001) discussion
suggests that people may develop higher-order leadership traits as they mature. The
stages Homrig (2001) utilized for this analogy are Stages 2, 3, and 4, which are
transactional, higher, transactional and transformational leadership traits respectfully.
The thoroughness of Homrig’s (2001) paper enables a viable opportunity to emplace the
emotional intelligence concept in the context of transactional and transformational
leadership that appear to lie along a continuum of leadership maturity. Gardner et al.
(2011) and Walumbwa et al. (2008) described similar traits but categorized them as
authentic leadership. This utilization of the Kegan model is also reflected in the Helsing
and Howell (2014) leadership study regarding leadership development and progression.
Additional current literature clarifying potential paths forward in the studies of
emotional intelligence and authentic leadership include Shepherd and Horner, Jr. (2010),
whose study closely aligned with the Sacolick (2013) discussion by delving into the
leadership training provided by undergraduate military institutions. Leigh (2012) found
that emotional intelligence is predictive of different leadership styles, echoed by Thomas
(2011), Awadzi (2010), and Batool (2013). This research notes the efficacy of additional
leadership development training and may provide an additional perspective to increasing
leadership development curricula.
Authentic Leadership
Authentic leadership as a theory unto itself is a relatively new theory that has been
insinuated by scholars for over 85 years (Gardner et al., 2011, p. 1121) and continues to
be researched. Gardner et al. (2011) noted that the paucity of research related to this
44. 32
theory is due to the nascent characteristics of the theory. Kiyani et al. (2013) and
Gardner et al. are significant to this study by providing some of the theoretical links
between different leadership theories and authentic leadership theory. Gardner et al.
(2011), in their discussion of transformational leadership, stated:
These definitions [of transformational leadership] also encompass the core
components of self-awareness, positive self-regulation, positive self-development,
and/or a positive moral perspective that are often reflected, either explicitly or
implicitly, in prior and subsequent conceptions of authentic leadership. (p. 1123)
Bishop (2013) discussed how the definition of leadership is categorized into
various trait descriptions to include transactional and transformational and noted that the
term authentic has unique “connotations and innuendo” (p. 2). Bishop also wrote that
authentic leadership is rooted in positive organizational behavior and can also be
associated with other forms of positive leadership. The uniqueness of authentic
leadership that sets it apart from other leadership theories, according to Bishop (2013),
includes the aspects of greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors.
Authentic leadership theory, as defined by Walumbwa et al. (2008), is a
pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and promotes both positive
psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-
awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information,
and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers,
fostering positive self-development. (p. 94)
Walumbwa et al. (2008), who stated that authentic leaders identify their
understanding of their true self with self-awareness, studied culturally non-homogenous
groups and the multitude of research endeavors used as a basis for promulgating this
theory. Through the Walumbwa et al. (2008) research the preliminary construct validity
for the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire was promulgated. Northouse (2009)
45. 33
discussed engagement and interpersonal connectivity, which raises levels of motivation
in both a leader and follower and in particular moves a follower to strive for personal
bests. Triola (2007) noted key characteristics of emotional intelligence theory can be
identified with characteristics of authentic leadership theory and summarized how the key
characteristics of Goleman’s (1997) emotional intelligence variables align with the
authentic leadership theory, “Self-confidence, accurate self-assessment, and emotional
awareness are competencies based on self-awareness and; trustworthiness,
conscientiousness, adaptability, self-control, and innovation are related to self-regulation”
(246). Triola adds to this alignment between variables noting, “achievement,
commitment, and optimism are core competencies based on motivation and
understanding others; developing others, service orientation, leveraging diversity, and
political awareness are derived from empathy” (p. 246). These various leadership
characteristics align with the respective authentic and emotional intelligence theories and
provide the building blocks of authentic leadership theory.
Theoretical Synthesis
Numerous researchers have described the positive relationship between emotional
intelligence and leadership effectiveness and transformational leadership (Gardner et al.,
2011; Hayashi & Ewert, 2006; Kerr, Garvin, Heaton & Boyle, 2006; McClesky, 2014;
Thomas, 2011; Tonkin, 2013; Triola, 2007; Webb, 2005). Dulewicz and Higgs (2003)
senior-level leadership are increasingly recognizing the importance of emotional
intelligence for effective leadership. Rosete and Ciarrochi (2005) found a positive
relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness. The use of
46. 34
emotional intelligence as a popular measure for identifying potentially effective leaders is
also echoed by Batool (2013). The Batool (2013) study utilized a Pakistani banking
population to conduct their study adding diversity to the spectrum of populations in
emotional intelligence and authentic leadership studies. Kiyani et al. (2013) found a
direct relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership and discusses
how a positive organizational environment and positive employee outcomes are a result
of a combination of emotional intelligence and authentic leadership. The Kiyani et al.
study provided insight on the potential relationship between these two variables but did
not relay a causative relationship. Kiyani et al. noted several studies relating emotional
intelligence to authentic leadership all of which predate the authentic leadership
measurement instrument developed by Walumbwa, et al. (2008). Nichols and Erakovich
(2013) suggested ethics is a basic component of authentic leadership, which is a key
component of today’s desired leadership profile. This study by Nichols and Erakovich
(2013) demonstrates the efficacy of leadership that stimulates followers by encouraging
questions, debates, and finding creative solutions to problems. This is in contrast to the
inauthentic leader that is deceptive and manipulative (Nichols & Erakovich, 2013) and
who presents a facade of authenticity for personal gain.
This research will directly add to the research base exploring the strength of the
potential relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership and in
particular to the knowledge base regarding authentic leadership theory. Much of the
leadership identified in the studies by Awadzi (2010), Leigh (2012), Sadri (2012), and
Thomas (2011) identify transformational leadership instead of authentic leadership as the
47. 35
desirable form of leadership. This preponderance of research related to transformational
style is indicative of the newness of authentic leadership theory and demonstrates the gap
in research pertaining to authentic leadership (Awadzi, 2010; Batool, 2013; Dulewicz &
Higgs, 2003; Leigh, 2012; Rosete, & Ciarrochi, 2005; Thomas, 2011).
The Walumbwa (2008) study provided additional validity to the authentic
leadership concept and also added to the construct validity. It is anticipated that this
research study into Naval Special Warfare leadership will also add to that construct and
to the validity of the authentic leadership theory as well. Creswell (2009) discusses the
necessity to perform sufficient research to produce evidence of potential relationships,
and Thomas (2011) and Leigh (2012) call for additional research to be performed to
accomplish this as well.
Walumbwa et al. (2008) noted “there is some conceptual overlap between
authentic and transformational leadership” (p. 103) and that “authentic leadership is
closely related to the four behavioral dimensions of transformational leadership” (p. 104),
Triola (2007) provided a succinct summarization of how the key characteristics of
Goleman’s (1998) emotional intelligence variables align with and are parallel to the
authentic leadership tenants of self-awareness, transparency, ethical/moral, and balanced
processing (p. 246) thus demonstrating the alignment between the aforementioned
variables and the given theories. Northouse (2009) discussed engagement and
interpersonal connectivity that raises levels of motivation in both a leader and follower
and in particular moves a follower to strive for personal bests.
48. 36
Current Literature
Much of the leadership discussed in the aforementioned research identifies
transformational leadership instead of authentic leadership as the desirable form of
leadership. This preponderance of research related to transformational style is indicative
of the newness of authentic leadership theory and the gap in research pertaining to
authentic leadership (Awadzi, 2010; Batool, 2013; Dulewicz & Higgs, 2003 Leigh, 2012;
Rosete, & Ciarrochi, 2005; Thomas, 2011). Kiyani et al. (2013) stated “authentic
leadership shows some overlap with different modern perspectives like transformational,
charismatic, servant, and spiritual leadership” (p. 395). Zhang, Everett, Elkin, and Cone
(2012) noted that authentic leadership “still lacks sufficient understanding of how
authenticity works in the leadership process and of the validity” (p. 587) in regard to a
wider variety of contexts and transcends traditional leadership approaches.
Avolio and Gardner (2005) noted, “followers’ authenticity contributes to their
well-being and the attainment of sustainable and veritable performance” (p. 328). This is
a critical aspect of long-term professional training of Navy SEALs. As a Navy SEAL
progresses through his career it is expected that this level of expertise, personal
development, and maturity will increase as well. In discussions with a SEAL Team
Operations Officer, it was relayed (P. Gleason, personal communication, July, 2014) that
this overall development increases the corporate knowledge of the organization, provides
a deeper bench from which to build platoons, and retains valuable operational and
training resources for new less experienced. Avolio and Gardner (2005) suggested that
49. 37
by focusing on the root construct that underlies all positive forms of leadership that
organizations will develop leaders that lead with “purpose, values, and integrity; and will
build enduring organizations, motivate their employees to provide superior customer
service, and create long-term value for shareholders” (p. 315). This type of leadership
parallels many of the attributes found to be desirable and noted as needing enhancement
throughout Special Operations (USSOCOM, 2013) and which is part of the genesis for
current leadership development endeavors within Naval Special Warfare.
Naval Special Warfare personnel exist in an operational and organizational
environment that consists of and engages a wide spectrum of personalities, cultures, and
decision-making opportunities. In addition to a leader’s personality, the style of
leadership that guides an organization can become an overall trait of that organization.
Palmer et al. (2001) discuss a spectrum of leadership that runs from a task and standard
oriented transactional style to the transformational leadership style that promotes self-
consciousness and the value of outcome and an awareness of how leadership actions
affect others. A core premise throughout the various leadership models and theories that
have been promulgated is the need to interact with others, for without followers there can
be no leader. The effectiveness of this interaction is also a topic of a great number of
discussions but common threads in these discussions often include a leader’s
interpersonal skill, an ability to convey ideas, engagement with followers, a vision for the
future, and the ability to set viable goals (Kouzes & Posner, 2007). Analyzing the
strength of relationship between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership may lead
to valuable insight into the acquisition of these important skill sets.
50. 38
Champy (2009) provided anecdotal examples of how authentic leadership must
pervade an organization in order for it to be truly authentic, and that authenticity must be
demonstrated by actions and not just mantras placarded on the walls offices (p. 39).
Technological advances have increased the velocity of information relevant to leadership
actions and decisions, and have increased the transparency by which leadership acts. As
organizations grow and become tangent to and relevant to more people, this authenticity
becomes even more important (Champy, 2009, p. 39). Champy (2009) addressed how
organizational stakeholders are more informed and well versed in products and leadership
actions than ever because of these advances in informational technologies (p. 39). This
discourse further identifies authentic leadership as being more relevant as technological
advances make organizations more transparent.
Batool (2013) and Houchin (2011) found a positive correlation between authentic
leadership and successful teams. Houchin (2011), in particular, noted that authentic
leadership behavior on the part of leadership leads to higher levels of trust, team
cohesion, and group performance (p. 23). Batool provided an example of the bridge
between emotional intelligence and authentic leadership. Batool found that emotional
intelligence is an effective tool for evaluating potential employees for future leadership
positions. The effective leadership attributes Batool (2013) characterized as
transformational include the “generation of awareness . . . inspires a different outlook on
the work, generates an awareness of the goals of the organization, develops others to
higher level of ability and motivates others to consider the interests of the group over
their own interests” (p. 84). Randall (2006) provided a parallel example of both an
51. 39
organization with a personnel crisis and the relationship between leadership behavior and
military member’s decisions to re-enlist in their selected unit. The difference between the
Randall (2006) study and present study of leadership behavior is that Randall analyzed a
conventional military unit that did not require an arduous screening process or receive
specialized training such as is unique to SOF. Randall (2006) showed how leadership
behaviors, skills, and traits could be transitive between different organizational cultures.
Shepherd and Horner (2010) provided a study that closely aligns with the MG Sacolick
(2013) interview by delving into the leadership training provided by undergraduate
military institutions. Shepherd and Horner (2010) provide a quantitative research
utilizing secondary data to investigate multiple collegiate experiences and peer rankings
on leadership development.
Browning (2007) did an ethnographic study a Division 1-A collegiate basketball
team and included an analysis of team cohesion when the team had a seasonal attrition
and acquisition of players due to incoming and outgoing student status. Browning (2007)
analyzed management techniques by the coaching staff, who attempted to facilitate team
cohesion in order to mitigate the negative team dynamic associated with this turnover.
This study is germane to the SOF endeavor as there is a similar transition of personnel
within the respective SOF units.
Clausen (2009) presented a qualitative analysis on the effects of relational
variables on why an individual decided to continue with an organization. Employees
who had decided to terminate their employment were interviewed, along with managers
who did not consider leaving the organization. Clausen found that leadership style was
52. 40
the most influential factor influencing commitment and job satisfaction. This is a useful
study for the SOF Leader analysis in that it supports the premise that leadership behavior
is a factor in member retention and organizational climate.
Grandzol, Perlis, and Draina (2010) examined the development of student-athlete
and team captains at six private collegiate institutions. Sports included in this study
consisted of men’s and women’s soccer, woman’s tennis and field hockey, and both
men’s and woman’s cross-country. The researchers found that merely playing on a team
provided no leadership opportunities, but those placed in the position of team captain
were provided many. This closely resembles the Naval Special Warfare community,
where leadership opportunities exist regardless of rank.
In a phenomenological study, Gibbs (2011) researched the effect of leadership
behavior on three facets of employee existence: productivity, intrinsic rewards, and
retention. Gibbs found that managers behaving in an unprofessional manner were
contributing to this a rate of turnover. This unprofessional behavior as described by
Gibbs included verbal abuse, negative attitude towards subordinates, and a lack of ethics
as perceived by the employee. The unprofessional behavior was also noted as having
potential roots in the differences between employee and management work expectations.
The Gibbs (2011) study was of great interest to this research as anecdotal evidence has
relayed that this type of unprofessional behavior has at times influenced retention in
Naval Special Warfare (B. Dwyer, NSW SEAL Team Operations Officer, personal
communication 2012). This research by Gibbs is viable for this and any Special
Operations Forces leadership behavior study as there are transitive aspects of
53. 41
organizational cohesion across professions.
In a case study, Whitcomb (2012) explored tenured and skilled employees who
were part of the Vi retirement community, a successful organization with a very low
employee turnover rate. For those contemplating living in an assisted living facility or
senior living community, two key decision point factors are the tenure of employees and
the training and development that employees receive from their company (Whitcomb,
2014). The depiction of tangible success in this case study both as a company and as a
consumer provides a strong model. This study holds relevance for this leadership study
by demonstrating the effectiveness of investing in the professional development of
members and how that investment into human capital may decrease member turnover.
The United States Navy is comprised of a variety of functional (warfare specialty)
communities (Snodgrass, 2014). These communities include but are not limited to:
Surface Warfare (ships), Subsurface Warfare (submarines), Aviation (air operations), and
Naval Special Warfare (SEALs). Although all of these communities are part of the U.S.
Navy and work together, all have unique characteristics, cultures, and environmental
conditions in which they operate. One of the challenges the Naval Special Warfare
community has continued to address within its ranks is the issue of manning levels
(Office of the Undersecretary of Defense, 2006; Snodgrass, 2014). The Naval Special
Warfare community has an authorized manning of close to 6000 operators yet; it has only
been able to grow to approximately 3000 operators since its inception in 1962
(Quadrennial Defense Review, 2010). In addition to more aggressive recruitment efforts,
according to the Naval Special Warfare Community Manager, the goal of 6000 personnel
54. 42
might be obtainable within the decade if attrition rates were lowered (Naval Special
Warfare Community Manager, personal communication July, 2012). The need for this
study is also exhibited by Snodgrass (2014) who discusses the looming human resource
crisis in the U.S. Navy. Snodgrass (2014) articulates that, “The perceived erosion of trust
in senior leadership is an incredibly powerful contributor to negative trends in retention”
(p. 75). Snodgrass (2014, p. 65) also notes that 2013 was the worst year for junior officer
retention in Naval Special Warfare.
Provencher (2014) provided an alternative perspective to the strength of
emotional intelligence by providing empirical data that indicates no significant
relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness. By the same
token, Provencher noted:
Emotional intelligence self-management and social (relationship) management
were significantly linked to those skills of core and adaptive leadership dealing
with taking action and organizational justice. These subscales involve
relationships, communications, and perceived fairness and they resonate strongly
with subordinates. Higher emotional intelligence of COs (Commanding Officers),
officers, and crew benefits all and contributes to mission effectiveness. (p. 76)
The value of continued study into the relationship between leadership behavior
and employee retention for a wide variety of organizations is depicted by the multitude
of aforementioned studies. Saniewski’s (2013) call better understanding leadership’s
impact on employee retention is echoed within the Snodgrass (2014) discussion.
Giltinane (2013) noted, “A leader’s role is to elicit effective performance from others.
This involves leading and influencing the development of shared values, vision and
expectations to enhance their organization’s planned goals and overall effectiveness” (p.
35).
55. 43
This study will add to the existing and relatively new authentic leadership theory
as put forth by Gardner et al. (2011). Much of the research conducted over the past few
decades has explored the relationship of transformational leadership as an effective
leadership style and how emotional intelligence might be a predictor of that type
leadership (Gardner et al., 2011). Recent studies such as that conducted by Thomas,
(2011), Awadzi (2010), and Leigh (2012) have all performed their research on
transformational leadership relative to emotional intelligence. It is the intent of this study
to add to the body of knowledge regarding authentic leadership theory and also to further
validate the concept of authentic leadership as being a key description of effective
leadership and to support the construct validity and nomology as discussed by
Walumbwa et al. (2008).
Tonkin (2013) analyzed the efficacy of authentic leadership in comparison to
alternate leadership styles. Discovering and discussing the various leadership styles from
the perspective of authentic leadership will certainly strengthen the basis of further
studies. This research endeavor will hopefully entice other researchers to explore
effective leadership and the means by which to facilitate it.
Methodological Literature
Creswell (2009) described quantitative analysis as “a means for testing objective
theories by examining the relationship among variables” (p. 4). Quantitative analysis is
often the chosen method not only because of the inherently objective nature of this type
research and its ability to be complex or simple (Peterson, 2009). Peterson (2009)
discusses that although there is a multitude of complex and advanced quantitative
56. 44
research methods, less complex approaches that are simple and straightforward can
provide the necessary answers to important questions. This broad spectrum of research
methods provides ample opportunity for the quantitative approach particularly when
objective evidence is readily obtainable. Ratnesar and Mackenzie (2006) noted that such
objectivity provides stronger results than those based on opinions or are overall
subjective in nature such as are found in qualitative research methods. Levine (2011)
suggested quantitative research provides the advantages of the potential to use numerous
sets of statistical tools for analysis, the ability to verify internal and external validity by
other researchers, and an easier dissemination of data due to the clarity and objectivity of
quantitative research (p. 1). Quantitative methods should be used when examining
known variables and when comparing the relationships between variables (Creswell,
2009; Zikmund, 2009). The study examined the relationship between two known
variables, emotional intelligence and authentic leadership.
Regardless of what research approach was used, the structure of the research must
form an appropriate basis for the research objective. In short, the processes and factors
must align with the subject. Hoadley (2004) defined this alignment as, “ensuring that the
research methods we use actually test what we think they are testing” (p. 203). This
alignment must exist in order to provide rigor and strength validity reliability to the
research as well as to ensure that economies of effort and resources are realized
(Hoadley, 2004). Hoadley discussed how empirical research strives to model and predict
and that design-based research methods not only help do this effectively but also
facilitate the methodological alignment of a research endeavor (p. 203). Proper
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alignment of all factors tangent to a chosen research methodology will ensure that the
research effort appropriately tests what it sets to (Hoadley, 2004).
Although complex designs and state-of-the-art methods are sometimes necessary
to address research questions effectively, simpler classical approaches often can provide
elegant and sufficient answers to important questions (Peterson, 2009). The two
quantitative research methodologies relevant to this research are a descriptive correlation
analysis and a non-experimental causal-comparative analysis. Mertens and McLaughlin
(2004) described the main difference between these two methods of analysis as the way
the independent variable is operationalized as well as what types of analyses are
performed with the data (p. 4). A correlational analysis provides a magnitude and
direction of the relationship between independent and dependent variables; the causal
comparative analysis compares the groups formed by independent variables and uses
statistics to describe whether a significant difference exists between them and the
dependent variable. Both of these quantitative methodologies provide a strong venue for
alignment within the research, and, when looked at together, can provide a valuable
insight into Naval Special Warfare. These quantitative methodologies were used by
Randall (2006), Awadzi (2010), and Nagy (2008), who demonstrated the alignment of
these type research methodologies with similar research questions. The benefit of this
studies research question is that it expands the knowledge base regarding both authentic
leadership and emotional leadership and diversifies the type populations engaged in
emotional intelligence studies. Key to successful discovery is a viable research question
that aligns with and provides impetus for and input to the methodology.
58. 46
Correlational research is used when a determination of the relationship between
two or more variables is desired (Mertens & McLaughlin, 2004). Williams (2007, p. 67)
stated that correlational study establishes whether two or more variables are related and
Creswell (2003) defined correlation as a statistical test to establish patterns for two
variables. The spectrum of correlational analysis runs from simple bivariate analysis
utilizing an independent variable and an dependent variable (Warner, 2008) to a more
intricate multivariable analysis, such as structural equation modeling, which can
incorporate any number and varieties of variables (Mueller, 1996). When utilizing the
correlational methodology, there are three possible results: a positive correlation, a
negative correlation, and no correlation, with the coefficients falling within the spectrum
of -1.0 to +1.0 Warner (2008).
A correlational analysis is best suited for this study. Others (Bryson, 2005; Leigh,
2012; Lewis 2010; Meredith, 2008) have used this methodology and demonstrated a
positive correlation between emotional intelligence and leadership style. Two studies
(Leigh, 2012; Thomas, 2011) recommended further correlational research be performed
to increase the predictability of emotional intelligence and leadership style. Additionally
as noted by Levine (2011), results of similar quantitative studies can be synthesized and
analyzed by the meta-analysis technique to shed new light on research” (p. 1) and create
an overall impression on the research conducted (Meta-analysis, 2006).
All of the variables within this study are directly related to Naval Special Warfare
community leadership and are within the overall context of leadership issues. This
alignment is important in order to keep the research process within the context of the
59. 47
study objective and to discover significant information relative to specific attributes. If
no consequential data points were to be utilized in the analysis, the knowledge acquired
by the research would lack validity and decrease the rigor of the research design
(Hoadley, 2004). This multivariable correlation analysis increases the validity and rigor
of the research by including a variety of attributes that make up the independent variable.
This apparent broadening of the independent variable may provide information that
denotes particular attributes as being more closely related to authentic leadership style
than others.
Conclusion
A review of the current literature regarding the relationship between emotional
intelligence and authentic leadership discloses a great deal of discussion regarding the
roles and definitions of these two areas of leadership theory. Different schools of
thought have described emotional intelligence as a trait, a competency, or ability
(McClesky, 2014). The generally accepted definition is provided by Mayer, Salovey,
and Caruso’s who state that ability model should be used in research (McClesky, 2014).
Authentic leadership as an even more nascent character than emotional intelligence has
also experienced a myriad of ambiguity in it definitions and use (Gardner et al., 2011).
Much like the diversity of emotional intelligence descriptions, the definition and use of
authentic leadership is primarily based on the model promulgated by Walumbwa et al.
(2008). Gardner et al. (2011) proposed that variables of emotional intelligence and
authentic leadership impact authentic leadership behavior, and stated, “More empirical
research is also needed to explore the relationships of specific components of authentic
60. 48
leadership and various antecedents” (p. 1140). These studies regarding emotional
intelligence and leadership are germane to the Naval Special Warfare leadership profile
because nobody can expect a junior member to be able to make the kind of decisions or
provide the visionary guidance that a seasoned Naval Special Warfare operator or staff
member is able to. This seasoning is a function of the various experiences that a Naval
Special Warfare member is involved with throughout his career and of which builds a
repertoire of leadership skills and decision reference points within him. This “seasoning”
is also a function of increased maturity (Goleman, 2004). A Naval Special Warfare
member broadens their professional and personal perspectives with each additional tour
of duty. If this individual has an adequate emotional intelligence then perhaps, as he
progresses, his emotional intelligence will increase and he will move up through
Kegan’s (Homrig, 2001) descriptions of leadership levels with a commensurate broad
scope vision on where to lead his organization.
Regardless of what theory one applies, the essence of leadership belies a
relationship with others; the more deeply this relationship is understood the better social
scientists can enhance leadership development.
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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The purpose of this quantitative, non-experimental, correlational study was to
examine how overall emotional intelligence and individual dimensions of emotional
intelligence may contribute to authentic leadership in Naval Special Warfare leadership.
The independent variables consisted of the branch scores, area scores, and overall score
of Emotional Intelligence as measured by the MultiHealth System MSCEIT v 1.1. The
dependent variable of this study was the overall authentic leadership score as measured
by the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire provided by MindGarden Inc. Additional
analysis was performed to determine if age, rank, or time in service was related to
emotional intelligence or authentic scores.
Sample
Tabachnick and Fidell (2006) suggested the use of a sampling formula (N ≥ 50 +
8m), where m is the number of predictor variables to determine the appropriate sample
size of a population. Utilizing this formula, a sample population of only 90 participants
from the Naval Special Warfare population would have been required. This was a
smaller size population than was determined by utilizing the Sample Size Calculator from
Creative Research Systems (2012). That calculator determined that a sample of 168
participants from the population of approximately 10,000 SEALs would be needed to
provide a confidence level of 95% and confidence interval of 7.5.
Strong consideration was given for not incurring the costs of performing
additional and unnecessary pilot tests or field studies, based, in part, on previous
62. 50
MSCEIT research performed by Awadzi (2010), Leigh (2012), and Thomas (2011), who
utilized military populations and found this instrument to be well suited for the research.
Study and analysis conducted by Beyer (2010) and Tucker (2004) utilizing the Authentic
Leadership Questionnaire and military populations both demonstrated the viability of this
instrument for use with military populations as well.
The inclusion criterion for the opportunity to participate in the study was that a
participant needed to be an active duty, retired, or separated Navy SEAL. This was an
effective sampling as the population of Navy SEALs has been relatively homogeneous
throughout Naval Special Warfare history with differences being confined to geography
rather than mission types or personal profiles. Previous surveys performed by this
population have provided high numbers of responses with commensurate levels of
confidence and lower margins of error (USSOCOM document, 2013). These population
figures coincide with similar research provided by Thomas (2011), Leigh (2012), and
Nagy (2008).
Population
Often noted as the United States’ most elite special operations force (Baillergeon,
2015), the Naval Special Warfare population (SEALs) is often tasked with the most
arduous and politically sensitive combat missions around the world regardless of
environmental harshness or level of danger (Dockery, 2003). The legacy of this
population’s success is rooted in a culture dating back World War II with the founding of
the Amphibious Scout and Raiders, the Navy Combat Demolition Units, the Operational
Swimmers of the Office of Strategic Services, and the Underwater Demolition Teams
63. 51
(UDT) (Baillergeon, 2015). From the inception of these organizations through to the
1962 commissioning of the first SEAL Team by President Kennedy onto today, the
culture of the Navy SEALs has remained consistent in its selection and training, approach
to mission, and cohesion (http://navyseals.com/nsw/navy-seal-history/). Navy SEAL
training (also known as Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL [BUD/S]) currently takes
place at the Phil H. Bucklew Center for Naval Special Warfare in Coronado, California.
Each trainee who enters this BUD/S training has successfully met strict physical and
mental aptitude standards before being allowed to start. However, even with a strict
adherence to screening standards, classes typically have an attrition rate of 50%-80%
(U.S. Navy official website). The training pipeline of a SEAL trainee consists of: 8-week
Naval Special Warfare Prep School, 24-week Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL
(BUD/S) Training, 3-week Parachute Jump School, 26-week SEAL Qualification
Training (SQT) (U.S. Navy official website). Those who successfully complete this
training continue on to advanced training after which they are awarded the SEAL
designation and assignment to a SEAL Team. Of note is that the instructors who run and
teach the BUD/S training curriculum are themselves Navy SEALs who leave operational
units to train prospective SEALs and who then rejoin the operational units, they train
their own leaders and peers, their future teammates. Among the unique attributes of this
training, is that unlike any other military school, Officer and Enlisted SEAL trainees train
together from the first day of training to the last creating a level of interaction and
cohesion that are unique in military organizations (U.S. Navy Official website). This
familial aspect of the SEAL community and focused approach to mission success are
64. 52
embedded within the SEAL culture and has pervaded Naval Special Warfare throughout
its history as a root construct of the organization
(http://www.public.navy.mil/nsw/Pages/Mission.aspx).
The missions tasked to Navy SEALs are performed in all environments regardless
of the harshness or dangers present and are performed with a precision and effectiveness
that is noted in a legacy of successful missions throughout SEAL history. Though
advances in technology now allow SEALs to perform missions utilizing equipment such
as hand launched drones, satellite communications, and advanced armor and weaponry,
the culture of Navy SEALs has remained constant and recruitment, selection and training
remains the same today as it did in the early 1960’s (Dockery, 2003).
The sample population for this research consisted of current or former members
of the Naval Special Warfare community. The eligibility requirement was that a person
must have successfully earned the Navy SEAL designation. The current population of
those that have this designation is approximately 10,000 SEALs located in various
locations around the globe. Naval Special Warfare is a very close-knit community that
allows limited access to members for safety and security issues. Participants were invited
to participate in this research via open source social media such as Linked-In, Facebook,
and the researcher’s professional and personal network of Naval Special Warfare
personnel. Those interested in participating were able to anonymously engage in the
survey via a provided web link. The invitation included a consent form and all relevant
information pertaining to the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) (1979)
Belmont Report standards of informed and ethical research. Limiting the research to only
