Integrating curriculum; lessons for adult education from career and technical education

Integrating Curriculum:
Lessons for Adult Education
from Career and Technical Education
Kathleen Chernus and Donna Fowler

September 2010

This report was produced under National Institute for Literacy Contract No.
ED-04-CO-0121/0002 with MPR Associates, Inc. It was written by Kathleen
Chernus, Director, Adult Education, MPR Associates, Inc. and Donna Fowler,
Director, Communications, MPR Associates, Inc. Lynn Reddy served as the
contracting officer’s representative. The views expressed herein do not
necessarily represent the positions or policies of the National Institute for
Literacy. No official endorsement by the National Institute for Literacy of any
product, commodity, or enterprise in this publication is intended or should be
inferred.

For quality assurance purposes, drafts of publications commissioned by the
National Institute for Literacy are subjected to a rigorous external peer review
process by independent experts. This review process seeks to ensure that
each report is impartial and objective and that the findings are supported by
scientific research.

The National Institute for Literacy, a Federal government agency, is a catalyst
for advancing a comprehensive literacy agenda. The Institute bridges policy,
research and practice to prompt action and deepen public understanding of
literacy as a national asset.

Daniel Miller, Acting Director

Lynn Reddy, Deputy Director

September 2010

The citation for this report should be: National Institute for Literacy,
Integrating Curriculum: Lessons for Adult Education from Career and
Technical Education, Washington, DC 20006

Table of Contents

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Introduction: Adult Education
in a Perfect Storm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

What Is Curriculum Integration? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Background on Curriculum Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Major Elements and Types of
Curriculum Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Research on Curriculum Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Research on Learning in Context: K–12
and Adult Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Models of Curriculum Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Supports and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Curriculum Integration in Adult Education:
Some Promising Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Curriculum Integration in Adult Education:
Some Promising Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Supports and Challenges in Implementing
the Integrated Curriculum in Adult Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Integrating Curriculum: Lessons for Adult Education from Career and Technical Education

Executive Summary statistics, for example, indicate that the demand for work-
ers in high-wage, middle-skill jobs continues to be strong
Policymakers and educators are paying increased atten-
and that adults need help gaining the skills required for
tion to determining how best to prepare those in adult
those jobs. Currently, about 50 percent of all jobs are
education programs not only for immediate employment,
middle-skill jobs, and the Bureau of Labor Statistics pre-
but also for career advancement and further training or
dicts that about half of all job openings in the next decade
postsecondary education. This focus echoes current efforts
will be in occupational categories that include primarily
among secondary educators, particularly those in career
middle-skill positions (Holzer & Lerman, 2009). Labor
and technical education (CTE), to ensure that high school
market data also predict a decline in the growth of skills
graduates are ready for both college and a career—not one
at the middle level, which translates into a need for edu-
or the other. Are there strategies currently in use in high
cation and training that will enable low-skill adults and
schools that could inform efforts in adult education to pre-
youth to move into these middle-skill jobs (Holzer &
pare adults for both work and further education?
Lerman, 2009).
The authors examine one strategy—the integrated
Several large-scale national and international surveys
curriculum—now being implemented in various forms in
confirm that many U.S. adults lack sufficient literacy and
high schools to see if adult education might benefit from
numeracy skills to function effectively in an increasingly
a similar approach. The integrated curriculum combines
competitive work environment. The National Assessment
academic and technical content in programs that focus on
of Adult Literacy (National Center for Education
problem solving, active engagement in projects and real-
Statistics, 2003) puts the number at 93 million adults
world applications of the knowledge and skills taught. This
whose skills in prose, document and quantitative literacy
paper reviews several types of curriculum integration and
are at basic or below-basic levels. These forces and figures
examines research on its effects, primarily in K–12 edu-
pose a challenge to policymakers and adult educators:
cation, since research in adult education is sparse. After
How can adult education better prepare these adults for
discussing two curriculum integration models in detail—
today’s workplace, for further education and career ad-
the multiple pathways approach promoted by ConnectEd:
vancement, and for their roles as citizens and parents?
The California Center for College and Career, and the
Holzer and Lerman suggest that high-quality career
Ford Partnership for Advanced Studies (PAS) pro-
and technical education (CTE), career academies, career
gram—the authors describe several efforts to incorporate
pathways programs and apprenticeships can prepare
integrated curricula in adult education. They conclude that
youth for further education and training and, ultimately,
three approaches have promising prospects for expanding
for well-paid middle-skill jobs. The same holds true for
integrated curriculum efforts already under way in adult
adults. Holzer and Lerman advocate similar programs
education: course integration, cross-curriculum integra-
that can link adults with employers offering middle-skill
tion and program integration.
positions, such as career ladders, apprenticeships provided
by community colleges or private career schools, and pre-
bridge and bridge programs (Holzer & Lerman, 2009;
Introduction: Adult Women Employed with Chicago Jobs Council and UIC
Education in a Perfect Storm Great Cities Institute, 2005). They note that apprentice-
U.S. adults lacking adequate literacy and numeracy skills ships feature learning in context and can be an effective
find it difficult to succeed at work and to participate fully way to teach technical and other skills, such as communi-
in their communities. These adults are especially vulner- cation and problem solving.
able to the “perfect storm” identified by Kirsch, Braun, The pedagogical issues involved are not new, nor are
Yamamoto, and Sum (2007), a convergence of three they confined to the field of adult education. CTE pro-
powerful forces: divergent skill distributions, a changing grams in secondary schools face similar issues. The two
economy and demographic trends. Recent labor market fields also share a concern about preparing students for

1

National Institute for Literacy

both work and further education or training, not simply content from two or more disciplines; has well-defined
one or the other. CTE has adopted several approaches educational objectives (such as academic, industry and
that may have potential for improving adults’ prospects workforce-readiness standards) and uses authentic applied
for a successful transition to postsecondary education and problems (problem-based learning) to engage and chal-
training and high-skill, high-wage employment. These lenge students.
include, for example, integrated curricula, multiple path- As discussed in this paper, curriculum integration not
ways, work-based learning and partnerships with business only joins academic and CTE content, it also incorpo-
and industry. Various CTE approaches combine some or rates academic, CTE and work-readiness standards and
all of these features. employs project- or problem-based learning focused on
This paper focuses on one of these approaches, in- “real-world” issues relevant to students’ lives and interests.
tegrated curriculum, an instructional approach seeing There is research evidence suggesting that many
a resurgence in high schools and community colleges, students learn better when courses are taught in a real-
and asks, what can adult education learn from secondary world context, when classroom learning connects to the
education, particularly the CTE approach to integrat- workplace and when abstract concepts or knowledge
ing academic and career and technical curricula? Which, are linked to real problems (Stasz, 1997, in Bailey &
if any, secondary education integration strategies can be Matasuzuka, 2003; Stasz & Grubb, 1991, in Stasz,
adapted for adult education or help expand integration Kaganoff, & Eden, 1995). By providing students with
efforts already under way in adult basic education (ABE), both high-level academic and in-demand technical skills,
adult secondary education (ASE) (including GED), curriculum integration may help promote transitions to
English as a second language (ESL) and workforce basic postsecondary education and careers (Bradby, Malloy,
skills? After examining lessons learned primarily from sec- Hanna, & Dayton, 2007). Using multiple instructional
ondary-level experience with curriculum integration, the approaches, as is common in curriculum integration,
paper discusses ways adult education might incorporate also can enable students to master more challenging con-
at least some elements of curriculum integration and the cepts and skills (Gardner, 1993; Hoachlander, 1999, in
implications for broadening the role of adult education in Chernus et al., 2001).
preparing adults for success in the 21st-century workplace. The overarching goal of curriculum integration is to
expand students’ options for the future, something equally
What Is Curriculum Integration? important to high school graduates and to adults seeking
Curriculum integration takes a variety of forms, but in to improve their economic prospects. Although many
general, it is an attempt to connect academic and career students want and need to go to work right away, an inte-
and technical instruction in ways that will prepare stu- grated curriculum keeps open the possibility of additional
dents for further education or training, employment and education and training. It enables them to prepare not just
careers. Researchers offer several overlapping definitions for their next job, but also for further education that can
of curriculum integration. For example, Johnson, Charner, help them advance in a career.
and White (2003) describe it as a series of strategies con-
necting academic and CTE content, so that, over time, Background on Curriculum Integration
one area becomes a “platform for instruction” in the other. Curriculum integration is not new. As John Dewey wrote
Another definition states that integration is designed to in “Democracy and Education,” “Education through oc-
strengthen the academic base of work-related skills while cupations…combines within itself more of the factors
providing context and motivation for academic learning conducive to learning than any other method” (1916, p.
(Bailey, 1997; Brown, 1998, in Bailey & Matasuzuka, 361). Problem-based learning—integrating academic and
2003). A more detailed definition comes from Chernus technical skills, theory and practice in the context of real-
and colleagues (2001), who characterize curriculum inte- world problems—has been used in professional training
gration as an instructional approach that incorporates key for decades, in such fields as medicine, health sciences,

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architecture, business, engineering, law and social work Major Elements and Types of
(Chernus et al., 2001). Curriculum Integration
Over time there has been a shift in the CTE field to an Although the components of curriculum integration can
integrated approach. Educators and policymakers realized vary according to the different types of integration (de-
that traditional CTE programs, which taught students scribed below), there are common basic elements:
specific occupational skills and aimed them toward work
rather than further education, no longer best served either • Shared purpose among administrators and teach-
students or our increasingly complex and global economy. ers in implementing curriculum integration to
Federal policymakers have endorsed the integration of increase student achievement
academic and vocational/career and technical education.
• Content from two or more disciplines (academic
The 1990 amendments to the Carl D. Perkins Vocational
and CTE)
Education Act of 1984, Public Law 98-524, specified
that Perkins funds be used “to provide vocational educa- • Well-defined educational objectives, such as
tion in programs that integrate academic and vocational academic content standards, industry skill
education…through coherent sequences of courses so that standards and workforce-readiness standards (e.g.,
students achieve both academic and occupational compe- Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary
tencies” (Section 235). To be eligible for funds, schools Skills [SCANS])
were required to describe how they would integrate aca-
• Real-world context and authentic problems that
demic and vocational disciplines (Section 240). This goal
engage and challenge students
was reiterated in the 1998 Perkins reauthorization, the
Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act of Curriculum integration takes a variety of forms, in-
2006, Public Law 109-270 (Perkins IV) and the School- cluding course integration, cross-curriculum integration,
to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994, Public Law 103-239. program integration, and schoolwide integration and ca-
After the 1990 Perkins amendments, the percentage reer academies.
of secondary schools offering an integrated curriculum
increased from 55 percent in 1997 to 69 percent in 1999. Course Integration
During the same period, the percentage of secondary Course integration combines academic and CTE content
students studying integrated curricula increased from 35 within courses and may include commercially produced
to 40 percent (Medrich, White, & Beltranena, 2001, in curricula; curricula developed by researchers, curriculum
Johnson et al., 2003). developers, subject matter experts and industry repre-
States increasingly are interested in the integrated cur- sentatives; and teacher-developed curricula. Academic
riculum approach. In 2008, the National Association of content may be infused into CTE courses and vice
State Boards of Education Study Group on Promoting versa. Teachers use work contexts to motivate students,
Excellence in Career and Technical Education identified but often focus mainly on basic skills to the neglect of
key components of CTE and recommended that state higher-level academic content and skills (Grubb, David,
boards adopt policies to integrate CTE and academic Lum, Plihal, & Morgaine, 1991; Stasz et al., 1995). In
coursework and standards. The group also noted the the 1990s, “applied academics”2 was the most common
importance of aligning academic and industry standards
“to ensure transitions beyond high school, especially in 2 The term “applied academics” generally refers to curricula that
creating pathways for students interested in pursuing a show how academic subjects relate to the world of work. Applied
academics also refers to curricula developed by state consortia
four-year degree.”1 and organizations, such as the Center for Occupational Research
and Development (CORD) and the Agency for Instructional
Technology (AIT), in subjects such as applied communications,
1 Retrieved August 4, 2009, from www.nasbe.org/index.php/ applied mathematics and principles of technology (applied physics).
news/49-spotlight/489-new-nov08?tmpl=componentand They include stand-alone units that can be used to structure a
print=1and page. whole course or integrated into academic or CTE courses.

3


approach to course integration, and the best examples Cross-Curriculum Integration
included team teaching by academic and CTE teachers Cross-curriculum integration involves teams of academic
(Grubb et al., 1991; Stasz et al., 1995). The most promis- and CTE teachers and possibly others, including subject
ing form of course integration uses examples from career matter experts, curriculum developers and industry rep-
and technical coursework to teach academic concepts, so resentatives, who work to connect curricula and develop
that students see applications outside the CTE context authentic projects incorporating course content and
in which the information and theories were originally academic, work-readiness and CTE or industry skills stan-
presented. Instructors similarly use examples from aca- dards. Teachers find connections among classes for one or
demic coursework to illustrate real-world applications more projects or share plans for what they will cover dur-
(Johnson et al., 2003). For example, the Ford Partnership ing a course and modify the sequence of concepts taught
for Advanced Studies (Ford PAS) curriculum in subject so related units can be taught concurrently in different
areas such as business, economics, engineering and tech- courses. They develop integrated projects building on
nology may be incorporated into individual courses as well points of intersection (Hoachlander, 1999).3 As a result,
as across courses. A detailed description of the Ford PAS students experience the subject matter as connected and
model is included below. reinforcing, rather than separate and unrelated (Grubb
Another example of course integration is the Math-in- et al., 1991). One way to reinforce the alignment is to
CTE model developed by the National Research Center start with an industry theme and incorporate challenging
for Career and Technical Education. The subject of exper- academics, technical skills and real-world applications
imental design research, Math-in-CTE is both a process (Chernus et al., 2001). When properly implemented, this
and an instructional approach that incorporates math- approach can help students integrate material from very
enhanced lessons implemented in CTE courses, which different courses and disciplines and allows for maximum
result in improved math skills. The model first identifies individualization (Grubb et al., 1991).
areas in the CTE curriculum where math naturally occurs.
Supported by in-depth professional development, CTE Program Integration: Career Clusters,
and math teacher teams then develop math-enhanced Career Pathways and Multiple Pathways,
lessons using a pedagogic framework created for this ap- Career Majors and Tech Prep
proach (see http://cehd.umn.edu/NRCCTE/Math-In/ In this type of program integration, education focuses
SevenElements.html). Next, CTE teachers develop scope- around specific careers or clusters of careers, so that while
and-sequence plans for their own curriculum. It requires students are prepared for employment and advancement
a “critical mass” of CTE teachers from a particular career in a specific career area, they also acquire the knowledge
area who are paired with math teachers for professional and skills to pursue postsecondary education or training.
development over the course of an academic year. Math- The integrated curriculum is a component of each of these
in-CTE is built on five core principles: developing and types of programs.
sustaining a community of practice among participating
teachers, focusing first on the CTE curriculum rather than Career clusters group careers and occupations
the math curriculum, recognizing that math is a funda- around common academic, technical and workplace
mental workplace skill, maximizing the math in the CTE knowledge and skills. Career clusters identify the
curriculum and acknowledging that CTE teachers teach requisite academic and technical knowledge and
Math-in-CTE, not math per se. For more information, see skills for a broad range of careers, from entry level
www.cehd.umn.edu/NRCCTE/Math-In. through management and professional levels. The
U.S. Department of Education identified 16 career
clusters: agriculture, food and natural resources;

3 Integrated projects or units can take from one or two weeks to
an entire term.

4


science, technology and engineering; architecture or a baccalaureate degree and beyond.”5 CCTI de-
and construction; arts, audio/visual technology scribes a secondary-level model career pathway as
and communications; business management and meeting state academic standards and grade-level
administration; education and training; finance; gov- expectations; responding to high school testing and
ernment and public administration; health science; exit requirements; and meeting college entrance and
hospitality and tourism; human services; informa- placement requirements. An ideal secondary-level
tion technology; law, public safety, corrections pathway also provides academic and career-related
and security; manufacturing; science, technology, education in student-selected career clusters and
engineering and mathematics; and transporta- offers opportunities for students to take college-level
tion, distribution and logistics.4 The integrated courses and earn college credit while in high school.
curriculum is among 15 components critical to At the postsecondary level, a model career pathway
implementing career clusters. Some others are ca- provides opportunities for students to earn college
reer development, shared planning, administrative credit through dual enrollment or articulation agree-
support, professional development, parent and com- ments; gain knowledge and skills in career clusters
munity support, business and industry partnerships that meet industry standards; and access employ-
and education partnerships. Each career cluster ment, business and entrepreneurship opportunities
is made up of multiple career pathways. For more in selected career areas. In addition, the pathway
information about career clusters, see www.career- aligns and articulates with four-year college degree
clusters.org/. programs (Warford, 2006, pp. 21–22).

Career pathways and multiple pathways offer students In a paper describing the economic rationale for
coherent programs of study within the context of career pathways, the Workforce Strategy Center
broad industry themes. They integrate challenging defines career pathways as “a series of connected
academic instruction and career and technical cur- education and training programs and support ser-
ricula with real-world applications. Pathways cut vices that enable individuals to secure employment
across traditional departments, prepare students within a specific industry or occupational sector, and
for postsecondary education degree and certificate to advance over time to successively higher levels of
programs, employment training and careers, and fa- education and employment in that sector” ( Jenkins,
cilitate articulation with postsecondary institutions. 2006, p. 6). Career pathways are designed to prepare
Additional partners include business and industry current and future workers to meet the local labor
and other community organizations (ConnectEd, market needs of key industries.
www.connectedcalifornia.org/pathways/index.php;
Grubb et al., 1991; Hoachlander, 1999; Stasz et al., Multiple pathways, like career pathways, are defined
2004; Warford, 2006). in different ways. ConnectEd: The California Center
for College and Career describes multiple pathways
Career pathways are defined in different ways. The as comprehensive programs of study that combine
U.S. Department of Education College and Careers rigorous academic and technical content and practi-
Transition Initiative (CCTI) defines career path- cal applications organized around an industry theme,
ways as “a coherent, articulated sequence of rigorous with the goal of preparing all students for college and
academic and technical courses commencing in the careers (Hoachlander, Sterns, & Studier, 2008). In
ninth grade and leading to an associate degree, an New York City, “multiple pathways” is shorthand for
industry recognized certificate or licensure, and/ Multiple Pathways to Graduation, an alternate route

4 Retrieved September 20, 2009, from www.careerclusters. 5 Retrieved September 23, 2009, from the CCTI Web site, www.
org/16clusters.cfm. league.org/league/projects/ccti/cp/characteristics.html

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to earning a high school diploma or GED designed Career majors integrate CTE and academic instruc-
especially for students at risk of dropping out.6 This tion, often in occupational high schools emphasizing
definition is also used to describe similar programs preparation for related occupations, such as schools
in other cities supported by the U.S. Department of focused on aviation and aerospace careers. In some
Labor and Jobs for the Future (Richmond, 2009). cases, schools replace traditional departments with
The first definition is most relevant to the discussion career-focused departments including both academic
in this paper. and CTE teachers. This approach often, but not
always, includes integrated coursework (Grubb et al.,
The ConnectEd approach to multiple pathways 1991; Stasz et al., 2004).
emphasizes both in-school and out-of-school
student-adult relationships and helps students meet Tech Prep programs combine a minimum of two
the demands of challenging coursework and postsec- years of secondary education with at least two years
ondary and career goals through academic support of postsecondary education in a sequential course
services and career counseling (Hoachlander et of study that integrates academic study and CTE,
al., 2008). These types of multiple pathway pro- meets state academic and technical standards and
grams take a variety of forms, such as academies, incorporates work-based learning for the purpose
small learning communities, other small schools of preparing young people for high-skill, high-wage
with career themes and occupational centers. The or high-demand occupations. Tech Prep requires
description of ConnectEd below provides detailed articulation agreements between secondary and
information on how the curriculum is integrated in postsecondary institutions.8 Some Tech Prep
multiple pathways. programs offer students dual high school and com-
munity college credit for completing certain Tech
Career majors are coherent sequences of courses or Prep courses. Like other CTE programs, Tech Prep
fields of study that prepare students for their first supports the use of contextual and applied curricula,
jobs, integrate academic and occupational con- instruction and assessment.
tent and work-based learning, create connections
between secondary and postsecondary education
and prepare students for employment in broad Schoolwide Integration and Career Academies
occupational clusters or industry sectors. They usu- Schoolwide integration and career academies are the
ally include a minimum of two years of secondary most challenging types of curriculum integration to
education and one or two years of postsecondary implement because they involve multiple teams of teach-
education, provide students with substantial ex- ers. Schoolwide integration includes collaboration among
perience in and understanding of all aspects of the teams of academic and CTE teachers to integrate the cur-
industry and result in the award of a high school riculum and applications in real-world contexts within a
diploma or its equivalent, postsecondary certificate, school or academy career theme. Examples of schoolwide
skill certificate or diploma. They may also lead to integration sites include occupational high schools and
further education and training, including apprentice- magnet schools.
ship programs or admission to two- or four-year Career academies are small learning communities that
postsecondary education.7 focus on a career theme and offer courses combining aca-
demic and CTE content, including authentic applications.
6 Retrieved September 23, 2009, from Education Week, High Examples of common themes are health, business and
School Connections blog, http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/ finance, arts and communications, computers, engineering,
high-school-connections/2009/07/multiple_pathways_new_ and law and government (Stern & Stearns, 2006). Career
york_and.html.
7 School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994, Public Law 103- 8 Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act of 2006,
239, Section 4. Public Law 109-270, Title II, Section 203(c).

6


academies bring together groups of students and teams as a response to perceived problems in a system that
of teachers by industry sectors. Teachers use common separated academic and vocational education. Problems
planning time to develop interdisciplinary units. Students included students’ poor basic and work-related skills,
participating in these units may receive credit in more than inability to apply theory to practical problems, lack of en-
one class (Stern & Stearns, 2006). Often academies pro- gagement in school and poor transition from high school
vide support for integrating the curriculum through block to college or the workplace (Bodilly, Ramsey, Stasz, &
scheduling (making it easier to ensure common planning Eden, 1993). A study of seven high school curriculum
time). Academies also establish partnerships with local integration sites found that many teachers involved in in-
employers to provide work-based learning opportunities. tegration considered themselves more effective teachers as
As of 2008, the United States had approximately 2,500 a result of the experience (Johnson et al., 2003).
career academies (Kemple & Willner, 2008). Stone and colleagues (2008) emphasize the importance
of collaboration between academic and CTE teachers.
Research on Curriculum Integration The authors cite findings from the recent evaluation of
Research on curriculum integration is limited. Most stud- the Urban Systemic Initiative, a program funded by the
ies cited in this paper provide suggestive evidence, with National Science Foundation that supports reform in
the exception of random-assignment studies, including K–12 science and math education. The evaluation showed
Stone, Alfeld, and Pearson (2008); Kemple and Willner that “schools in which teachers reported the most in-
(2008) and Zambrowski and Gordon (1993). The limited volvement in learning communities had the highest gains
research evidence on curriculum integration is mixed. on student test scores” (p. 23).10 In the same report, the
According to Stern and Stearns (2006), “Getting clear-cut authors found that, in an experimental-design study of
research results has been difficult because most studies enhanced math instruction in CTE, students in the exper-
have not been able to determine whether apparent effects imental classrooms performed equally on technical skills
are due to particular programs or to the selection of par- and significantly better on two standardized tests of math
ticular kinds of students into those programs” (p. 1). ability compared with control students.
Stasz and colleagues (1995) reviewed the literature on A study of California’s Partnership Academies showed
curriculum integration in the late 1980s and early 1990s that at least half of academy students are considered at
and found little hard evidence of effectiveness in the few risk. Academy students were much more likely than their
evaluation studies at that time, with the exception of an nonacademy counterparts to complete the 15 academic
experimental-design evaluation of New York City’s career courses required for admission to California’s public col-
magnet schools.9 That study identified benefits to students leges and universities; 50 percent of graduating academy
with weak academic records, atypical candidates for a mag- seniors had completed the requirements, compared with
net school. These benefits included reduced likelihood of 39 percent of graduates statewide. Researchers found
dropping out between middle and high school; improved higher pass rates on the state’s high school exit examina-
reading scores; and additional credits toward graduation. tion among black academy students, as compared with
In a companion study, the same researchers found that all black students. Graduation rates also were higher
students in career magnets had more confidence in their among academy seniors (96 percent) than among high
ability to secure employment and more varied future plans school seniors statewide (87 percent) (Bradby et al.,
than did comprehensive high school students. 2007). Further, data show that 59 percent of students in
A study of eight high schools implementing an inte- California Partnership Academies met entrance require-
grated curriculum found that the approach was promoted ments for state postsecondary institutions, compared with
only 39 percent of students not in Partnership Academies
9 Crain, R., Heebner, A., & Si, Y.-P. (1992). The effectiveness of
New York City’s career magnet schools: An evaluation of ninth grade 10 For more information on the evaluation, see Borman, K., and
performance using an experimental design. Berkeley, CA: National Associates. (2005). Meaningful urban education reform: Confronting
Center for Research in Vocational Education. Quoted in Stasz et the learning crisis in mathematics and science. Albany, NY: SUNY
al., 1995, p. 53. Press.

7


(ConnectEd: The California Center for College and the fifth follow-up year. Earnings effects were greater for
Career, 2008). participants with 12 years of schooling.
The Manpower Development Research Corporation
conducted a 10-year random-assignment study of ca- Research on Learning in Context:
reer academies in nine high schools across the country. K–12 and Adult Education
The study examined the effects of career academies on The integrated curriculum is a form of contextualized
students’ labor market prospects and postsecondary learning that uses the context of the real world, including
educational attainment in the eight years following their the world of work, to engage students and prepare them
expected graduation. Participants were more than 1,700 for transition to postsecondary education and careers.
students, of whom about 85 percent were Hispanic or Contextualized learning has been employed in both K–12
black. Some findings (Kemple & Willner, 2008) include: and adult education.
• Academy students had sustained earning gains In K–12 education, much of the research on con-
averaging 11 percent more per year than their non- textualized learning looks broadly at this approach to
academy counterparts. instruction, which, like curriculum integration, is defined
in many different ways. Although the integrated cur-
• Increased earnings for young men resulted from riculum is a type of contextualized instruction, there are
increases in wages and/or hours worked or others, such as problem-based learning—using academic
employment stability. knowledge and skills to solve real-world personal, family
or work-related problems. Research findings are mixed,
• Results demonstrated the possibility of
but some studies demonstrate positive effects of contextu-
strengthening the preparation of students for the
alized learning on student performance. This topic clearly
workforce and transition to employment “without
needs more rigorous research.
compromising academic goals and preparation for
In an experimental-design study, Stone, Alfeld,
college” (p. iii).
Pearson, Lewis, and Jensen (2006) looked at whether the
• Programs only partially implemented or using only math-enhanced CTE curriculum improves student math
some features of the academy approach may not performance. This study of more than 230 CTE teachers,
see similar results. Further research is needed to 100 math teachers and 3,900 students found that, after
determine the effects of key academy components. one year, students in the experimental group performed
significantly better on traditional and applied tests of math
A job-training program that integrated basic skills with knowledge and skills than did other students.
occupational content was the subject of experimental-de- According to the President’s National Mathematics
sign research conducted in the early 1990s; results showed Advisory Panel, there are only a few high-quality studies
higher earnings for participants (Zambrowski & Gordon, on learning in context. A meta-analysis of four of 10 stud-
1993). This study examined four community-based or- ies that met the panel’s criteria for high-quality research
ganizations operating employment training programs found that “if mathematical ideas are taught using ‘real-
for minority single mothers. One site, the Center for world’ contexts, then students’ performance on assessments
Employment Training (CET) in San Jose, Calif., stood involving similar problems is improved.” Performance on
out because of its approach, which included concur- assessments of other aspects of mathematics learning, how-
rent and integrated work and learning opportunities, ever, did not improve. The meta-analysis also showed that,
supplemental GED and English language courses, and for upper elementary, middle school and remedial ninth-
collaboration with employers on curricula. Job training graders in some math domains, incorporating real-world
focused on competencies required by employers for work contexts into instruction has a positive impact on certain
in high-demand fields. Researchers found that CET par- types of problem solving. The panel concluded that further
ticipants demonstrated significant earnings gains during research on the use of real-world problems in other grade

8


levels is necessary (National Mathematics Advisory Panel, This paper describes ConnectEd and Ford PAS in
2008, pp. 49–50). depth. They were selected because of their potential ap-
Stone and colleagues (2008) highlight an issue of some plicability to adult education. Adult educators could
concern to researchers who have studied contextualized consider ways to adapt these approaches to fit the broad
learning in K–12: the possibility that knowledge acquired range of programs, settings, structures, student demo-
in one context may not transfer to another because it is graphics, and student interests and needs found in adult
“embedded” in the situation in which it was learned (p. 6). education. The other three models include components
The researchers point out the importance of being able to that may be useful to adult educators as well, but as a
apply skills learned in an education setting to other set- whole, are not as easily transferable.
tings, especially in today’s workplace, where workers must
adapt to changing situations and demands. ConnectEd: The California Center
In adult education, there are fewer studies of con- for College and Career
textualized learning, and, as in K–12, results are mixed Founded by the James Irvine Foundation in 2006,
and more research is needed. The U.S. Department ConnectEd: The California Center for College and Career
of Education What Works Clearinghouse recognized works to advance practice, policy and research on multiple
“functional-context education,” which integrates job pathways to college and career in California high schools.
content with literacy skills, as an effective approach in ConnectEd provides schools and districts committed to
2002 (Fletcher, 2006, in Hoachlander et al., 2008). Using multiple pathways with grant support, technical assis-
both quantitative and qualitative methods, researchers in tance, shared resources and other forms of assistance (see
England studied more than 1,900 adult learners enrolled www.connectedcalifornia.org/about/index.php).
in 16 vocational programs that integrate (or “embed”) ConnectEd’s approach includes challenging academic
basic skills with vocational training. Participants had instruction that meets state standards and California pub-
higher retention rates and increased achievement in adult lic postsecondary education entrance requirements, taught
literacy, numeracy, English as a second/other language in the context of real-world applications; demanding
and vocational training than learners not enrolled in the technical instruction emphasizing workplace applications;
integrated courses (Casey et al., 2006). and work-based learning, such as internships and virtual
apprenticeships. To implement the multiple pathways
Models of Curriculum Integration approach, ConnectEd has established a network of 16
Several current secondary school curriculum integra- pathway programs throughout the state. Members of the
tion initiatives, including the following well-documented network were selected to help ConnectEd document and
models, incorporate the major elements and types of cur- replicate innovative and effective career-themed teaching
riculum integration described above: and learning practices in California high schools. These
districts receive technical assistance to support the devel-
• California Partnership Academies (www.cde. opment of high-quality pathways programs, including, for
ca.gov/ci/gs/hs/cpagen.asp) example, leadership development training, teacher profes-
• ConnectEd: The California Center for College and sional development, and development of and training in
Career (www.connectedcalifornia.org) using an integrated curriculum.
Since late 2008, ConnectEd also has been working
• Ford PAS (www.fordpas.org) on whole-district high school education improvement in
11 districts. Ten of these districts received initial plan-
• Math-in-CTE (www.cehd.umn.edu/NRCCTE/
ning grants to establish communitywide partnerships and
Math-In)
identify strategies to expand their pathways. Six districts
• National Academy Foundation (http://naf.org/) received implementation grants in June 2009, while the
other four received continued planning and development

9


grants. An 11th district recently joined the initiative and is • To address various learning styles and achievement
supporting participation with internal funding. levels
In addition to working with the network and district
• To differentiate instruction
sites, ConnectEd provides technical assistance to other
local schools and districts seeking to adopt a multiple • To link students with professionals in various
pathways approach and develops state and local support careers
for multiple pathways among policymakers and such com-
munity partners as industry, postsecondary institutions, Consistent with guidance in the “Practical Manual,”
parents and others. ConnectEd has provided professional development and
Designing and implementing curricula for multiple has used the following approach to design integrated cur-
pathways schools is a major ConnectEd activity. As a riculum units.
foundation dedicated to this work, ConnectEd is identify- Each integrated curriculum unit is structured by an
ing and evaluating innovative, effective curriculum models, Essential Question and Key Questions. Units include a
methods of instruction and school organization and is de- unit summary, subunits and major topics, lesson plans,
veloping tools to evaluate the success of rigorous real-world resources, necessary materials, classroom management
learning. To help teachers create the integrated curriculum, and support strategies, student activities and assessments,
ConnectEd has produced “Designing a Multidisciplinary possible extensions and descriptions of the culminating
Integrated Curriculum: A Practical Manual.” event (described below), learning scenarios and the roles of
ConnectEd also has developed integrated curricu- teachers and other partners.
lum materials for a variety of industry sectors (see www. ConnectEd follows a series of steps in developing in-
connectedcalifornia.org/curriculum/units.php). These tegrated curricula. The first step is curriculum mapping,
materials include integrated units in the health sciences, which identifies key topics and standards across disciplines
built around authentic industry problems and created in in the existing curriculum, helps to establish interdis-
partnership with the National Consortium on Health ciplinary connections and shows how course material
Science Education, and integrated engineering units, can be combined into an authentic career-related theme
designed for Academies of Engineering (www.acade- (Clayton, Ho, & Hudis, 2007). On the basis of this work,
myofengineering.org). In collaboration with the Education a career-related topic is selected, along with subtopics,
Development Center, Inc. (EDC), ConnectEd is also learning outcomes and the specific content standards to be
developing full high school programs of study that include addressed in each subject.
integrated curricula for the arts, media and entertainment Instructional designers then formulate an Essential
and law and justice fields. Integrated curriculum units will Question for the entire curriculum unit, along with Key
be developed for other industry sectors. Questions for individual subjects. An Essential Question
At ConnectEd sites, integrated curricula are based on is one that drives the inquiry across disciplines, reflects
applied learning theory research, address both academic a problem of interest and relevance to students, is open-
and industry skill standards and connect academic con- ended with multiple possible solutions and challenges
tent with the real world through interesting, practical students to solve real-world problems. Subject-specific
applications. Teachers use curriculum integration for a Key Questions help students to answer the Essential
variety of purposes: Question and are related to disciplinary content and the
overall theme.
• To engage students through challenging academic The curriculum sequence and map are then revised
and technical content and by using active learning on the basis of the integrated unit. Teachers develop a
approaches learning scenario, a “hook” enabling students to see the
real-life application of the academic and technical con-
• To build education and career planning skills
tent they will master to answer the Essential Question.
Student assessments, which include both traditional and

10


performance-based summative and formative assessments, engaged and motivated: “They develop a keener awareness
are created. Materials are checked for their alignment with of what skills they will need in the workplace as well as
standards, and connections are made with local partners more awareness of their options and preferences than do
from industry, postsecondary education and other orga- students in traditional high schools” (p. 67).
nizations. These partners play a variety of central roles, The evaluation also found that implementing an inte-
including helping students with project work, assessing grated curriculum was a challenge for many ConnectEd
their performance, providing feedback on the curriculum sites, despite extensive efforts to develop and use inte-
and hosting site visits. grated projects. Although most staff appreciated the
Finally, lesson plans are developed. Each lesson plan potential of the integrated curriculum, many lacked the
addresses one or more of the Key Questions and contrib- capacity and time to develop an integrated approach. It is
utes to students’ ability to answer the Essential Question important to note, however, that the integrated curricu-
as part of the culminating event. Lesson plans should lum is just one feature of ConnectEd sites and that other
also result in products that will be part of the formative factors undoubtedly influenced these and other program
assessment. The culminating event is an opportunity outcomes.
for students to demonstrate their learning and present
their conclusions about the Essential Question. These The Relevance of the ConnectEd
events also give teachers and partners in the community a Model for Adult Education
chance to assess student learning relevant to the content Components of the ConnectEd model could be adapted
standards that were the foundation of the integrated unit. for use in adult education. These include developing
Culminating events can involve an individual student or a integrated curriculum units on career-related themes;
group of students and may take a variety of forms, such as structuring an integrated curriculum around academic
making a PowerPoint presentation, developing a Web site and technical content standards; engaging business and
or demonstrating an activity to industry partners. industry partners to contribute to the curriculum and pro-
One example of a fully developed integrated curriculum vide work-based learning opportunities; linking classroom
unit is “Crime Scene Investigation,” a curriculum unit instruction to the workplace through work-based learning
on forensic investigation for a health science pathway. opportunities, including virtual apprenticeships; incorpo-
See http://www.connectedcalifornia.org/downloads/ rating an integrated curriculum into bridge programs and
curriculum/CSI_CA.pdf career pathways for adults; and producing a guide to de-
veloping the integrated curriculum similar to the “Practical
Outcomes of ConnectEd’s Multiple Pathways Approach Manual” for adult education programs, with input from
An early assessment of ConnectEd’s multiple pathways adult education program administrators and instructors.
approach was recently completed (Farr, Bradby, Hartry, Relevant elements of the ConnectEd approach to
Sipes, Hall, & Tasoff, 2009). The evaluation report in- the integrated curriculum include identifying topics that
dicates that students enrolled in multiple pathways at connect across disciplines; formulating open-ended,
ConnectEd sites were more likely to pass the California problem-based, essential questions that are of interest
High School Exit Exam on their first attempt in 10th to students; developing a “hook” to illustrate the real-life
grade than were high school students generally. With application of the content; creating performance-based as-
regard to state standards tests, students at ConnectEd sessments and involving industry, postsecondary and other
sites generally performed better than students statewide community partners throughout the process of developing
in 2007–08 on the English/language arts 10 and 11 and and implementing the integrated unit.
U.S. history tests; they performed less well on the math
and science tests. Attendance, promotion and graduation
rates for these students were all above 90 percent. The
report emphasizes that students at these sites were highly

11


Ford Partnership for Advanced Studies (PAS) Partnerships are a significant component of Ford PAS.
Ford PAS is an academically rigorous, interdisciplin- Business and postsecondary education partners serve on
ary curriculum and program that offers students the local Business/Education Advisory Councils, which pro-
knowledge and skills for success in such areas as business, vide experiences, such as classroom speakers, mentoring,
economics, engineering and technology. Developed by job-shadowing, and tours of worksites and college cam-
Ford Motor Company Fund in partnership with EDC, puses, directly linked to students’ projects and learning.
Ford PAS encourages high school students to pursue edu- These partners help students understand the connections
cation and build careers in these areas (see www.fordpas. among classroom learning, postsecondary education and
org/about/default.asp). careers. Their involvement is most effective when they take
Ford PAS provides interdisciplinary learning experi- a leadership role in partnership with the school district.
ences designed to develop students’ problem-solving, Ford PAS’s experience has shown that building commu-
critical thinking, teamwork and communication skills. nity and employer support for curriculum integration is
Instruction is organized in curriculum modules connecting essential. Principals and other administrators may come
rigorous academic and technical content. Key components and go, but strong and broad community involvement and
of Ford PAS include inquiry and project-based learning; buy-in can keep such programs going over time, as well as
interdisciplinary content; links between academic learning provide essential industry connections and work-based
and authentic applications; assessable learning goals tied learning opportunities.
to national standards; multiple types of assessments; team- The Ford PAS curriculum is contained in 20 modules,
work; integration of technology; and partnerships with organized by the following themes: Foundations in 21st-
business, postsecondary education and other community Century Skills; Working Toward Sustainability; Getting
organizations. Smart About Business; Manufacturing for Tomorrow;
Ford PAS sites generally are high schools, but they also Data, Decisions, and Design; Living in a Global Economy;
can be colleges, universities, and community, professional and Putting Math to Work. Module learning goals are
and industry organizations. High school sites include aligned with national academic standards. Curriculum
comprehensive high schools, CTE programs, career acad- materials pose issues and problems, and students acquire
emies and other small learning communities. Ford PAS information and skills through investigation and hands-on
also is being used in college bridge programs, including learning experiences. Modules incorporate Student and
several in historically black colleges and universities. Ford Teacher Guides, including detailed lesson plans (Ford
PAS has also been used with adjudicated youth and in al- Motor Company Fund, 2008). Curriculum components
ternative schools, where students who have failed in other are available in print (at cost), multimedia (videos, simula-
high schools take a full-day program of exclusively Ford tions and software) and online (at no cost to users who
PAS courses. There are more than 300 sites in 26 states. sign up and receive a password).
The various sites implement the Ford PAS curriculum Modules incorporate a variety of assessments, including
in different ways. Comprehensive high schools may offer performance-based assessments, such as oral presentations
the curriculum as electives or organize their full curricu- and real-world simulations. Each module also includes
lum around the program by incorporating the modules teacher and peer assessments of products, self-assessments
into academics and electives. CTE programs may use of core skills, quizzes and tests. Many questions have more
the curriculum to address the 16 national career clusters, than one right answer, with Teacher Guides providing
since it is aligned to standards for the career clusters. possible answers.
Community colleges may offer Ford PAS to high school Ford PAS professional development takes place
students, providing college credit for those who complete through summer and academic-year institutes, an online
the courses, and to first-year college students taking intro- forum, and online courses and webinars. Ford PAS ex-
ductory math, engineering and business courses. pects teachers to take part in professional development for
the modules included in the Foundations in 21st-Century

12


Skills theme and recommends additional training for potential of the Ford PAS, while providing cautionary evi-
teaching other modules. dence that implementation (specifically, teachers’ capacity
Articulation with postsecondary education is an impor- to use the materials with fidelity to the principles behind
tant part of Ford PAS. Through articulation agreements its design) and contextual factors make a significant differ-
with local postsecondary institutions, some high school ence (Hwalek, 2006). Finally, the 2008 implementation
students receive both high school and college credit for survey conducted as part of the evaluation provided fur-
completing Ford PAS modules ther self-reported evidence of effects (Farr, Pedroso, &
Sipes, 2009).
Outcomes of Ford PAS
A multiyear evaluation of Ford PAS is under way to The Relevance of the Ford PAS
determine its impact on participants; components of the Model for Adult Education
program that do and do not work well; and how program Like ConnectEd, the Ford PAS has elements that could
inputs may vary across student populations. The evaluation be applied in adult education. These include implement-
is examining context, including how teacher factors affect ing integrated curriculum modules on career-related
outcomes, and implementation, including models used, themes; building the curriculum on academic and ca-
effects on classroom practices and barriers to implementa- reer cluster standards; linking classroom instruction to
tion. Evaluators also will look at program quality; support authentic applications; using a variety of assessments;
provided by training, partnerships, program coordinators incorporating technology; partnering with business and
and agencies; and outcomes for teachers and students. industry, postsecondary institutions and other commu-
Some preliminary findings suggest the potential of nity partners; and providing professional development
Ford PAS to have a significant impact on teaching and face to face and online.
learning across the country. An action-research study Some Ford PAS modules could be adapted for use with
conducted at a Lancaster, Pa., charter school looked at adults, such as Careers, Companies, and Communities,
student outcomes in terms of acquisition of knowledge which explores careers through a project focused on local
and skills necessary for future success as well as motiva- employment opportunities and personal career interests.11
tion to remain in school and pursue further education, Because the units are modular, adult education programs
in addition to changes in teacher practice resulting from could consider integrating one or more Ford PAS mod-
professional development. The research included class- ules as the curriculum and class schedule allow. The Ford
room observations, analysis of classroom artifacts, and PAS emphasis on problem-solving, critical thinking and
student interviews and surveys. Analysis of the study data communication skills is consistent with many state adult
has not yet been completed, but the teacher-researcher education content standards. State or local programs could
found preliminary evidence that students in the class crosswalk the national standards reflected in the modules
were more motivated and achieved at higher levels, and with their own adult education standards.
the teacher felt her own practice was more reflective and Like secondary CTE programs, adult education pro-
evidence-driven. grams could use the Ford PAS curriculum to address
A 2005 implementation study (CNA Corporation, some of the 16 national career clusters. They could con-
2005) consisted of interviews with teachers and selected sider partnering with nearby high schools that are Ford
students as well as classroom observations at a small
sample of schools. The results suggested that the program 11 In this module, students learn about the businesses and
industries in their region, the range of positions employers
was realizing many of its initial goals and that even partial may offer and the changing nature of the workplace. They gain
implementation, such as short-duration summer work- information through interviews, classroom speakers, a worksite
shops, can affect students’ academic and career aspirations, visit and other resources. Throughout the module, students
develop technology skills: working with databases, creating and
as well as improve critical thinking, communication and delivering presentations and doing Internet research.
teamwork skills. The results of a 2006 case study noted the

13


PAS sites and build on the schools’ existing relationships integrated projects and by publishing and disseminating a
with business, postsecondary education and other com- collection of project descriptions statewide.12
munity partners. Alternatively, programs could create Government also can help by reducing barriers, such
their own Business/Education Advisory Councils to help as eliminating requirements for “seat time,” which can
develop an integrated curriculum, provide work-based conflict with efforts to implement integrated curricula
learning opportunities and help students see the links (Bodilly et al., 1993). Further, governments should recog-
among adult education, postsecondary education, employ- nize that legislative mandates on integration, while they
ment and careers. can be helpful, do not necessarily create the elements that
promote innovation in schools, such as vision, leadership,
Supports and Challenges support, and financial and other resources (Stasz et al.,
Like most other education reform efforts, curriculum 1995, 2004).
integration requires a series of supports and enabling District and school staff need to share a vision for
conditions to be successful. These include resources, such curriculum integration and a commitment to its imple-
as well-designed curriculum materials, and other forms of mentation and success (Bodilly et al., 1993; Grubb et
support—for example, policies supporting integration and al., 1991; Johnson et al., 2003). This shared vision must
the commitment of school staff to the approach. be reflected in clearly defined core learning goals, such
State, local, district and institutional policies and regu- as academic and CTE content standards. Support by
lations can facilitate or impede curriculum integration. administrators is critical, and their leadership should
States can support curriculum integration by providing demonstrate commitment, energy, organizational skills
technical assistance and guidance to districts and schools and the ability to be innovative, flexible and willing to take
in developing models, training teachers to develop and risks (Bodilly et al., 1993; Grubb et al., 1991; Johnson et
use integrated instruction and sharing curricula through al., 2003). Commitment and leadership are often evident
clearinghouses (Brand, 2008). For example, in the late in an investment of resources (Johnson et al., 2003). This
1990s, the Maryland State Department of Education includes providing sufficient funds for teacher prepara-
provided statewide training for teams of secondary aca- tion and ongoing professional development, curriculum
demic and CTE teachers, school administrators, industry development, planning time, materials and other resources
partners, postsecondary educators and others to develop (Bailey & Matasuzuka, 2003; Bodilly et al., 1993; Stasz et
projects integrating high-level academic and technical al., 2004).
content. Teams then developed integrated curricula that Teacher buy-in can be a challenge when introducing
incorporated the state academic and workplace readi- any new instructional approach. According to a study of
ness standards and national industry skill standards into teacher participation in school improvement strategies,
one of four career clusters (Health and Biosciences; the key predictors of teacher buy-in are training, support
Manufacturing, Engineering Technology; Environmental, from program developers and other staff, administrator
Agricultural and Natural Resources; Business buy-in and control over implementation in the class-
Management and Finance). More experienced teams not room (Turnbull, 2002). In a study of eight schools with
only developed integrated units, they also aligned their integration programs, researchers found that additional
curricula around an industry theme in one of the four clus- funding was needed for incentives and capacity building
ters. The goal of each project was to engage and motivate to avoid teacher burnout and their interpretation that
students to master more complex materials by connecting integration was not really considered important (Bailey
concepts to real-world applications. The state encour- & Matasuzuka, 2003). In addition, teacher champions
aged local team efforts by providing grants to support the who show other teachers how curriculum integration can

12 For more information on this process, see Maryland State
Department of Education (1999). Blended instruction: Integrating
curriculum through projects and curriculum alignment. Baltimore:
Author.

14


improve student outcomes can help make curriculum units. On the basis of this experience, researchers identi-
integration an accepted ongoing instructional practice fied lessons learned for enhancing academics within CTE
(Johnson et al., 2003). curricula, including securing the requisite time and effort
Administrative mandates, however, can get in the to change the content to accommodate math problems;
way and evoke teacher resistance (Stasz et al., 1995). incorporating academic and CTE expertise in curriculum
Administrators should empower teachers and facilitate, development; and providing professional development
but not force, integration (Finch et al., 1992, in Bodilly et for teachers to strengthen their math skills and learn to
al., 1993). Moreover, pedagogical change does not have implement the integrated curriculum (Haimson, Stone, &
to start from the top down; it can occur within and across Pearson, 2008).
classrooms. A study of enhanced math in CTE curricula Well-developed instructional materials are a must, as
found that the communities of teachers created by the are projects and curricula based on academic, industry
study made the critical decisions and were able to improve and workforce-readiness standards that combine CTE
measured performance in mathematics where the perfor- and academic content and skills (Bailey, 1997). Like other
mance gap among students was most pronounced (Stone education reforms, integrated curriculum efforts can suffer
et al., 2008). if educational goals are not clearly defined. Goals can help
Developing teachers’ capacity to implement integrated define how resources should be allocated, for example, and
instruction is essential. Sustained professional develop- set benchmarks for success (Hoachlander, 1999).
ment to build teacher capacity should include time for Student engagement is also essential to developing
teachers to collaborate, learn about industry practices (for an effective integrated curriculum. Identifying and using
academic teachers), strengthen academic knowledge (for students’ interests in planning and implementing the
CTE teachers), participate in regular training and observe integrated curriculum is key to their engagement in learn-
one another. According to the ConnectEd model, profes- ing. Providing contexts, questions, materials and activities
sional development for teachers in multiple pathways relevant to them is necessary, but it takes time and effort
programs should: to integrate these into effective instruction (Hoachlander,
1999).
• Build capacity among CTE teachers to recognize,
Industry and postsecondary partners can help engage
reinforce and supplement key academic concepts
students by providing work-based learning experiences,
and skills well suited to the industry that is the
feedback to teachers on curriculum materials and feed-
pathway’s organizing theme
back to students on their performance. Business partners
• Build capacity among academic teachers to apply should reinforce the importance of learning both technical
their academic discipline to authentic problems and academic competencies, in addition to providing em-
and projects in the industry ployment opportunities (Grubb et al., 1991).

• Develop model teacher preparation programs for Curriculum Integration in Adult
training new academic and CTE teachers who will
Education: Some Promising Initiatives
teach in multiple pathways (Hoachlander, 2007)
Several approaches to curriculum development in adult
To address the challenges of identifying or develop- education resemble the secondary-level curriculum in-
ing high-quality curricula that integrate academic and tegration models explored in this paper. They include
technical content, in a recent study, curriculum develop- I*CANS: Integrated Curriculum for Achieving Necessary
ers and CTE and math experts enhanced the math and Skills, integrated theme-based (ITB) instruction, I-BEST
expanded the CTE content of the Automotive Youth (Integrating Basic Education Skills Training), project-
Educational System and Ford PAS curricula. One goal based learning for adult English language learners,
of this approach was to increase the use of the integrated workplace literacy and workforce basic skills education,
curriculum without asking teachers to develop integrated and bridge programs.

15


I*CANS: Integrated Curriculum for Achieving was able to teach skills within real-world contexts or
Necessary Skills was developed and implemented in the themes related to employment or other relevant issues
state of Washington by the Washington State Board students identified. This approach to developing and
for Community and Technical Colleges (SBCTC) in implementing theme-based learning relied heavily on
the 1990s to deliver basic skills instruction to youth and learners’ interests, reasons for participation and previous
adults. With guidance from an advisory committee repre- knowledge. Once learners completed a unit, they joined
senting business and industry, employment and training instructors in analyzing issues that emerged during the
agencies, and basic skills providers, I*CANS was designed project and examining the processes used to address
to help young people and adults develop the skills neces- these issues (Dirkx & Prenger, 1997).
sary for employment and their personal lives. The goals Integrated theme-based instruction (ITB) builds on
of the project included creating an instructional system I*CANS and incorporates additional guidance on iden-
for basic skills providers that combined ABE curriculum tifying themes and processes to fully integrate thematic
with the Job Training Partnership Act13 skills program— instruction with basic skills and process skills. The “Guide
basic competencies and essential workplace skills such for Planning and Implementing Instruction for Adults:
as the American Society for Training and Development, A Theme-Based Approach,” developed by Dirkx and
Workplace Basics and SCANS; using contextualized Prenger (1997), outlines an approach to developing adult
instruction like ConnectEd and Ford PAS to increase stu- education curricula around themes integrating academic
dent motivation and outcomes; and coordinating referrals knowledge and skills with life, technical and process skills,
among employment and training and basic skills providers. such as problem-solving, critical thinking, teamwork,
I*CANS defined basic skills as learning to learn, thinking learning-to-learn and interpersonal skills. Based on inter-
skills, personal management for the job, group effective- views with instructors experienced in ITB instruction and
ness, math, reading, writing and communication. I*CANS on classroom observations, the guide describes the ITB
curriculum developers recognized that engaging students process and offers guidelines for instructors interested in
required creating authentic learning situations that were implementing ITB instruction.
meaningful to students. Like the ConnectEd and Ford PAS models, ITB pro-
grams engage students in active learning within relevant
We also realized that each of us felt that learning,
contexts, and instruction responds to learning styles
just like life, was a complex weaving of skills and
and incorporates cooperative learning and teamwork.
experience—multi-modal, cross-disciplinary, and
Instructors identify themes—interrelated clusters of
integrated. The traditional divisions between lan-
problems, issues or concerns—with input from students.
guage and mathematics, science and art, politics and
ITB instruction advocates incorporating contexts, tasks,
communication are no longer appropriate; instead,
materials and procedures from settings in which students
we saw the need to show the connections that bind
will be functioning.
these fields of inquiry together (www.literacynet.
The ITB approach is based on David Kolb’s theory of
org/icans/chapter01/themes.html).
experiential learning, in which adults move from concrete
By encouraging students to become involved in experiences and reflective observation to more abstract
decisions about what they wanted to learn, I*CANS learning and then to action and experimentation with new
knowledge (Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 1999). ITB
13 The purpose of the Job Training Partnership Act ( JTPA) of students are actively involved in deciding what to learn
1983, Public Law 97-300, was to improve occupational skills and and how they should learn it. ITB instruction does not
employment opportunities for disadvantaged adults and youth by
providing on-the-job training, job search assistance, basic skills emphasize rigorous academics, standards-based educa-
education and work experience. The basic skills competencies tion and links to postsecondary education as much as the
included in JTPA were gaining proficiency in elementary reading,
ConnectEd and Ford PAS models. However, some pro-
developing the ability to read effectively, learning to communicate
ideas in written English, gaining knowledge of fundamental ponents have noted the need to include rigorous academics
mathematics and understanding customary standards of measure.

16


within integrated curricula to help students transition to (SBCTC, 2008) indicates that ABE/GED students in
postsecondary education or training (Dirkx, 2006). I-BEST and ESL students as a whole who combined basic
I-BEST, sponsored by SBCTC, is a well-documented skills with other instruction showed larger gains than stu-
approach to integrating workforce and basic skills train- dents who studied basic skills only. Most recently, Jenkins
ing with the goal of accelerating the learning of low-skill and colleagues (2009) compared the educational outcomes
adults. The program is based on research that suggests over a two-year tracking period of I-BEST students with
contextualized instruction can result in improved basic other basic skills students and found that I-BEST stu-
skills for adults (Jenkins, Zeidenberg, & Kienzl, 2009). dents attained better outcomes than the other students,
I-BEST offers a minimum of one year of college, including including students taking a workforce course that was not
employment opportunities, within a professional-technical an I-BEST course. Specifically, researchers found a higher
certificate or associate’s degree program. Research shows probability that, compared with other basic skills students,
that a combination of at least two semesters of college I-BEST students would:
credit and a certificate or other credential is the “tipping
• Continue into credit-bearing coursework
point” for improving earnings gains, meeting employer
requirements and increasing postsecondary achievement • Earn credits that count toward a college credential
(Prince & Jenkins, 2005).
I-BEST programs focus on occupations locally in • Persist into a second year of college
demand. Like ConnectEd and other high school CTE in- • Earn an occupational certificate
tegration models, I-BEST requires substantial coordinated
planning among basic skills and workforce program admin- • Make point gains on basic skills tests (such as
istrators and faculty and depends on partnerships among Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment
campus academic and occupational departments, student Systems [CASAS]) (Jenkins et al., 2009, pp. 3, 26).
services and local businesses. Students learn language, basic
Researchers caution, however, that the analysis results
skills and college study skills within the context of work-
do not definitively prove a causal relationship between the
force education in an occupation of their choice. Teams of
I-BEST program and the higher student outcomes; the
adult basic education/English as a second language (ABE/
study may not account for other intervening factors, such
ESL) instructors and professional-technical instructors
as selection bias, participant motivation and other personal
align their curricula and co-teach an integrated course of
characteristics. In future studies, researchers plan to exam-
language/literacy and workforce skills. Instructor teams
ine the student selection process further, identify solutions
share responsibility for outcomes, examine data and make
for selection bias and explore experimental-design research
changes on the basis of student progress. In 2007, SBCTC
on the program (Jenkins et al., 2009).
launched the Student Achievement Initiative to help more
Problem-based learning for adult English language learn-
students reach the tipping point. The initiative provides a
ers (ELLs) provides contextualized learning by presenting
way to measure student outcomes and to identify incre-
learners with problems to solve or products to develop
mental gains or “momentum points” that help students
(Mathews-Aydinli, 2007; Moss & Van Duzer, 1998).
approach the tipping point.
The goal of problem-based learning in this context is to
Preliminary research is promising. In a 2005 study,
help adult ELLs develop problem-solving, language and
I-BEST students earned five times more college credits
literacy skills. In this approach, students learn the language
and were 15 times more likely to complete workforce
by using it. Problem-based learning builds on participants’
training than similar adult education students not par-
previous experience and may involve them in planning and
ticipating in I-BEST (Washington State Board for
choosing the focus of the project. Like CTE curriculum
Community and Technical Colleges [SBCTC], 2005).
integration methods, problem-based learning for adult
A recent report that examines students enrolled in
ELLs involves students in addressing open-ended, authen-
basic skills and their transition to and success in college
tic problems without set solutions. Rather than presenting

17

Integrating curriculum; lessons for adult education from career and technical education

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