Field Geology Report_R

GEOLOGIC FIELD REPORT
ESS 510: Field Methods in Applied Geology II
Sunday the 15th
to Monday the 23rd
of June 2014
Masters in Earth and Space Sciences Applied Geosciences (MESSAGe) Program
University of Washington, Seattle Campus
2nd
Generation 2013 to 2014

Kathy Troost, Senior Lecturer and Professor
Eric Knoedler, Teacher Assistant
Contributors (in alphabetical order): Robert Cannata, Rebekah Cesmat, Evelyn Conrado,
Evan Eckles, Jesse Favia, Grayson Fish, Katie Gauglitz, Andrew Gault, Bryan Holmes, John
Manke, Hannah Marshburn, Kendra Pivaroff-Ward, Andrew Spickert, Kristina Sumner, Jeff
Tinklepaugh, Niall Twomey, Bart Weitering and Farin Wilson.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
i
1.0 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………… 1
1.1 Course Mechanics (Cannata, Conrado)
1.2 Site Descriptions
Van Os Feeder Bluff and Beach (Cannata)
Sandford Point Fault Area (Cannata)
Brown Property (Cannata, Favia)
Discovery Bay Tidal Flats (Cannata, Conrado)
Dungeness Bluff and Beach West (Cannata, Conrado)
Sequim Bay State Park (Cannata, Conrado)
2.0 METHODS ……………………………………………………………………… 7
2.1 Optically Stimulated Luminescence (Gauglitz)
2.2 Radiocarbon Dating (Gauglitz)
2.3 Drilling and Coring (Favia, Gauglitz)
2.4 Discontinuity Mapping (Favia)
2.5 Provenance Determination (Favia, Spickert)
Differentiating Glacial from Non-Glacial Deposits
2.6 Soil Classification (Favia)
2.7 Test Pit Observations (Favia)
2.8 Global Positioning System (Weitering)
3.0 GEOLOGIC, GEOMORPHIC AND TECTONIC SETTING ……………… 22
3.1 Vashon and Maury Islands Area (Gault)
3.2 Sequim Area (Holmes)
4.0 FINDINGS: VASHON AND MAURY ISLANDS …………………………… 28
4.1 Van Os Feeder Bluff (Favia)
4.2 Sandford Point
Structure (Cesmat)
Seepage (Spickert)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ii
Geomorphology (Cannata, Wilson, Twomey)
Provenance (Pivaroff-Ward)
4.3 Brown Property (Cannata, Wilson)
5.0 FINDINGS: NORTHEAST OLYMPIC PENINSULA ………………………… 44
5.1 Discovery Bay (Gault, Manke)
5.2 Dungeness Bluff West (Conrado, Fish)
5.3 Sequim Bay State Park (Conrado, Fish)
6.0 DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ……………………………………… 52
6.1 Bluff Retreat Comparison (Cannata)
6.2 Sediment Transport Comparison (Cannata)
6.3 Provenance Comparison (Cannata)
6.4 Sandford Point Housing (Cannata)
6.5 Sandford Point Tectonics (Cannata)
6.6 Tsunami Sands at Discovery Bay (Cannata)
7.0 REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………… 64
8.0 TAKE HOME MESSAGES …………………………………………………… 67
APPENDIX A: Logbook Field Notes ………………………………………………… 68
APPENDIX B: Data Sheets …………………………………………………………… 91
Pebble Counts (Sumner)
Discovery Bay Core Logs (Cannata, Favia, Gault, Manke)
Brown Property Core Log (Cannata,Cesmat, Tinkleplaugh, Weitering,Wilson)
APPENDIX C: Field Course Critique ………………………………………………… 117

ESS 510 INTRODUCTION Robert Cannata
Field Methods in Applied Geology II Field Geologic Report
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Course Mechanics
Field Methods in Applied Geology II was an intensive, nine-day field course that commenced
Sunday the 15th and concluded Monday the 23rd of June 2014. It was held in two coastal
settings within the Puget Sound Lowlands and on the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The first location,
Camp Sealth on Vashon Island, served as base camp from June 15th
through June 19th
. The
second location, Ramblewood Environmental Learning Center (ELC) in Sequim Bay State Park,
was our base camp from June 19th
through June 23rd
. We used the University of Washington
fleet service vehicles to relocate between these sites and for daily transportation from base camp
to field localities. We conducted our daily activities first as a single large group, and then broke
off into smaller groups of four to six people and sometimes as pairs depending on the scope of
responsibilities and constraints of the locality.
This course introduced advanced field techniques and skills for problem solving in applied
geology with an emphasis on the interactions between humanity (land use and infrastructure) and
the natural landscape of the Pacific Northwest. The main course objectives centered on coastal
and hillslope geomorphology and included the following:
1) To map coastal deposits (beach and bluffs), and measure sections of coastal exposures
by establishing survey monitoring points;
2) To understand the distribution of coastal deposits, and prepare beach and bluff profiles;
3) To map hillslope morphology and landslide features, and practice recognizing and
distinguishing landforms and deposits of both glacial and interglacial periods;
4) To prepare samples for geochronological analyses, conduct our own interpretive
provenance analyses, and describe unconsolidated materials using the Unified Soils
Classification System (USCS); and
5) To measure geologic materials’ textures, fabrics and discontinuities, and conduct
particle size and cobble count analyses.

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We used a variety of tools and equipment (described in section 2. Methods) to attain these
objectives, and ultimately produced a collaborative report describing our field observations and
measurements, from which we interpreted and used to base our conclusions.

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1.2 Summary Description of Sites Visited
Van Os Feeder Bluff and Beach, Maury Island
FIGURE 1. View of Van Os bluff looking west (Cannata).
We arrived early Monday morning (07/16) at the Kimble property, 23010 60th Place SW,
Vashon, WA 98070, with a guest investigator Eric Cheney (UW) to access the Van Os coastal
bluffs 0.5 km east along the shore (47°23’59.668” N and 122°24’07.910” W). After arriving at
the locality, we broke up into smaller groups of four, and assessed 4 sections marked by Kathy
Troost and Eric Knoedler along an approximately 1000-foot stretch of the bluff-beach system.
Our task was to establish baseline measuring points for long-term monitoring of the bluff-beach
system with focus on the erosion potential from bluff retreat and its impact to marine sediment
transport within the littoral drift cell operating on this locality. To accomplish this task, we
endeavored to 1) measure and characterize the topographic, geologic, structural, and geomorphic
nature of the bluff-beach system, 2) sample geologic units for provenance analysis, 3) conduct
Wolman cobble counts of the beach for grain-size analysis, and 4) map the spatial distribution of
beach sediment to assess littoral transport regime. We also conducted Optically Stimulated
Luminescence (OSL) sampling.

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Sandford Point Fault Area, Vashon Island
FIGURE 2. View of Sandford Point beach and bluff system looking south down Colvos
Passage (Cannata).
We studied the Sandford Point locality on two separate occasions, all day Tuesday (07/17) and
half of Wednesday (07/18) as a result on constraints from tidal change and responsibilities to
other tasks at the Brown Property.
We arrived early morning on Tuesday at the access point (dead end of 146th Ave SW) with guest
investigator Eric Cheney (UW) first to conduct a reconnaissance walk as an entire group of
approximately 0.75 km of shoreline and coastal bluff exposures N-NE of the access way.
Afterward, we strategized as an entire group and divided into 4 smaller groups, each with a
concentration on one specific sub-discipline of geology: water seepage (hydrology), structural
geology, geomorphology and landslide failures, and geologic materials.

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Brown Property, Vashon Island
Early Wednesday morning (07/18), we arrived at Mike Brown’s residence (21704 141st Ave
SW, Vashon, WA 98070) to conduct a subsurface exploration in order to investigate the
groundwater changes post-Nisqually earthquake (2001) and hazards associated with westward
slope failure. We used the following techniques: hand augering, manual split spoon sampling,
and logging a test pit excavated by the property owner.
The Brown Property is a 5-acre parcel set back on a plat approximately 300 feet from the crest of
a coastal bluff system that faces west and overlooks Colvos Passage. This vegetated bluff
system rises an average of 70 m above sea level and slopes steeply west to a beach of mixed sand
and gravel. The topography of the property is locally hummocky but broadly flat in its upper
east half (around the residential structures), and is cut by a steep-sided valley in the southwest.
Discovery Bay, Sequim
We arrived early Friday morning (07/20) at the tidal flats of Discovery Bay to meet Carrie
Garrison-Laney (UW) and other guest investigators, Liz Nezbit (UW), Ian Miller (WA
SeaGrant) and Ron Tagnazaki, to explore the subsurface marsh deposits. After observing a
section of sediment along the stream south of the footbridge as a group, we split into teams of six
members, each with tools for making measurements and observations of the sample cores. The
goals of each team were to identify evidence of tsunami sands, look for any in-place organic
material, and to record long core logs well.

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Dungeness Spit, Sequim
FIGURE 3. View of Dungeness Spit looking southwest along the coast (Cannata).
We arrived early Saturday morning (07/21) at the Dungeness National Wildlife Refuge to meet
Jim Miller (GeoEngineers) to survey and map the coastal deposits of the Dungeness feeder bluffs
south of the Spit. The group hiked down to the beach, and spent about one hour on a
reconnaissance walk along the bluffs, observing general features and select sites for two
transects. Half of our group worked on Transect 1, while the other half worked on Transect 2.
Niall Twomey and Robert Cannata did not work on either transect, but employed survey
techniques using auto level instrumentation to survey a topographic profile from an
anthropogenic benchmark and tie-in Transects 1 and 2 to a stable frame of reference. The main
goal was to develop a cross-shore transect measuring the topography and mapping the geology
from the shore face to the crest of the bluff.

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Sequim Bay, Sequim
FIGURE 4. View of Sequim State Park beach and bluff system looking west (Cannata).
We arrived early Sunday morning (07/22) at Sequim Bay State Park to meet Jim Miller
(GeoEngineers) and map exposed bedrock along the bay coast in the context of implications for
geotechnical domains. We accessed the bay area by a path from base camp at the Ramblewood
ELC. Once we arrived on the beach, we walked east along the beach to observe the nature,
structure, geology and vegetation of the bluffs. We divided into teams of two and worked on
bluff sections approximately 100 feet long. Teams sketched their section of the bluff, focusing on
geologic contacts in context of discontinuities, strength and competency, and other geotechnical
properties. We compiled a final sketch to display each team’s section in a continuous profile.

ESS 510 METHODS Robert Cannata
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2.0 METHODS
2.1 Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL)
Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) measures doses of ionizing radiation, which serves as a
proxy for sediment age. We collected a sample from the Van Os Feeder Bluff on Maury Island to
practice proper sampling techniques. While collecting the OSL sample, first cover the sample
area with black fabric. We used a black plastic tarp held up by nails to cover the sampling area
(Figure 5). Staying underneath the cloth and out of the light, we dug into the desired sample area
about 1 foot from the initial exposure. This removes the material that has been exposed to the sun
and therefore would underestimate its age. It is very important not to let any light to penetrate the
covered area underneath the cloth!
Figure 5. We carefully set the staging area for secluded clandestine OSL sampling (Cannata).
Marshburn and Gauglitz appear to be ecstatic about OSL sampling, while Grayson is lost in what
appears to be deep contemplation.
We used a cylindrical sampler to collect a sample and keep it as still as possible. We attached the
black cap to one side of the sample cylinder and placed the sharp edge of the sampler on the
sample surface. Using a hammer, we pounded the sampling cylinder about 1 foot into the target.
When there was about 3 inches of the cylinder still exposed, we scraped out the sand that was not

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in place to use as a control for dating. After scraping, we pounded the cylinder the rest of the
way in. Next, whilst remaining underneath the black cloth, we dug around the cylinder to remove
the material around it and removed the sampling cylinder from the sediment. While still under
the black cloth, we placed a cap on the sharp side of the cylinder and covered the entire sample
and cylinder in aluminum foil. Once the foil completely covered the sample, we removed it from
underneath the black cloth, placed it in a plastic bag, labeled it, and transported it for analysis.
2.2 Radiocarbon Dating
Figure 6. Radiocarbon dating demonstrated by Troost below the base of a Dungeness bluff
(Cannata).
Radiocarbon dating is another method for dating geologic materials. To sample for radiocarbon
dating, one must first find an organic-rich material. Choose a sample that is in place or that
seems representative of a deposit. If there is low carbon content in the sample, collect a lot of
material. One can pick the carbonaceous components of the material out of the bulk sample in
order to obtain the requisite amount of carbon for radiocarbon dating. Using a hammer or other
scraping device, obtain chunks of the organic material from the deposit (Figure 6). Radiocarbon
dating is very susceptible to carbon contamination from younger carbon sources, so it is

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important to clean the surface of the sample with a knife or similar implement while being
careful not to introduce new sources of contamination.
We found clasts of organic rich sediment sitting in gravel at both the Van Os Feeder Bluff and
Dungeness Spit and sampled organics from both locations. After cleaning the samples’ surfaces
with a knife, we placed the samples in a plastic bag and labeled them appropriately. We
refrigerated samples to prevent any new organic growth which could occur due to the anoxic
environment of the sealed plastic bag. Labs analyze the samples for us using standard
radiometric or accelerated mass spectrometry (AMS) techniques. AMS provides a date with a
much smaller margin of error; however, it’s also more expensive. When a lab completes sample
analysis, the sample will have three ages associated with it: radiometric, corrected, and
calibrated. Samples only yield a calibrated age if they are less than 25,000 years old. The
calibrated date corrects for 13C / 14C in the atmosphere at the time the material was deposited
(which are based on dendrochronologic data). The convention for reporting an age for a sample
is: calibrated age +/- error.
2.3 Drilling
Mechanical Drilling
We observed 3 drilling technologies: direct-push, hollow-stem auger, and sonic drilling, all of
which were gracefully demonstrated by Cascade Drilling, Inc. at their Woodinville office (Figure
7). The direct-push GeoProbe drill uses repeated percussive force to advance the drill rod into the
ground (Figure 8). In the Pacific Northwest, a typical refusal is achieved between 50 to 100 feet
BGS (Cascade Drilling). However, the record for maximum refusal reported in the Fall 2011
Probing Times by GeoProbe Systems is 320.5 feet BGS held by former colleagues of Robert
Cannata, Kurt Lyons and Kasey Hedglin at the Otis Air National Guard Base on Cape Cod. They
employed a 6620DT rig, drilling into glacial outwash comprising mainly fine sand and silts. This
type of drill better suited for drilling through unconsolidated finer-grained soils, like sands and
silts, as compared to gravels and cobbles. Direct push drilling can produce a continuous core
sample, but it usually displaces and homogenizes the soil sample upon collection. It is ideal for
environmental sampling because it can yield discrete groundwater and soil samples and allows
installation of small-diameter monitoring wells and piezometers.

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Figure 7. The 3 drilling rigs set up in the Cascade Drilling yard, Woodinville (Cannata).
Figure 8. GeoProbe Direct-Push drilling technology (Cannata).

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The second drilling technology was hollow stem augering (Figure 9). This CME 75 model drill
uses a diesel engine. An operator spins the auger, causing soil to come up into the center of the
rod where he/she collects the sample. The sample will be disturbed. This type of drill can also be
used to install a well.
The third and largest drill we observed is called a sonic drill (Figure 10). This drill uses
mechanical migration, down pressure, and slight rotation to push an auger into the ground. The
augers on this drill range from 6 to 12 inches in diameter. The drill can core to a depth of 670
feet and can drill through all materials, including bedrock.
Figure 9. Hollow-stem auger drilling technology (Cannata).

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Figure 10. Sonic drilling technology (Cannata).

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Standard Hand Auger
Hand auger drilling provides relatively inexpensive and quick information about the shallow
subsurface. One individual can transport and operate hand auger equipment with no power
required. It is ideal where fiscal, physical, or other restrictions may inhibit mechanical drilling
(Figure 11).
The necessary materials are: drill log forms, an auger bit, auger rods (enough for desired depth),
an auger handle, 2 pipe wrenches, 2 standard wrenches that fit auger rods, a split spoon sampler,
a split spoon sampling driver, sample bags, a tape measure, electrical tape, a camera, and halved
PVC pipe (Figure 12).
Find a suitable drill and record relevant information (GPS coordinates, elevation, and access) on
the drilling log form. Assemble the auger bit, one rod, and the auger handle using WD-40 or
similar lubricant on all threads to ensure easier disassembly. Begin coring by turning the auger
clockwise; the auger is always turned clockwise only, even when retracting the drill, to ensure no
part of the drill gets lost down the hole. After coring for approximately 6”, or when the drilled
material reaches the upper edge of the auger bit, retract the drill (with core) from the ground.
Using the tape measure, determine the total borehole depth.
Lay the 6” sample on a suitable, clean, surface for logging (Figure 13). Describe the sample and
place approximately ½ to 1 pound of the sample in a sample bag. Label the bag with the
approximate depth. Record depth to water (if water table breached).
When the driller can no longer progress the auger because the handle has reached the ground,
remove the handle using a wrench and add a second rod (using lubricant), reattach the handle
and resume drilling. Continue this process until you reach the desired depth or until you can no
longer progress the hole.

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Figure 11. Standard hand auger technology; not a standard crew, however (Cannata).
Figure 12. Collection of tools, equipment and people needed for successful augering (Cannata).

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Figure 13. Emptying and sampling from the auger (Cannata).
Split Spoon Hand Augering
In addition to coring and recording approximate depths as with the hand auger, one can recover
intact core and approximate density or firmness measurements with a split spoon.
Begin drilling as with the hand auger. When you reach the desired depth for intact sampling or
density/ firmness measurements, assemble the split spoon sampler with the driving handle. Place
the coring split spoon in the hole and lift the driving handle to the maximum height. Drop the
driving handle; do not push it downwards.
Drop the handle repeatedly until the split spoon advances 6” (electrical tape is useful to
determine depth progressed by marking the dropping handle or additional rods) and record the
number of drops on the log sheet. Continue this process twice more for a total of 18”; you can

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determine the density/firmness of the unit using the last 12” of the unit with corrections specific
to the split spoon and drop handle.
Carefully remove the split spoon sampler and lay it horizontally on the ground. Remove the
upper and lower screw rings and one half of the split spoon sampler. Using a tape measure,
determine the borehole depth. Mark the borehole depth on the sample in some manner and
photograph the sample. Log the intact core. Carefully remove the 18” sample from the split
spoon and place it is the halved PVC pipe. Continue this process (adding rods when necessary)
until desired depth or refusal.
2.4 Discontinuity Mapping
Discontinuities arise from a variety of geologic factors that affect outcrop integrity, with some
common discontinuities resulting from lithology and alteration differences, disconformities, and
structural changes. Discontinuities may be diagnostic of important outcrop changes and serve as
the basis for discerning domains. Discontinuities exist at several scales in most outcrops, so
observations should be made at several scales. One can document differences in geology by
defining any number of “domains” which help subsequent identification and description.
First, stand far enough back so you can observe the entire outcrop. From here, look for linear to
sub-linear features that may define structural or potential lithology changes. Next, look for color
changes that may distinguish lithology, alteration, or weathering changes. Then, look for textural
changes that may signify weathering, lithology or alteration changes.
Once you’ve identified possible discontinuities, examine the units on either side of the potential
discontinuity to determine the nature of the differences between units. Describe and document
the differences between the units in the geologist field book. To aid in identification and clarity,
one should ascribe a number or letter to each domain (e.g. a, b, c or I, II, III). If the potential
discontinuity marks notable changes, document and describe the orientation and nature of the
discontinuity in the same manner as each unit.
The method for documenting small-scale discontinuities should be the same as large-scale
discontinuities; however, one should restrict these discontinuities to a single domain.
Descriptions should continue at increasingly smaller scales until the geologist has reached the
desired mapping resolution.

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2.5 Provenance Determination
Provenance can be a diagnostic tool for distinguishing glacial from non-glacial deposits. Since
interglacial deposits can be mobilized sediments from prior glaciations, and since glaciations
remobilize local geologic units, identifying outliers is important for interpreting provenance.
Sand provides the best determination for provenance, so one should use sand samples whenever
possible.
The only necessary materials are a low-power microscope, a magnet, and your sample. First,
view sand samples under the low-powered microscope. Use any available tools, such as the
magnet, to determine proportion of quartz; garnet, epidote, and magnetite (GEM) minerals;
volcanics; felsic or granitics; lithics and organics. Estimate rough percentages of each mineral
type (to within 10%). Compare several samples from each location and determine relative
percentages for each provenance.
Some rocks and minerals are diagnostic. Greater than 5% volcanics indicates volcanic (non-
glacial) origin. GEM minerals indicate metamorphic terrain. Granitics can be diagnostic of many
granitic terrains (though not the Olympic Mountains). One can classify granites by constituent
minerals, which may be diagnostic of specific areas. Organics are typically indicative of
interglacial, fluvial deposits.
The physiographic province of the Pacific Northwest is characterized by the Cascade volcanoes,
the Columbia River Plateau, the Northern Cascades, and the Olympic Peninsula and other coastal
mountains (insert source). Quaternary glacial and interglacial sediments contain signatures from
these provinces; these signatures aid in determining the sediment source and the mechanism of
sediment transport for a given deposit.
The geologic signature of Mt. Rainier and other Cascade Volcanoes include lahar deposits,
extrusive igneous rocks, ash, pumice, and tuff. The Northern Cascades have a different signature
which includes high grade metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and phyllite. The Northern
Cascades, particularly Mt. Baker and Mt. Garibaldi, provide red (ferruginous) chert (source: Jim
Miller, oral communication). The provenance of the Olympic Peninsula is characterized by
basalt and micaceous greywacke.

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Differentiating Glacial from Non-Glacial Deposits
In the Puget Lowland, fluvial sediments from interglacial periods are mixed within glacial
sediments from Cordilleran Glaciation. Distinguishing glacial from non-glacial sediments helps
geologists determine stratigraphy and physical properties of geologic units. Three excellent
indicators that help tell glacial from non-glacial sediments are provenance, deposition and color.
Glacial deposits in the Puget Lowland are ice-borne sediments sourced from the north (North
Cascades, British Columbia) containing metamorphic minerals and felsic intrusive fragments.
These sediments arrive by glacial advance, recession and as relict deposits dropped from glacial
ice. Hand sample scale diagnostic advance and regression indicators include: diamict sediments,
non-organically derived clays, salt and pepper coloration from the mix of felsic and metamorphic
minerals, and rounded clasts. Glacial till indicators include: poor sorting (diamict), rounded
clasts (possibly with glacial striations), fine-grained matrix, and matrix supported.
Outwash deposits are some of the thickest glacial deposits in the Puget Lowland. Distinguishing
the origin of the sand grains is the best manner of determining provenance. Diagnostic minerals
for determining glacial origin of sands are GEM minerals, green and/or red coloration, relatively
high quartz (~ > 70%) content, low mica content, and low Potassium Feldspar content.
Additionally, dark purple to black coloration of beach sands is indicative of GEM minerals, even
in hand specimen.
Fluvial sediments in the Puget Lowland derive from melting winter snows and alpine glaciers to
the east in the Cascade Range. Along with typical stream-borne sediments, mass-wasting such as
lahars also form interglacial deposits. Diagnostic fluvial sediment indicators include: smaller
structure size (cross-bedding, imbrication), well sorted, clast-supported, composed of upstream
bedrock, and organics mixed with volcanics (colorful). Mineralogic indicators of interglacial
sediments include: high mica content, larger mica grains, higher Potassium Feldspar content.
Lahar indicators include: angular fragments, poor sorting, volcanic fragments, and fine-grained
matrix, often clay rich with easily weathered volcanic material (colorful).
An important part of interglacial identification is awareness of local geology. Glaciations
remobilize local rock types, but also transport non-local rocks. Identifying rocks that do not
belong to the local environment is the best way to distinguish between glacial and non-glacial
deposits.

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2.6 Soil Classification
Describing samples in the field and relating the descriptions to USCS conventions allows
understanding of material properties without expensive and time-consuming laboratory testing.
Field (visual-manual) descriptions are not a substitute for laboratory classification. One should
follow the standard method for field descriptions: ASTM D2488-09a Standard Practice for
Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure).
2.7 Test Pit Observations
Test pits provide shallow vertical, but laterally extensive subsurface exposure. Though drilling
may provide significant deeper information, test pits are typically less expensive than drilling
and can provide shallow surface contextual information that drilling may not.
FIGURE 14. On Mike Brown’s property, Troost leads a discussion about the geology of the test
pit (Cannata).
The necessary materials are: a test pit logging form, several colored pencils and pens, unit
description standards, and a camera. One should perform pit observation and description in a
similar manner to outcrop descriptions. Because test pits are typically refilled after description, it
is important to take special care with documenting and descriptions. One should: photograph test

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pit walls, accurately measure test pit dimensions, map domains, describe units, discontinuities,
and soil horizons using the same method for describing outcrops, and create an accurate section
profile of each wall of the test pit. Do NOT enter the test pit if greater than 4’ deep (per OSHA
standards).
2.8 Geographic Positioning System
Prior to the start of this field course, UW’s Department of Earth and Space Sciences purchased
two Trimble 7x Geo handheld global positioning systems with centimeter scale accuracy. While
Trimble’s data collection software (Terrasync) is very straightforward and user-friendly, its post-
processing software (Pathfinder Office) is not. This methods subsection is intended to aid future
MESSAGe students with the data flow from the GPS into ArcGIS.
The first step is to transfer files from the Trimble unit. Using the USB cable, connect the
handheld to a computer that has Pathfinder Office installed (such as the Dell Optiplex 755 in the
MESSAGe workroom). Open Pathfinder Office, and then click ‘data transfer’ under the utilities
tab.
Once you’ve transferred the files to a computer, click ‘open’ under the file tab and select one of
the .SSF files. Next, go to ‘differential correction’ under the utility tab. Select a nearby base
station (<150 miles) with a good rating (>90). For work in the Puget Lowlands, you’ll most
likely want to select the Eatonville station. The differential correction creates .COR files which
we now export into ArcGIS.
Go to ‘export’ under the utilities tab. Choose the appropriate file and select ‘New ESRI
Shapefile’ from the dropdown menu. Set the properties you want; these will appear as attributes
in your shapefiles. You might as well check all of them; it’s always better to have too much data
than too little. Next you need to define your export projection file under the coordinate system
tab. This step is tricky because ArcGIS versions 10.1 and later no longer include coordinate
system projection files. That means we have to find or create them ourselves!
We collected data in the WGS1984 coordinate system so we created the WGS1984.prj file and
placed it on the aforementioned MESSAGe workroom computer. To create another .PRJ file,
open Arc and go to the properties of some arbitrary shapefile. Under the coordinate system tab,
browse to the file you want and click the ‘add to favorites’ icon. This will create a .PRJ file

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somewhere on the hard drive (the exact location varies by machine). Once you’ve located the
.PRJ file, browse to it from the Pathfinder Office window and assign it as the projection file.
Alternatively, one can download the .PRJ files directly from the internet (Seilermapsupport,
2012).
Lastly, it is very important that you rename each new shapefile before creating the next one (and,
of course, it is important that you only rename shapefiles in ArcCatalog)! Pathfinder Office
creates one generic file name, so if you don’t rename the files each new one will overwrite the
previous one. I advise keeping the names of the respective .SSF, .COR, and .SHP consistent.

ESS 510 GEOLOGIC, GEOMORPHIC AND TECTONIC SETTINGS Robert Cannata
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3.0 GEOLOGIC, GEOMORPHIC AND TECTONIC SETTINGS
3.1 Vashon and Maury Islands
The channels of Puget Sound surround the elongate, NNE to NE-trending Vashon-Maury Island
of King County. The island is located about 20 km southwest of downtown Seattle within the
broad, low-lying Puget Lowland physiographic province (Booth, 1991). Vashon and Maury
Islands connect through an isthmus that local citizens built in 1913 near the community of
Portage. Prior to 1913, the connection between the islands existed only during periods of low
tide (John Manke, personal communication, 6/16/2014). The combined surface area of Vashon
and Maury Island is about 96 km2
with a maximum elevation over 200m above sea level, making
it the largest island in the Puget Sound south of Admiralty Inlet.
Steep, variably vegetated bluffs rise to over 100 m above the island shoreline, exposing 80 km of
south-central Puget Lowland glacial and non-glacial sediments around the island perimeter. The
material exposed in the bluffs is a sequence of consolidated and unconsolidated deposits
representing the arrival of the Vashon-age Puget Lobe of the Cordilleran ice sheet (Borden and
Troost, 2001). Working upward from the bluff base, low-permeability glaciolacustrine clay and
silt deposits are overlain by permeable sand and gravel glacial advance outwash deposits, which
are in turn capped by glacial till. The contact between the clay unit and the outwash forms an
important structural component of the Island in terms of geomorphology and slope stability, and
is important hydrogeologically in producing the aquitard underlying the outwash aquifer.
Evidence of ice-contact on the land surface is common throughout Vashon Island as sediments
held within melting ice were deposited in localized concentrations, forming a rounded and
undulating, hummocky land surface (K. Troost, personal communication).
Vashon Island lies within the east-west compressional tectonic regime of the Cascadia
subduction zone and the north-south compressional tectonics of the Tacoma fault (TF) (Figure
15). The eastern section of the TF extends through Colvos Passage, across the southern half of
Vashon Island, and across Poverty Bay to East Passage near Des Moines, WA (Johnson et al.,
2004). The TF is a system of north-dipping faults that are considered backthrusts of the Seattle
fault. Backthrusts are rare, thin-skinned crustal shortening events occurring in fold and thrust
belts during the propagation of forelands (Heim, 1997). One can see evidence of the TF in the
bluffs over Sandford Point in which the older glaciolacustrine deposits have been thrust nearly

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vertically upward to make a steep contact of apparent southward dip with the younger glacial
outwash deposits.
Figure 15. Structure contour map showing the altitude of the Vashon advance
outwash base, in feet (Booth, 1991). Inset map shows the approximate locations
of two Tacoma fault strands affecting Vashon Island (Nelson, et al., 2008). I =
Camp Sealth, II = Van Os Feeder Bluff, III = Sandford Point.

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3.2 Sequim
This section will focus on the geologic, geomorphic, and tectonic setting of the Sequim area in
the eastern half of Juan de Fuca Strait. This study area is within an active tectonic plate margin
known as the Cascadia subduction zone, where the Juan de Fuca plate is subducting beneath the
North American plate. The geology of the Sequim area is a glaciated marine and fluvial
environment with strong evidence of recent uplift (Figure 16). The stratigraphy is dominated by
a complex fill of glacial and interglacial deposits (Johnson et al., 2001). Offshore seismic-
reflection profiles show Pleistocene strata bounded by underlying Tertiary basement rock and
overlying post-glacial and Holocene deposits (Hewitt and Mosher, 2004). Currently, the eastern
Juan de Fuca Strait has a relatively low sediment input with only a few small creeks draining the
peninsula, resulting in sediments consisting of reworked shoreline and marine bank deposits
(Hewitt and Mosher, 2001).
The Sequim area lies on the north shore of the Olympic Peninsula, where evidence of recent
continental glaciation is exposed along bluffs and in beach environments. Lobes of continental
ice occupied these environments several times during the late Pleistocene. During the Vashon
Stage of the Fraser glaciation (15-13 kya), a lobe of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet extended westward
from the Puget Lowland into Juan de Fuca Strait (Thorson, 1980). The Juan de Fuca lobe
reached the edge of the continental shelf at its peak around ~14 kya, before rapidly retreating
back into the Puget lowland and to the Canadian border by ~13 kya (Hewitt and Mosher, 2001).
Rapid glacial retreat left behind deposits of ice-contact, glacial-marine sediment, and post-glacial
sediments, which experienced marine transgression and regression due to regional isotatic
rebound of the crust and global change in mean sea level following deglaciation (Dethier et al.,
1995). During glaciation, the crust depressed from the weight of the overlying ice sheet. Once
the ice sheet retreated, the land was still depressed and marine water reoccupied the Juan de Fuca
Strait (the Everson marine incursion). As the crust isostatically rebounded, local sea level
decreased while eustatic sea level began rising due to global deglaciation. An elevation model of
the region (Figure 17) shows relatively flat wave-cut surfaces that may indicate temporary
marine shorelines at different stages of isostatic rebound and eustasy.

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Figure 16. Geologic map of the Sequim area produced in ArcGIS (data from WA State DNR).

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Figure 17. Digital elevation model of the Sequim area, Washington (ArcGIS)
Sequim sits at the intersection of the uplifting Olympic Mountains and the east-west trending,
active crustal faults of the Puget Lowland (Figure 18). Our study area lies just west of a major
north-trending crustal boundary between pre-Tertiary and Tertiary basement rocks to the east and
younger Eocene rocks to the west (Johnson et al., 1994). Two major crustal fault systems border
the Sequim area to the east: the southern Whidbey Island fault zone (SWIF) and the Hood Canal
fault zone (HCF). Offset and deformation of strata at the base of the Quaternary and within the
Quaternary are visible in seismic-reflection profiles and provide evidence for Quaternary
movement on the SWIF (Johnson et al., 1996). Ice unloading may have induced seismicity and
fault movements in the upper crust on a shorter time scale than would normally occur. Tsunamis
from both subduction zone and crustal earthquakes pose a major threat to shorelines throughout
the Puget lowland (Williams et al., 2005).

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Figure 18. Structural elements of the Puget Lowland (taken from Johnson et al., 1999)
Figure 19. Sketch of littoral sediment transport at the beach below Van Os Feeder Bluff
(Cannata).

ESS 510 FINDINGS: VASHON ISLAND Robert Cannata
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4.0 FINDINGS: VASHON ISLAND
4.1 Van Os Feeder Bluff
Sediment transport
Sediment transport in coastal environments involves the interaction between geologic materials
and dynamic surface processes. Drift cells illustrate a complete cycle of sedimentation in coastal
systems; the sediment source area, generalized transport pathway, and final sink area. Geologists
have mapped drift cells in the Puget Lowlands for several decades to analyze the complex
coastal erosion properties of the Puget Lowland region.
The Van Os feeder bluffs have complex stratigraphic units containing sands, silts, clays, and
different sized gravels. The bluffs supply sediment to the beach via mass wasting where wind
and wave action become the primary transport mechanisms. The dominant drift cell is westward
with a less dominant eastward component that meet at the cuspate portion of the beach. These
drift cells (Figure 19) are likely causing sediment to aggrade in the apparent downdrift beach
cusp.
In the westward direction, sand content of the beach decreases while the concentration and size
of gravels on the beach increases. A natural accumulation of boulders and large cobbles occupies
an approximate 100 square meter area in the intertidal zone of the shore face. This lobate deposit
resembles and probably acts like an anthropogenic jetty or groin structure (Figure 20). The
intertidal zone widens close to this structure. The directions of the drift cell and accumulating
cuspate formation suggest that higher-energy flows may transport and deposit cobbles and
gravels at the structure; however, the transport mechanism for the boulders remains enigmatic,
but is thought to be associated with high-energy sub-glacial processes during the Vashon
glaciation (class discussions). The origin of the boulders is most-likely local even given the
Vashon-age transport mechanism; although it is not impossible these boulders were transported
from elsewhere. The shape of the beach and lack of sand suggest that the beach west of the lag
deposit is eroding more quickly than the east. The slope of the beach shallows from west to east.
Elevation Profile and Measured Section for Van Os Feeder Bluff
Groups established a GPS base station along each section line. Using a Trimble Geo 7x handheld
GPS unit, teams established location and elevation data for each base station. From each base

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station, teams used a Laser Rangefinder to determine horizontal and vertical distances to
elevation and geology breaks and changes. By plotting these distances on a vertical section map,
teams established four elevation profiles with associated measured geologic sections (Figure 21).
Provenance Charts for Sandford Point and Van Os Feeder Bluff
Groups sampled each distinct geologic unit at each section. At Camp Sealth, we analyzed these
samples to determine provenance using the standardized method (Appendix).
Pebble Counts for Van Os Beach
Along each section, groups chose an area on the beach to perform a Wolman pebble count in
order to measure grain size distribution. We used a 1 x 1 meter square sampling area and
randomly measured 100 individual grains and classified them with a Gravelometer. Kristina
Sumner compiled pebble counts (Appendix B).
Figure 20. Jetty-like lag deposit downdrift of the Van Os bluffs (Cannata).

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Figure 21. Section of Transect 4 at Van Os bluffs (Cannata).

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4.2 Sandford Point
Structure and Seepage Maps for Sandford Point
To assess the stability of the bluff between Sandford Point and Christiansen Cove, we
documented hazards, geologic structure, material properties, and groundwater exposure along
approximately 0.6 mile beach and bluff reach. We accomplished this task in 1.5 days, and broke
up into groups by discipline focus:
Structural geology: Cesmat, Conrado, Favia, Gault, Manke, Tinklepaugh.
Seepage: Holmes, Marshburn, Spickert, Sumner.
Geomorphology: Cannata, Fish, Twomey, Wilson.
Provenance: Eckles, Gauglitz, Pivaroff-Ward, Weitering.
Along this reach, we established 15 GPS stations (labelled A to M) seaward of key areas of
interest (Figure 22). Teams used these GPS locations for reference. Our group activities included
observing landslide scars and slumps, measuring strike and dip of bedding, contacts, faults and
folds, collecting samples for provenance analysis, and identifying the locations and nature of
groundwater seeps.

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Figure 22. Map of Sanford Point with GPS coordinates (Cesmat).

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Structural geology
Geologic units at Sandford Point on Vashon Island contain evidence for deformation that is
likely related to the Puget Lowland compressional tectonic regime. The Puget Lowland lies
within an active compressional regime where active crustal faults displace Quaternary glacial
deposits and older Tertiary bedrock. Because the Quaternary deposits at Sandford Point are
unconsolidated, deformation within them can be convoluted and difficult to interpret. At
Sandford point, bluff faces show evidence for displacements between clay and overlying sand.
We made interpretations based on these observations and on existing data from published maps.
One can find two types of deformation in Puget Lowland glacial deposits: tectonic deformation
from crustal faults and deformation from ice. Distinguishing the two at a small scale (outcrop
scale or smaller) can be difficult. At Sandford Point, as stated above, we interpret the
deformation to be tectonic. This reasoning is two-fold: the relative sense of motion of the clay
with respect to the sand indicates deformation from crustal faults and the presumably large
amount of offset is unlikely to occur as a result of ice deformation. The western end of the
Tacoma Fault cuts through this region of Vashon Island. The Tacoma Fault is a high angle
reverse fault with as much as 10 kilometers of offset (Sherrod et al. 2004). The Tacoma Fault is a
north-dipping fault that verges to the south.
Structures observable at the outcrop scale include joint sets within the clay, offsets within the
sand, and fault planes that displace stratigraphic contacts between the clay and the overlying
sand. Joint sets within the clay form a conjugate pair (Figure 23) indicating that during
deformation parts of the clay behaved as a brittle material. A π-diagram analysis of fold limb
orientations at the northern portion of the study area (Figure 24) yields a fold axis orientation of
approximately 160:40 (Figure 25). A fold axis helps determine the compression direction of the
tectonic deformation, which is perpendicular to the trend of the fold axis. The northern part of
the study area at Sandford Point has a compression direction that is generally northeast-
southwest. This is somewhat consistent with published literature where the compression
direction is north-south (Sherrod et al. 2004). In order to calculate a more accurate fold axis
orientation, more data needs to be collected.
Two dominant fault planes are visible along the bluff. The southern fault surface is a zone of
deformation that is approximately six feet wide. The deformation zone between the sand and

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clay is marked by oxidation, some brecciated clay, and folding. Folding within the clay and the
sand is foot to sub-foot scale. These folds are indicative of plastic-type rheological behavior that
occurred during deformation. Because this deformation zone contains both folding and
brecciation, one can infer that the material behavior changed during deformation.
Figure 23. Joints in the clay unit plotted on a stereonet show that the joints form a conjugate set.
Figure 24. Jesse Favia pointing out folds at the north end of Sandford Point

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Figure 25. Pi-diagram of fold limb and hinge line orientations from the northern part of the
study area at Sanford Point. Yellow indicates fold axis orientation. The southeastern quadrant
contains hingeline orientations and the north eastern.
Water Seepage
During our time at Sandford Point we observed two major seeps. Both seeps were located in the
northernmost portion of the study area. We observed Seep #1 in the fractures in the lower clay
unit. In the sand unit above, there was no surface expression of the water. However, wet-soil
vegetation on the bluff suggests that water moves somewhat freely throughout the sand unit.
Seep #2 was visible on the surface above the clay unit and formed a small stream coming down
the bluff-face and continuing across the beach. After further investigation higher on the bluff, we
observed that the seep begins almost near the top of the bluff. The water then persists as both
surface flow and near-surface groundwater flow. Similar areas of over-saturated ground likely
form elsewhere on the bluff during wetter times of the year.
Geomorphology
Our field reconnaissance at Sandford Point revealed slope failures dominated by mechanisms
alternative to the notorious deep-seated rotational failure associated with the infamous contacts
between the outwash sands and lacustrine clays along the Puget Sound coast. We expected to
see some evidence of shallow or deep-seated rotations in addition to sand colluvium
accumulating atop a prominent clay bench.

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Instead, we observed no evidence for rotational or translational failures of the clay formation, nor
evidence for significant wave-cut erosion at the bases of the cliffs. We mainly saw both clay and
sand bluffs failing as block or slab falls (Figure 26), while colluvium of these materials
expressed varied failure types, like debris and mud flows (Figure 27), creep, and translational
slides.
On exposed surfaces, root growth appeared to be an active force of physical weathering on both
the clay and sand units (Figure 28). There were areas of clay, drier and weaker than typically
seen, that displayed fissures approximately ½” deep.
Figure 26. Farin Wilson standing at Station B pointing out the water seepage and root action
working on the clay formation. At her feet are intact cobble and boulder-sized blocks of clay
formation that have fallen from in-situ (Cannata).

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Figure 27 (Above). Niall Twomey, Bart Weitering, and Evan
Eckles at the base of a debris/mud flow that appeared to be
channelized by the surrounding geologic formation (Cannata).
Figure 28 (Right). Close up view of the effects of physical
weathering (root action) on the sand formation. Note the
blocky angular nature of the stable sand face around the area
that has failed. This suggests the sand is partially cohesive and
must be failing by slab and block fall (Cannata).

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Provenance
On June 17, 2014 Katie Gauglitz and Kendra Pivaroff-Ward sampled each unit in the bluffs at Sandford Point at designated reference
points marked A through M (Figures 22, 29). They found that there were two dominant units; one was a fine-grained sand with coarse
sand and gravel, and the other was a sandy clay with silt and coarse sand and fine gravel dropstones. We analyzed these samples in the
laboratory using microscopes to determine the provenance of the units. The results (Appendix B) were inconclusive. It is unclear
whether or not the sand unit is continuous throughout the study reach or if multiple sands from various provenances compose what
was observed and sampled in the bluffs during our visit.
Figure 29. Sandford Point bluff sketch.

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4.3 Brown Property & Hydrologic Conceptual Model
The locations of subsurface exploration were in the low- and mid-lying topographic areas of a
partially-incised valley and on the upper east half of the property (Figure 30). We divided into 3
teams, each taking a turn at trench logging (excavation), manual augering with a standard auger
(southwestern-most borehole in valley), and manual augering with a split-spoon auger (south of
residence). Each team mapped the trench and drilled and sampled boreholes according to the
Unified Soil Classification System and the Standard Operating Procedures outlined in Methods.
We collected digital GPS locations of all subsurface points of exploration, and used an autolevel
for measuring relative elevation data.
We collared 3 split-spoon boreholes on the southeast part of the property approximately 10 m
south of the house, in an area claimbed by the resident to be seasonally dry (denoted on map).
Two of the three standard auger boreholes were located in topographic depressions on the
southwest portion of the property (lowland area on map). One was collared in a depression that
ponded water prior to the 2001 Nisqually Earthquake, while the other borehole was collared
against the chain-link property fence that runs west alongside the boundary at the topographical
low of the property. For trench logging, we described the walls of a 14.5ft by 2.5ft by 5ft (L x W
x D) trench excavated by the property owner in the mid-section of the property. The results of
the trench observations are detailed in Figure 31.
In addition to our group’s subsurface findings, we compiled well logs from historic drilling
activities (Figures 32 and 33) to aid our development of the hydrostratigraphic conceptual model.
In this case, a simple conceptual model is illustrated in Figure 34. A shallow (3 feet) veneer of
brown loose silty gravelly sands with organics (artificial fill) overlies a mottled grayish brown
dense, partially weathered, matrix-supported diamict (glacial till), which is underlain by a gray
saturated silty clay (glaciolacustrine). This stratigraphy resembles the typical sequence of glacial
advance - glacial till overlying glaciolacustrine deposits - and has implications for the
hydrogeologic nature of the site.

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Figure 30. Sketch of property (Cannata, inspired by J.Tinkleplaugh’s drawing).
Figure 31. Observation sketch and stratigraphic column (right) of excavation trench (3H: 4V
exaggeration; Cannata). Root-like structures are un-weathered centrally along their axes while
bound by rust-colored margins that are interpreted as zones of accumulation metal oxides and that
represent the advancing weathering zone.

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Figure 32. Oblique Google map with approximated locations of four historical well logs (F.Wilson).

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Figure 33. Summary of Ecology well logs for four past drilling events (four left columns) and two boreholes by UW MESSAGe 2G
(two right columns) (F.Wilson). All stratigraphic columns are vertically oriented by surface elevation as measured on the far left axis
(elevation in feet above sea level). The scales immediately to the left of the columns denote depth of boring.

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Local topography, stratigraphy, and geologic materials control groundwater flow. The water table in the phreatic zone usually reflects surface
topography. Groundwater generally follows the local topography from higher to lower elevations. For this site, the upper east half of the
property flows into to the lower elevations of the western half, and then eventually down to sea level at the coast (Figure 34). The local
stratigraphy and geologic materials are responsible for heterogeneity and anisotropy of the subsurface, which result in the formation of
preferential flow pathways and variations in hydraulic conductivity. Groundwater tends to follow the preferential pathways and areas of
relatively higher hydraulic conductivity. The Holocene fill and glacial till are more permeable and hydraulically conductive than the
underlying silty clay unit. As a result, groundwater flow may partially deflect at this contact and favor horizontal movement.
Figure 34. Hydrogeologic conceptual model with elevation (feet above sea level) versus horizontal distance, and with illustrated
stratigraphic findings from hand augering (Cannata, Wilson). The brackets around the geologic contact constrain the possible position
range as a result of limited subsurface exploration. Blue line approximates the water table.

ESS 510 FINDINGS: NORTHEAST OLYMPIC PENINSULA Robert Cannata
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5.0 FINDINGS: NORTHEAST OLYMPIC PENINSULA
5.1 Discovery Bay
Physical Description
The southern tip of Discovery Bay is a broad tidal flat nestled between forested areas of higher
relief to the east and west. An abandoned train trestle and the intersection of Highways 20 and
101 bound the tidal flat to the south. The site is part of a restored estuary with a primary goal of
improving fish and wildlife habitat. Several creeks intersect dense areas of reed grass in reaches
outside the high tide zone, including Salmon Creek, which flows northwest through the estuary
into the bay. Within the tidal zone, soft, fine-grained sediments are cut by intertidal streams.
Geologic Materials
The geologic materials in the study area consist of saturated organic soils with intervals of sandy
soil (Figure 35). The organic soils range in character from dark brown to brown and grey,
mottled peat, silty peat and clayey peat. We determined this by the behavior of the soil during a
Humus Test. Thin layers of sandy soils interbedded within the silty organic soils indicate
deposition in a higher energy environment, such as that of a tsunami, than normally exists in the
quiet estuarine environment. These sandy layers are greenish grey, contain silt and clay, and
range in thickness from <5cm to >10 cm. We encountered them at depths of 0.6m – 1.0 m in the
tidal marsh areas on the north side of the train trestle (Figure 36). A more detailed description of
the sediment core samples is given in Appendix B.

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Figure 35. Tsunami sand layer in the bank of Salmon Creek, which cuts through the salt marsh
at the head of Discovery Bay (Ian Miller)
Figure 36. Core sites in the Discovery Bay marsh on 20 June 2014 (Ian Miller)

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Figure 37a. Measured section of reference point 1
Figure 37b. Measured section of reference point 2

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5.2 Dungeness Bluff
The bluffs we studied are located within the Dungeness Recreation Area and National Wildlife
Refuge of Clallam County. We separated into two groups and examined two sections of bluff to
the west of the beach entrance (Figure 37).
To the east of the entrance, a 6.5 mile long spit extends northeast into the Strait of Juan de Fuca.
The bluffs to the west of the entrance were roughly 120 feet tall with sparse vegetation on the
slopes. There were signs at intervals along the base of the bluffs warning visitors to stay off the
slopes. The three main units present at each outcrop are sandy gravel, lenticular sand and gravel,
and a fine-grained layer.
Geologic Materials
Sandy Gravel
The bottom unit consists of sub-rounded gravels and a dark gray fine- to medium-grained sand
matrix. It is mostly covered at beach elevation. We observed that the material was dense and
moist, likely due to exposure to high tides. The presence of greywacke indicates that the gravels
derive from the Olympic Mountain Range. We estimated the unit to be at least several feet thick,
although our observation point was limited by the base of the bluff.
Lenticular Sand and Gravel
The sand displays many cross bedding relationships with thick lenses of sand and gravel. This
unit is up to 50 feet thick in areas and was often covered by sandy colluvium. Sand and gravels
from the unit appear to have northern provenance, suggesting glacial transport. The unit’s
thickness and provenance suggest that this deposit is glacial outwash.
Fine Grained Unit
We measured the silt and clay unit to be approximately 10 feet thick. It was dark gray, very stiff
and massive at beach level. We observed another exposure approximately 75 feet up the bluff
with sand and gravel; it appeared that the sand was differentially eroding from the unit. These
sediments were likely deposited in lacustrine environments, possibly from pro-glacial lakes.
Bluff Retreat and Sediment Transport

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There are three main modes of bluff retreat at Dungeness Bluff: dry ravel, small scale mud flows,
and block topple. During the time of our visit, dry ravel appeared to be to dominant mode of
bluff retreat. We observed colluvial fans at many points along the base of the bluff as well as
small dry flows of sand and gravel (Figure 38). Shallow incisions were present on some portions
of the site, indicating water-aided sediment transport off of the bluff. Gravels were the most
evident within the cut channels, showing that the sandy matrix of the gravel lenses were
preferentially eroded during times of precipitation.
Figure 38. Dry ravel, colluvial fans on the bluff face at reference point 2 (Weitering)
Given that the Dungeness Spit has been built up to the northeast, it stands to reason that the
alongshore drift is transporting sediments to the northeast. This process of bluff erosion provides
a constant source of new sediments which reinforce the spit.

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5.3 Sequim Bay State Park
We studied beach bluffs within Sequim Bay State Park to analyze the geologic composition and
strength of the bluffs. Our class split up into pairs and mapped 100 foot sections of the bluff.
The bluff ranged from about 15 to 30 feet high. A stream bisects the bluff. It has varying degrees
of vegetation. Fallen trees were present on the beach. Most logs were still perpendicular to the
slope, suggesting minimal wave action within Sequim Bay. A restroom inland from the beach
closed in 2008 because soil creep and weak geologic materials threatened the building’s
foundation. The slope consists of two main units: till and a younger weathered sedimentary unit
(Figure 39).
Geologic Materials
Till
The till layer is approximately 5 feet thick. It’s a dense gray diamict with well-rounded gravel
and cobbles of northern provenance. Tree roots extensively bioturbated the top of the unit, and
the lower part of the unit is oxidized. We interpret this unit as till for several reasons: the glacial
history of the area, the northern sourced sediments within the unit, and its high density. Some
larger intact blocks of this unit can be seen slumping down on to the lower unit.
Fine Grained Sandstone
The Oligocene Makkah Formation, in the Twin Rivers Group, is grey fine-grained sandstone
variably weathered to a reddish-brown color. Exposures of this unit are greater than 20 feet thick
in areas, but outcrops on the beach indicate that the unit extends below beach level. Most of the
unit is heavily fractured and blocky. This fracture texture likely allowed water to infiltrate
through most of the rock, which expedited weathering on the exposed face. According to the
International Society of Rock Mechanics’ (ISRM) guide to state of weathering, most of this unit
would be considered moderately (III) to highly (IV) weathered. We classified the strength of this
section as R1 or very weak rock by the IRSM’s guidelines for describing rock strength. The
highly weathered nature of the country rock made it difficult to discern consistent strike and dip
of discontinuities.

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Further north, the fine-grained sandstone bedrock was light gray in color and contained two
discrete layers of large carbonate concretions. Several joints cross-cut the outcrop with major
sets striking 50, 70, 305, 350 degrees and dipping 48S, 78N, 31W, 48W, respectively. They have
1 to 3 cm spacing, very low to medium persistence, 1 to 2 termination, and R3 strength. The
bedrock weathers flaky and blocky in particular sections. Some areas of the bedrock experience
more oxidation than others due to seepage coming from the top of the bluff. The areas affected
by the seepage are slightly less indurated and discolored than the rest of the rock. The rock is
grade II: slightly weathered and has rock strength R2: weak (ISRM). It has low hardness (LH)
based on the FHWA, 2002b guidelines. The concretions are much harder than the parent rock
(R4 strength). As the bluff retreats and the parent rock erodes, the concretions fall out onto the
beach, leaving oval shaped cavities in the outcrop.
Bluff Retreat and Sediment Transport
Upslope evidence, such as the defunct restroom and crooked trees, suggest soil creep processes
occur in the Sequim Bay area. This process appears to be gradual with occasional small
landslide events. The beach bluff expresses this through the undermining of the relatively intact
till layer by removal of the underlying weathered sedimentary unit. Evidence of undermining is
exists in small colluvial fans collecting on the beach that appear to derive from the lower
sandstone unit. Considering the high degree of fracturing and oxidized state of the sandstone
unit, it is likely that water can travel through the unit with relative ease. Water increases the pore
pressure within the unit, destabilizing the slope and cause small translational slides. We
observed a tension crack roughly 330 feet northwest of the Sequim Bay moorage dock, parallel
to a 3 to 4 foot high scarp above a slumped section of the bluff. This feature suggests that the
slope can fail by translational movements.
Sediment transport is minimal within Sequim Bay. Observations of fallen trees resting
perpendicular to the bluff are consistent with the minimal wave action in the sheltered bay. Most
of the sediment transport in this research area appears to be centered around the stream running
northeast into the bay. This stream has deposited sediment around its mouth, creating a fan that
extends 75 feet into the bay.

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Figure 39. Sequim Bay State Park bluff sketch

ESS 510 DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS Robert Cannata
July 2014 P a g e | 52 of 118
6.0 DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION
6.1 Bluff Retreat Comparison
Describe the similarities and differences between the style of bluff retreat for Vashon Island and
the bluffs on the Strait. Why might they be different or similar?
Johannessen and MacLennan (2007) present a robust synopsis of Puget Sound beach and bluff
processes in Technical Report 04 prepared in support of the Puget Sound Nearshore Partnership.
Conceptually, they categorize the overall processes affecting bluff systems by first-order factors
such as climate and sea-level rise, and then by second-order, site-specific factors. For this
discussion, I examine the 4 localities in context of selected second-order factors both
quantitatively and qualitatively (where possible). All the second-order factors they present
include:
1) Bluff characteristics
a. Composition
b. Resistance
c. Permeability
d. Slope structure
e. Bluff weakness
2) Local topography (i.e. upland relief)
a. Slope’s landslide history
3) Hydrodynamics
4) Natural protection offered by the beach (narrow vs. broad, reflective vs. dissipative)
5) Management practices
Because the above factors can have spatiotemporal variability across individual bluff systems, so
too can bluff retreat and erosion drivers. For this reason, the erosion drivers can often be difficult
to differentiate, so it is helpful to think about them as grouped by marine, subaerial and anthro-
induced processes. In doing this, we can better examine the superimposed nature of erosion
drivers and how they affect the retreat of a bluff system.
Table 1 presents a relatively comprehensive summary of the second-order factors at play on the
bluff systems at the 4 localities. I sourced these observations and information from the group

July 2014 P a g e | 53 of 118
report, my field logbook, and memory. I interpreted these data and designated a qualitative color-
scheme that corresponds to their significance to bluff stability and erosion susceptibility. This
color-scheme is based on my subjective interpretation of each parameter in relation to the bluff
system. This qualitative metric is gradational. It starts with green highlighting that indicates the
factor most-likely favors slope stability and therefore reduces erosion susceptibility. It then
grades into orange highlighting indicating the factor is an intermediary between promotion and
reduction of erosion susceptibility. The last metric is red highlighting and indicates that the
present circumstances most-likely favor slope instability, which therefore increases erosion
susceptibility.
The Dungeness bluff system is most likely undergoing the most rapid and intense bluff retreat
with the highest erosion rates relative to the other systems. Given the circumstances, its
geographic location, orientation, high-degree of exposure to the marine environment, geologic
composition, and other characteristics, it is reasonable to argue that the Dungeness bluffs exhibit
an extreme case of bluff retreat.
The next highest bluff retreat rate most likely occurs at the Van Os bluff system. Here, a
combination of the fetch distance (open all the way north to Whidbey Island and further) and
marine exposure, orientation (although not ideal for conveyance of winter storm energy but still
considerable), and the poorly consolidated nature of the bluff geology itself contribute to erosion.
Despite partial vegetation cover and the dissipative effects of the cobble and boulder lag deposit
beach-ward of the slopes, these bluffs still exhibit moderate retreat as compared to the others.
The last two bluff systems at Sequim Bay and Sandford Point arguably have the lowest relative
retreat rates for similar reasons. Sandford Point has higher relief at approximately 50 meters
whereas Sequim Bay is only approximately 10 meters above the shore. Despite these upland
reliefs, these two systems share the following characteristics that promote slope stability and that
I attribute to their lower relative retreat rates: the fact that these units are either consolidated or
lithified, and the fact that the slope is heavily to moderately vegetated; limited exposure, fetch,
and non-ideal orientation; and a broad shoreface that dissipates incoming wave attack.
Also, I noticed an important observation that colluvium-buttressed slopes occurred at 3 out of the
4 bluff systems with Sequim Bay State Park being the outlier. Colluvium-buttressing plays an
important role in support of the slope toe while forming a protective barrier against wave attack

July 2014 P a g e | 54 of 118
from the marine environment (Johannessen and MacLennan, 2007). The most-likely reason for
this lack of colluvium base is due to the lack of sediment supply above and along this beach.

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TABLE 1. Summary of bluff characteristics and processes related to bluff retreat with qualitative erosion rates at the 4 field localities.
Upland
Relief
[m]
Vegetation
Cover
Geology and
Stratigraphy
Aspect
[Azim]
Exposure
& Fetch
Slope Failure
Mechanisms
Beach
Type
Erosion Drivers
Qualitative
Bluff
Erosion
Retreat
Van Os
(Maury Island)
20 to 30
Moderate
(deciduous trees
and some brush)
Variable
(clay to cobble);
overall poorly
consolidated
N
Open 58 km
to the north
sloughing, dry
ravel
Broad,
cobble and
boulder lag
deposit
marine = subaerial =
anthro
MODERATE
Sandford Point
(Vashon Island)
50
Heavy
(mixed trees
and brush) tree
fall is usually
perpendicular to
shore
sand < clay;
consolidated in
places
NW
Limited
by Colvos
Passage and
aspect
variable
Broad, some
cobble
deposits
subaerial = anthro >
marine
LOW
Dungeness Coast
Bluffs
(Strait of Juan de Fuca)
60 to 70 Light to None
Variable
(clay to cobble);
overall poorly
consolidated
NW
Open to
Straits de
Juan de Fuca
sloughing, dry
ravel, slumping
Narrow
(compared to
bluff system);
no observed
lag deposits
marine > subaerial >
anthro
EXTREME
Sequim Bay
10
Moderate to
Heavy
(mixed tress and
brush) tree fall
mainly
perpendicular to
shore
silt < sand; till over
lithified bedrock
base
NE
Limited
by
embayment
and aspect
slow-weathering
bedrock
Broad,
cobble lag
deposits
anthro = subaerial >
marine
LOW
Observations Interpretation
Location

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6.2 Sediment Transport Comparison
Describe the similarities and differences between beach sediment transport in Puget Sound and
on the Strait de Juan de Fuca. Why might they be similar or different?
Within the nearshore system, a dynamic exchange occurs between sediment erosion,
entrainment, transport, and deposition. Sediment transport within the littoral zone depends
primarily on a beach’s exposure to erosion via wind and wave energy, and the availability of
sediment sources to feed the nearshore transport system. These components ultimately control
the resultant geomorphology of the beach. Because of this formational dynamic and its spatial
variability, we observed both similarities and differences in the 4 coastal environments across
Puget Sound and the Straits de Juan de Fuca.
The sediment transport system at Van Os feeder bluff is unique in its location and orientation
within Puget Sound; however, the loose and unconsolidated deposits of its bluffs are similar to
the conditions at Dungeness Spit and some parts of Sandford Point. For these reasons, despite its
lack of an ideal orientation to the south for the infamous winter wind storms, this beach is open
to a substantial fetch to the north, which still fosters a high-energy wave climate on occasion.
This wave climate, acting on a bluff of loose and unconsolidated glacial deposits mainly sands,
maintains an adequate sediment supply to the nearshore transport system. As a result, the Van Os
littoral system is most-likely the second most dynamic and voluminous system in our collective
group in terms of sediment erosion, transport and relocation.
The sediment transport system at Sandford Point stands apart from the collective group in its
relatively well-vegetated bluffs of loose, unconsolidated glacial deposits. This bluff system is
rather well-protected from the already-reduced wave and wind climate of the Colvos Passage,
which severely reduces the sediment erosion and supply to the littoral transport system, and
makes this locality one of the least active transport systems.
Sequim Bay is also one of least active transport systems. Effectively, it can be considered an
enclosed coastal inlet given its geomorphic configuration, because a barrier beach truncates the
majority of the bay’s mouth opening into the Straits de Juan de Fuca, and functions to limit the
wave energy into the bay. Further, the bay’s orientation to the north is not ideal for southern
wind storms. Johannessen and MacLennan (2007) remark there is no appreciable net shore-drift
occurring along rocky shores or in enclosed shorelines. The observed section of Sequim Bay is

July 2014 P a g e | 57 of 118
composed of sandstone bedrock capped by unconsolidated glacial tills. The geologic
composition of the bluffs compounded by a reduced wave climate creates an environment that
significantly limits the sediment transport system operating within Sequim Bay.
In comparison, the sediment transport system operating at Dungeness Spit is a far more high-
energy environment and arguably the highest of the collective group, and therefore, most-likely
has the greatest capacity for sediment erosion, transport and relocation. Its location and
orientation on the Straits provides the ideal scenario for exposure to high-energy storm events.
Coupled with the geologic composition of the bluffs, which are rather loose and unconsolidated
glacial deposits, make the perfect conditions for voluminous sediment erosion and transport
within the nearshore system, even despite a relatively moderate tidal range. Dungeness Spit is
probably the most active and dynamic beach system we observed.

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TABLE 2. Summary of sediment transport system in the littoral zone at 4 field localities.
Beach Location
Upland
Relief
[m]
Mean Tidal
Range
[ft]
Geologic
Composition
Beach
Type
Exposure
and
Fetch
Sediment Source
[based on geologic
composition]
Local Wave Climate
Qualifier
[based on exposure & fetch]
Sediment
Transport
Qualifier
Van Os
(Maury Island)
20 to 30 8.071
Variable
(clay to cobble;
overall poorly
consolidated)
Broad
(cobble and
boulder lag
deposits)
Open
(58 km to the
north)
YES MODERATE MODERATE
Sandford Point
(Vashon Island)
50 8.071
sand < clay
(consolidated in
places)
Broad
(some cobble
deposits)
Limited
(Colvos Passage &
aspect)
LIMITED MODERATE LOW
Dungeness Coast
60 to 70 5.342
Variable
(clay to cobble;
overall poorly
consolidated)
Narrow
(compared to
bluff system; no
observed lag
deposits)
Open
(58 km to the
north)
YES HIGH HIGH
Sequim Bay
10 4.603 silt < sand
(till over bedrock)
Broad
(cobble lag
deposits)
Limited
(embayment &
aspect)
LIMITED LOW LOW
1
Tacoma, Tide Station # 9446484; 2
Port Townsend, Tide Station # 9444900; 3
Port Angeles Harbor, Tide Station # 9444090
Observation Interpretation

July 2014 P a g e | 59 of 118
6.3 Provenance Comparison
Describe the similarities and differences in the provenance of the sand for each site.
The provenance of a geologic material describes its origin in geographical space and geological
time. This information is helpful to differentiate geologic deposits, especially when other
information is limited. In our case, we use provenance studies to distinguish glacial sediments of
the Cordilleran Glaciation from non-glacial deposits of interglacial periods. Based on our
knowledge of geological history and the geographical distribution of rock lithologies within the
local physiographic province, we can rudimentarily associate a given mineralogy with a
particular locality and therefore assign a provenance. From this rudimentary association, we can
make conclusions about the nature of a deposit and its position within the local stratigraphic
sequence. However, our provenance studies should be taken with caution because they lack a
credible level of confidence. They would benefit from additional laboratory analyses to provide
further evidence to corroborate these findings.
We collected sand samples at 4 beach localities. Table 3 organizes the general findings of the 4
provenance studies. From the summarized results, we see that provenance studies can be variable
and indeterminate as far as conclusively distinguishing the provenance of a given geologic
material.
Table 3. Summarized provenance studies of 3 localities.
Beach Location Sample
1st dominant
lithology
2nd dominant
lithology
Glacial or
Non-glacial
Van Os
(Maury Island)
Section 1 Basalt Andesite Glacial
Sandford Point
(Vashon Island)
variable variable variable variable
Transect A Sedimentary Metamorphic Glacial
Transect B Granitic Sedimentary Non-glacial
Dungeness Coast

July 2014 P a g e | 60 of 118
6.4 Residential development at Sandford Point
Describe your assessment of the geologic conditions at Sandford Point relative to the high-
density housing proposed by King County. Will the residential development be detrimental to the
stability of the bluff? What hazards are present that could impact the residents? Should King
County allow the development?
Regardless of the various hazards present to humanity and the environment, it seems land
development is inevitable in the Puget Lowland, especially in coastal areas with scenic vistas. As
practicing geologists, we are duty-bound to inform the public of the risks associated with
development in such areas of critical geohazards so we can best prepare and be safe in the face of
this type of “sustainable” development.
The proposed development at Sandford Point, like most of all development on the coastal bluffs
in the Puget Lowland, has a mix of positive and negative effects on slope stability. Where
possible, geotechnical engineered solutions can be used to either 1) reinforce the positive
features of the slopes that naturally decrease risk to public health and safety, or 2) mitigate the
increased risk from the negatives presented by the proposed development. With these
possibilities in mind, the proposed residential development above the bluffs at Sandford Point
could be undertaken if responsible building practices and codes are followed and common sense
prevails, while simultaneously even benefiting the public and the environment.
The prominent negative features of development on this coastal terrace are associated with the
disruption to naturally-occurring processes. For instance, disturbance to vegetation cover, natural
groundwater infiltration and surface runoff are in all likelihood to negatively impact the stability
of the bluff system by undermining its natural internal cohesion. The presence of buildings and
other infrastructure on top of the terrace introduces a loading surcharge to the landform, which
imparts an additional overburden pressure on the slope and impacts its overall stability. Luckily,
these issues can be addressed with engineered solutions, given the diverse portfolio of modern
geotechnical advances. For example, pile installation can be used to redistribute the footing
foundation pressures deeper down into the landform. Further, drainage infrastructure can be
installed to reduce surface runoff. Through catchment and channelization technology, intercepted
precipitation can be redirected to the local municipal water system, discharged to the coast or
channeled into the ground as artificial infiltration (depending on what is determined the best

July 2014 P a g e | 61 of 118
practice for the structural integrity of the hillslope and the health of the environment). However,
artificial infiltration would increase the volume of groundwater, and in some cases, where
groundwater becomes perched above zones of reduced permeability, a buildup of hydrostatic
pressure here has the tendency to reduce effective normal stresses and introduce subsurface
instability and circumstances conducive to subsidence, liquefaction or slope failure. The risk of
this situation can be reduced through dewatering, groundwater extraction or other drainage
methodologies.
All things considered, the most prominent negatives of residential development on this plat have
to do with the disruption of natural processes, but these can be reduced or avoided through
responsible building practices and common sense. However, there is always an element of
unpredictability from Nature that no amount of engineering can prepare humanity for and
prevent undesirable events.
6.5 Structural geology at Sandford Point
Describe the context of the structures at Sandford Point relative to the tectonic regime in the
Puget Lowland.
The Puget Sound Lowland lies between the Olympic Peninsula on the west and the Cascadia
Range on the east. As early as the Eocene period 50 million years ago, the Cascadia subcontinent
docked with the North American Plate and the regional tectonics within the Puget Lowland were
borne into its present-day compressional regime. Since the Quaternary period, the Lowland
interspace has been occupied, abandoned and reoccupied by numerous glaciations. The glacial
and interglacial periods witnessed the mechanism responsible for the diversity of deposits found
here. Because compressional tectonism has been onset since the Eocene, superposed by
glaciotectonism (glacial overloading) in the Quaternary, we expect to find expressions of strain
within some of these deposits, especially older and deeper formations. Fortunately with the
regional faulting, in some ideal localities these deeper formations can be thrust up and exposed at
the surface.
This is purportedly the case for some geologic formations at Sandford Point. A few of us
observed evidence for thrust faulting and folding in clay and sand deposits in the north end of the
Sandford Point reach. We find these structures to be tectonic in origin because of the relative

July 2014 P a g e | 62 of 118
magnitude and direction of offset of the deformation in the clay with respect to the sand unit. We
also conducted a pi-diagram analysis on fold limb orientations and concluded our measured
compressional direction (northeast-southwest) was somewhat consistent with the publish
orientation (north-south by Sherrod et al. 2004). It seems the evidence we gathered and
observations we made on the structures expressed in the Sandford Point bluffs coincides
sufficiently with the expectations when considering the regional compressional tectonics of the
Puget Lowland.
6.6 Tsunami sands at Discovery Bay
In the appropriate geologic setting, anomalous sand deposits in tidal marsh environments are
sometimes interpreted to have tsunami origins based on the following 6 characteristics
summarized by Williams et al. (2005):
1) Anomalous sand sheets drape or truncate the pre-existing ground surface;
2) Deposits rise and thin landward;
3) Sediment textures fine landward;
4) Deposits contain remains of marine organisms;
5) Some deposits are graded or consist of two or more laminae of coarse and fine-grained
(or organic-debris rich) sediment; and,
6) Deposits are equivalent in age to tsunami deposits dated elsewhere in the same region.
Based on these criteria and the local geologic record, tsunami sand deposits have substantial
relevance to humanity primarily because we can use them to measure the magnitude and
recurrence of historical tsunamis. This knowledge is valuable information to coastal inhabitants
whom live under the shadow of this ever-present geohazard, because it may be used to forecast
or predict the timing of tsunamis associated with earthquakes or submarine landslides, much like
ash layers and lava flows can be used to forecast volcanic eruptions.
At Discovery Bay, my team completed a total of 2 gouge-cores, each advanced a maximum of 3
meters below existing ground surface and with acceptable averaged total recoveries of 93% and
84% (see Appendix A, field pages 37 to 39). We identified a total of 8 sand units (5 in the first
core, and 3 and the second core) that could potentially have tsunami origins. Technically
speaking, however, it is presumptuous to classify them as tsunami deposits given the dearth of

July 2014 P a g e | 63 of 118
evidence, particularly their lack of correspondence with the criteria above. Determining the
spatial extent of these deposits through good-old traditional stratigraphic correlation and
conducting microscope analyses for marine diatoms to constrain the origins of these sands would
be a good step forward in the process of proving them sourced from tsunamis.
Some remaining un-answered questions: How can we infer magnitude of flood volumes from
tsunami deposits? How do submarine sills (from glacial deposits in Puget Sound) affect tsunami
wave dynamics as they entire the Puget Sound system?

ESS 510 REFERENCES Robert Cannata
July 2014 P a g e | 64 of 118
7.0 REFERENCES
Booth, D.B., 1991, Geologic Map of Vashon and Maury Islands, King County, Washington: U.S.
Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, p. 1 – 7.
Borden, K.R., and Troost K.G., 2001, Late Pleistocene Stratigraphy in the South-Central Puget
Lowland, Pierce County, Washington: Washington State Department of Natural
Resources, Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources, Report of
Investigations 33, p. 1 – 33.
Dethier, D. P., Pessl, F., Keuler, R. F., Balzarini, M. A., and Pevear, D. R., 1995, Late
Wisconsinan glaciomarine deposition and isostatic rebound, northern Puget Lowland,
Washington: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 107, no. 11, p. 1288-1303.
Google Earth V.6.2.2.6613. (May 2013). “Mike Brown Property.” 47°24’42.7”N 122°30’56”W.
Eye alt 922 feet. DigitalGlobe 2012. http://www.earth.google.com [June 25, 2014]
Heim, K., 1997, Structural Geology Notebook – Backthrusts:
http://maps.unomaha.edu/Maher/geo330/sandbox/kirk3.html
Hewitt, A. T., and Mosher, D. C., 2001, Late Quaternary stratigraphy and seafloor geology of
eastern Juan de Fuca Strait, British Columbia and Washington: Marine Geology, v. 177,
no. 3, p. 295-316.
Johannessen, J. and A. MacLennan, 2007, Beach and bluffs of Puget Sound, Puget Sound
Nearshore Partnership Report No. 2007-04: published by Seattle District, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Seattle, Washington. Available at www.pugetsoundnearshore.org.
Johnson, S.Y., Blakely, R.J., Stephenson, W.J., Dadisman, S.V., and Fisher, M.A., 2004, Active
shortening of the Cascadia forearc and implications for seismic hazards of the Puget
Lowland: Tectonics, v. 23, p. 1 – 27.
Johnson, S. Y., Potter, C. J., and Armentrout, J. M., 1994, Origin and evolution of the Seattle
fault and Seattle basin, Washington: Geology, v. 22, no. 1, p. 71-74.
Johnson, S. Y., Potter, C. J., Miller, J. J., Armentrout, J. M., Finn, C., and Weaver, C. S., 1996,
The southern Whidbey Island fault: an active structure in the Puget Lowland,
Washington: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 108, no. 3, p. 334-354.
Johnson, S. Y., Dadisman, S. V., Childs, J. R., and Stanley, W. D., 1999, Active tectonics of the
Seattle fault and central Puget Sound, Washington—Implications for earthquake hazards:
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 111, no. 7, p. 1042-1053.

July 2014 P a g e | 65 of 118
King County, 2013. Vashon-Maury Island water resources - A retrospective of contributions and
highlights. Prepared by King County Department of Natural Resources and Parks, Water
and Land Resources Division, Science and Technical Support Section. Seattle, WA.
December.
Mosher, D. C., and Hewitt, A. T., 2004, Late Quaternary deglaciation and sea-level history of
eastern Juan de Fuca Strait, Cascadia: Quaternary International, v. 121, no. 1, p. 23-39.
Nelson, A.R., Personius, S.F., Sherrod, B.L., Buck, J., Bradley, L-A., Healey II, G., Liberty,
L.M., Kelsey, H.M., Witter, R.C., Koehler, R.P., Schermer, E.R., Nemsa, E.S., and
Cladouhos, T.T., 2008, Field and laboratory data from an earthquake history study of
scarps in the hanging wall of the Tacoma fault, Mason and Pierce Counties, Washington:
U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigation Map 3060, 3 sheets.
Porter, S. C., and Swanson, T. W., 1998, Radiocarbon age constraints on rates of advance and
retreat of the Puget lobe of the Cordilleran ice sheet during the last glaciation: Quaternary
Research, v. 50, no. 3, p. 205-213.
Pratt, T. L., Johnson, S., Potter, C., Stephenson, W., and Finn, C., 1997, Seismic reflection
images beneath Puget Sound, western Washington state: The Puget Lowland thrust sheet
hypothesis: Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth (1978–2012), v. 102 (B12), p.
27469-27489.
Seilermapsupport. "Where to find the Projection files for Coordinate Systems to use for Trimble
GPS Pathfinder Office export?". Seiler Instruments, 7 June 2012. Web. 26 June 2014.
<http://seilermapsupport.wordpress.com/2012/06/07/where-to-find-the-projection-files-
for-coordinate-systems-to-use-for-trimble-gps-pathfinder-office-export/>.
Thorson, R. M., 1980, Ice-sheet glaciation of the Puget Lowland, Washington, during the
Vashon Stade (late Pleistocene): Quaternary Research, v. 13, no. 3, p. 303-321.
Thorson, R. M., 1989, Glacio-isostatic response of the Puget Sound area, Washington:
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 101, no. 9, p. 1163-1174.
Thorson, R. M., 2000, Glacial tectonics: a deeper perspective: Quaternary Science Reviews, v.
19, no. 14, p. 1391-1398.
Washington State Department of Ecology Water Resources Program. "Water Well Logs."
Department of Ecology Water Resources., 13 Jan. 2013. Web. 25 June 2014.

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"Washington State Geologic Infomation Portal." Department of Natural Resources. Washington
State DNR, n.d. Web.
<http://www.dnr.wa.gov/ResearchScience/Topics/GeosciencesData/Pages/geology_porta
l.aspx>.
Williams, H. F., Hutchinson, I., and Nelson, A. R., 2005, Multiple sources for late-Holocene
tsunamis at Discovery Bay, Washington State, USA: The Holocene, v. 15, no. 1, p. 60-
73.

ESS 510 TAKE HOME MESSAGES Robert Cannata
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8.0 TAKE HOME MESSAGES
1. Overall, the experiences associated with this field course have impacted me personally
and professionally in a positive way. With this experience and the past academic year, I
have a refreshed confidence as a professional geologist. Undoubtedly, this confidence is
attributed to interactions within the 2nd
generation cohort. Our lecturers and professors,
especially those with whom I’ve worked most closely, are responsible for this personal
growth. We have deepened our friendships and professional rapports to a point that I
have no reservations about our collective abilities and my own.
2. Greatly improved my scientific writing and comprehension skills in making quality field
observations, winnowing the critical ideas of a lecture and discussion into succinct notes,
and drawing detailed diagrams or other graphics.
3. GEM = Garnet, Epidote and Magnetite. Never knew this reference before. Also, it was
instructive to have some one-on-one time with Troost and Cheney working at
mineralogical identification under the microscope.
4. I was the most accurate estimator of distance, after winning the 100 feet pace-out contest.
My secret may be in the practice of counting 2 steps as 1 stride length; I measure using
strides instead of paces, so my stride is almost exactly 5 feet. Easier math too.
5. Don’t stress out about field activities not going as planned, but instead maximize on the
present opportunity.

ESS 510 APPENDIX A – FIELD NOTES Robert Cannata
July 2014 P a g e | 68 of 118

ESS 510 APPENDIX A – FIELD NOTES Robert Cannata
July 2014 P a g e | 69 of 118

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