1. Language
Change
 Exam tip of the day:
 Do you really mean 'positive'?
Again?
Objectives
•
Revise theories (AO2)
•
Learn some new key
terms
•
Understand how
language change and
variation influence each
other and fit together
 Homework: Read Text 1 on
the reading list.

2. Do you really mean positive? Again?
 Do you find yourself writing the words 'positive' and 'negative'
over and over again? Whether you're describing the connotations
of a particular lexical choice, or the tone of a piece of writing, you
may find yourself wanting to use these bland adjectives.
 Try to be more specific.
 If a word is creating a positive impression, is it conveying an
attitude of approval? Or perhaps it has celebratory
connotations or implies wholesomeness or ... you get the
picture. Ask yourself exactly what the effect is; what else the
word/phrase/image reminds you of. It's always better to be
specific than vague in describing the effect of language.
 Taken from www.bethkemp.co.uk (Language Snippets)

3. Language Change Overview
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Jean Aitchison is one of the biggest
contributors to this area through her book
“Language Change: Progress or Decay?” (1991).
Within this she posits that there are 3 ways of
viewing the phenomenon of language change:
1. Decay (this is the view of prescriptivists)
2 Progress (some descriptivists agree with this)
3. Neither progress nor decay, but inevitable (most
descriptivists are in this camp).

4. Types of change
 Aitchison felt that changes could be both conscious
and unconscious.
 In Labov‟s New York study, his elicitation of
spontaneous versus careful speech highlighted that
New Yorkers were consciously moving towards the
use of a rhotic /r/, as this occurred more in careful
speech. This can therefore be associated with overt
prestige, moving towards the most
desirable(standard) variety.

5. Types of change
 However his Martha‟s vineyard study highlighted a
different trend. The vowel changes in the community
highlighted a trend towards imitating the
conservative speech patterns of the older fishermen
of the island as tourist rates increased and the
islanders needed to establish themselves as a
separate group. This change was however
subconscious and the islanders were not at all
aware of exaggerating the vowel changes. This is an
example of covert prestige.

6. Why: Causes Versus Catalysts
 Language change comes about through a variety of
causes. Some are natural and some are social.
 An example of a natural cause is the phenomenon of
Ease of articulation whereby language changes
because people try to make combinations of sounds
easier to say. E.g. the word „thumb‟ lost the /b/
sound due to omission/elision by dropping the
final consonant (compare thimble).

7. Why: Causes Versus Catalysts
 Although change usually comes about through the
ways mentioned there are also some catalysts which
help speed up the process. These are usually social
triggers such as prestige. The reactions to this, as
discussed, can be conscious or unconscious.

8. Other Language change theories that try to explain
why
 Functional theory proposed by M.A.K.
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Halliday, posits that language changes according to
the needs of its users. This mainly covers lexical
change. This tends to take the form of:
1. new discoveries/learning/inventions.
2. Technological words
3. Slang.
Eval: this theory makes a lot of sense but cannot
account for all language change as it focusses only on
lexical change.

9. Language changes according to
the users needs. The changes
are mainly Lexical.

10. EXAMPLES:
Going out of use:
• Vinyl?
• LP
• Cassette
• Betamax
• Floppy Disk
• Video
Words disappear over
time as things change,
e.g. Technology and
Science.
Coming into use:
• USB
• MP3
• DVD
• Flash drive
• Blu-ray
• iPod
• Laptop

12. Other Language change theories that try to explain
why.
 Random fluctuation theory was supported by 2
linguists. Paul Postal said that language is as
unpredictable as fashion and therefore changes in
language are totally random.
 Charles Hockett proposed a different angle, that
random „mistakes‟ lead to language changing.
 Eval: 1. This would lead to linguistic chaos; 2.
Changes that occur in different languages are too
similar to be random; Not all elements change (e.g.
grammar)

13. Other Language change theories that try to explain
why.
 Substratum theory explains changes in language
coming about through language contact. In the past
this happened mainly through trade and invasion.
Nowadays it might happen through social
networking and immigration
 Eval: 1. Again this theory accounts for some aspects
of language change but cannot be the sole reason for
it.

14. How?
 We looked at many possible changes in language and
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many reasons why language changes and we now
need to look at HOW these take place.
JA says that there are 3 aspects to the way a change
takes place:
1. Potential for change: a speaker makes a linguistic
choice.
2. Implementation: the choice becomes selected as
part of a linguistic system
Diffusion: the change is imitated beyond the site of
origin.

15. How?
 These processes are usually explained through 2
theories:
 S-Curve theory by Chen (1972) & Bailey(1973)
mainly explains the more social changes within a
linguistic community

16. How?
 The wave theory by Chen & Wang
 Explains the geographical
 Spread of language changes.

17. Essay summary
 Conscious Vs Unconscious (Labov)
 Natural Vs Social (ease of articulation Vs prestige)
 Functional Theory
 Random Fluctuation theory
 Substratum theory
 Potential, implementation, Diffusion & S-Curve & Wave
theory
 Attitudes: decay (Mention prescriptivists& include
metaphors); progress (Quote David Crystal); neither
(quote Jean aitchison)

18. Essay paragraph example
 The argument that new words are invented for labelling new
inventions and discoveries is most strongly supported by theorist
Halliday. Functional Theory is something that he developed, and it
is the belief that language adapts to suit the needs of its user. He
would argue that it is through this method that new inventions gain
their title, but is also shows why archaisms, such as „LP‟ or „floppy
disk‟ are dropped from language as they are no longer required. The
use of blended words such as the common concrete noun
„camcorder‟ (a combination of camera and recorder) and the high
frequency of initialisms, such as „USB‟ and „PC‟ can be seen as
conforming to Halliday‟s theory as they are used in a society of a
faster pace. The need to increase the amount of information passed
in a short space of time is what has led to the amount of shortened
lexis in modern language (particularly in technology) thus proving
Halliday‟s theory. However Functional Theory‟s shortcoming as a
language change theory is that it can only account for lexical
change.

19. Showing evaluation
 At the top end of the mark schemes, it often talks about
'evaluating' theories, language usage, research etc. But
how do you show this? To get evaluation marks, you
could try using comparatives and superlatives in your
descriptions: "the most useful research to demonstrate
this is..." or "a subtler effect is achieved by the use of ...".
Alternatively, you can show evaluation by using
evaluative adjectives or adverbs which indicate a
judgement about the ideas you're referring to, e.g.:
"amazingly, x claims..." or "this relates to the
questionable theory y". It's not necessary to take up a lot
of words doing this, and you should be able to boost your
marks by showing more discrimination.
 Taken from www.bethkemp.co.uk (Language Snippets)