Tests and measures to improve performance
Université de Franche-Comté, Besançon,
France, 07 November, 2013
Dr Roger Ramsbottom
Department of Sport and Health Sciences
Oxford Brookes University
MONITORING THE TRAINING
RESPONSE

Appreciate a programme involves appropriate training
stress and recovery
Understand the reasons for repeated testing of the
athlete / normal healthy individual to monitor progress
during training
Appreciate the physiological, biomechanical and
psychological factors influencing performance
Understand the energy systems involved in specific
movement requirements involved in competition
Appreciate test methodology and understand the data
provided by both laboratory and field tests
LEARNING OUTCOMES

CONTINUUM OF TRAINING STAGES

ASSESSING POTENTIAL AND
PERFORMANCE
Talent Identification (potential)
A screening process to identify individuals with particular
talent or potential within a given sport or sports
TID personnel visit schools/clubs to identify individuals
for fast track sports development programmes
Athlete Testing and Assessment (performance)
A sport-specific battery of tests aimed at existing athletes
already in a sports science support system
Aimed at improving the competitive performance of the
individual athlete

REASONS FOR TESTING
1. Identify strengths and weaknesses
conduct tests to measure important performance components
2. Aid training programme prescription
e.g. training aimed at eliminating weaknesses
3. Monitor progress
assess effectiveness of the prescribed training programme
4. Provide feedback and motivation
feedback provides the incentive to improve
5. Educate coaches and athletes
improves understanding of performance components and the
way different training interventions affect them
6. Predict performance potential
correlation of test results with competitive performances
allows performance prediction on the basis of tests

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERFORMANCE – LABORATORY
BESED ASSESSMENT MEASURES
Co-
ordination
Skill
Economy
Energy
Output
Aerobic Energy
Production
Strength
Power
Psychological
Status
Anaerobic
Energy
Production
Environmental/
Climatic
Responses
Performance
Body
Composition

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERFORMANCE – LABORATORY
BESED ASSESSMENT MEASURES
Co-ordination
Skill
Economy
Energy Output
Aerobic Energy
Production
Strength
Power
Psychological
Status
Anaerobic Energy
Production
Environmental/Cli
matic Responses
Performance
Body Composition
Bioelectrical Impedance
BodPod
Environmental
chamber
Psychological
assessment
Margaria
Wingate
AOD
VO2max
Tlac
Wingate or
equiv.
Isokinetic
dynamometry
Submax. VO2
Biomechanical
assessment

PERFORMANCE PROFILING
Can be tailored for different
sports
Excellent tool for athlete
involvement
Regular physiological testing
should correspond to
improvements in targeted
areas

DETERMINANTS OF ENDURANCE
PERFORMANCE
%Type 1 Muscle
Fibres
Performance Velocity
Performance Power
Resistance to Movement
Performance VO2
Lactate Threshold Power
or Velocity
Lactate Threshold VO2
VO2 max
Economy of Movement
Gross Mechanical Efficiency
Muscle Capillary
Density
Stroke Volume Aerobic Enzyme
Activity
Distribution of
Power and
Technique
Functional Abilities
Performance Abilities
Morphological
Components

TRAINING TECHNIQUES FOR
ENDURANCE CYCLISTS
Prolonged
distance
Aerobic
intervals/
Transition
training
Power/speed
training
Resistance
training
Base training
Gen. preparation
Several weeks
before
competition
Several weeks
before
competition
Off-season
Workout Training phase Duration Intensity
(%HRmax)
Frequency
(sessions/wk)
Primary benefits
1-6 hours
8-10 reps (x5
min with 1 min
recovery)
8-10 reps (x1
min with 5-10
min recovery)
1 hour
60-75
85-90
Maximal
-
3-4
1-2
1-2
1-2
Impr. VO2max,
endurance,
ox.enz, efficiency
Impr. VO2max,
maintain high
power output,
lactate tolerance
Enhanced max
speed/power, incr.
glycolyic enz.
activity
Incr. strength and
endurance
Jeukendrup (2002) High-performance cycling Pub. Human Kinetics, Leeds

ENERGY SYSTEMS USED FOR
THE REGENERATION OF ATP
A brief resumé

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE THE
CURRENCY OF ENERGY TRANSFER
ADENOSINE - O - P - O - P - O - P - OH
O O O
OH OH OH
High Energy
Bonds
TRIPHOSPHATE
ATP
ADP
Energy requiring
processes (e.g.
muscle
contraction) lead
to
hydrolysis of ATP
to ADP
Oxidation of
Fuel (food)
leads to
rephosphorylati
on of ADP to
ATP
E E

ENERGY RESUPPLY SYSTEMS -1
1. ATP is broken down enzymatically
to adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
and inorganic phosphate (Pi) to yield
energy for muscle contraction.
2. Phosphocreatine (PCr) is broken
down enzymatically to creatine and
phosphate, which are transferred to
ADP to re-form ATP.
3. Glucose 6-phosphate; derived from
muscle glycogen or blood- borne
glucose through anaerobic
glycolysis, is converted to lactate
and produces ATP by substrate-level
phosphorylation reactions.
4. The products of carbohydrate, lipid,
protein and alcohol metabolism can
enter the tricarboxylic acid (TCA or
Krebs) cycle in the mitochondria and
be oxidized to carbon dioxide and
water. This process is known as
oxidative phosphorylation and yields
energy for the synthesis of ATP.
There are four different mechanisms involved in the generation of energy for muscle contraction:
1
3
4
2

ENERGY RESUPPLY SYSTEMS - 2
1. ATP
Q. How long does the initial supply of ATP last?
2. CREATINE PHOSPHATE
Q. What provides the first line of resupply?
Q. How long does this supply last?
3. ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS
Q. What is the next source of resupply?
Q. How long does this supply last?
A.
4. AEROBIC METABOLISM
Q. What is the final source of resupply?
Q How long does this supply last?
ANAEROBIC
AEROBIC
Approximately 1 second
‘Alactic ‘Anaerobic Metabolism – Phospho Creatine
ADP + PCr ATP + C
Between 5 and 8 seconds
‘Lactic’ Anaerobic Metabolism - Anaerobic Glycolysis
Breakdown of Glucose in the absence of oxygen
As long as carbohydrate is available – but the rate
of ATP generation slows down as the end products
(Lactic acid/ Hydrogen Ions) accumulate
Aerobic Metabolism
Breakdown of fuel (CHO, fat or protein) in the
Presence of oxygen
As long as the fuel supply – but the rate of
supply of oxygen is the limiting factor to ATP
regeneration and therefore speed in events
lasting between 2mins and 1.5hrs. At the end
long events (>1.5hrs) stores of glycogen and
the capacity to metabolise fat determine the
ability to maintain speed

‘ALACTIC’ ANAEROBIC
METABOLISM - THE
PHOSPHOCREATINE SHUTTLE
1. During short-term exercise
(1-8 s), energy released on
hydrolysis of PCr is used to
re-phosphorylate ADP to
form ATP (MM-CK)
2. Free Cr-- diffuses to the
mitochondrion where it is
rephosphorylated (Mi-CK)
by aerobically generated
ATP
3. The PCr then shuttles back
to the muscle fibre, ready
again to provide phosphate-
bond energy for the re-
phosphorylation of ADP
ATP and PCr are non-aerobic sources of phosphate bond energy.
1
2
3
MM-CK – Muscle (M isoform) of Creatine Kinase
Mi-CK – Mitochondrial Creatine Kinase

THE MAJOR BIOCHEMICAL
PATHWAYS FOR ATP PRODUCTION
Anaerobic and
Aerobic
Metabolism

ENERGY SUPPLY DURING ‘ALL
OUT’ EXERCISE

LABORATORY ASSESSMENT OF
PERFORMANCE AND TRAINING
PROGRAMMES SHOULD SPECIFICALLY
ADDRESS
- Energy Systems
- Muscle Groups
- Movement Patterns
….utilised during competition.

LABOARTORY AND FIELD TESTS:
EXAMPLES OF VARIOUS
TESTS/SPORTS
Performance
Component Laboratory/Rowing Field/Soccer
Aerobic Power Incremental test with GE
analysis on rowing
ergometer
Progressive shuttle-run
test (bleep
test)/Bangsbo Yo-Yo
Tests
Anaerobic Power Specific rowing ergometer
power test
Standing jump/sprint
Anaerobic
threshold
Incremental test with lactate
analysis on rowing
ergometer
Conconi Test
Anaerobic
Capacity
Maximum accumulated
oxygen deficit (MAOD)
High intensity shuttle
run test (HIST)
Strength Isokinetic dynamometry 1 Repetition Maximum
Economy Submaximal VO2 Experienced coaching
‘eye’

TESTING AND ASSESSMENT
GUIDELINES
Respect the athlete’s rights
- informed consent
- data protection
- safety
Undertake appropriate tests
- relevance
- specificity
- practicality
- validity
Ensure good quality control
- precision
- reliability
- sound test interpretation

DEREMINING ANAEROBIC POWER
AND CAPACITY
DETERMINING ANAEROBIC
POWER AND CAPACITY
Jump Tests
Margaria Step
Wingate
AOD

MEASURING MAXIMAL MUSCLE
POWER: SARGEANT (VERTICAL)
JUMP TEST
Simple Vertical Jump test
- based on measure of height
gained
- improves with
countermovement
- tendency to improve with
practice
Muscle Power is
calculated according to
the following equation:
Power (kg m s-1) = 4.91/2 x body mass x Jump height1/2.
NewTest:

MEASURING MAXIMAL MUSCLE
POWER: MARGARIA STAIR CLIMB
TEST
Simple stair run test
- timed by 2 pressure
mats >1.05 vertical
metres apart
- steps climbed 2 or 3 at a
time
- test time < 1 sec
Power is calculated by
the following equation:
mass (kg) x vertical displacement (m) x 9.8
time (s)
Power (W) =

MEASURING INTERMEDIATE-TERM
MUSCLE POWER: WINGATE TEST
30 s maximal cycle ergometer test
Provides data on:
- peak power output (highest power output in any 5 s period)
- mean power output (over 30 s)
- fatigue index (difference between peak power output and
min power output divided by PPO (or time))
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 10 20 30
Time (s)
Power(W)
Length of test can be modified to make it more event specific

ESTIMATING ANAEROBIC
CAPACITY: (MAXIMUM)
ACCUMULATED OXYGEN
DEFICIT
1. Perform multiple submaximal tests to
determine the linear regression
equation relating VO2 (mL min-1) and
Power (W)
2. Regression line is extrapolated to
‘supramaximal’ workloads to enable
theoretical VO2 estimate of
supramaximal work
3. Undertake intense exercise bout lasting
2-5 min, measuring VO2 throughout
– may be all out for defined period or
constant intensity
4. The AOD is the difference between the
measured VO2 and the VO2 equivalent
of the work done, based on the VO2
power regression

DETERMINING AEROBIC POWER AND
ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE
DETERMINING AEROBIC POWER
AND ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE
MLSS
TLAC
TVENT
Economy
VO2max

MEASURING AEROBIC POWER:
LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS
Laboratory
Maximal
Direct measure of VO2max using pulmonary gas exchange:
motorised treadmill, cycle or other sport-specific ergometry
Submaximal
Åstrand 6-min cycle ergometer test
Field
Maximal
Progressive Multi-stage Shuttle-run Test
Yo-Yo Tests (Recovery and Endurance)
Cooper 12 minute run
Submaximal
Bench stepping (e.g. Chester Step Test)
Rockport 1 mile walk

MEASURING AEROBIC POWER IN THE
LABORATORY: COMMON PROTOCOLS
1.Supramaximal test: usually over race
time – e.g. 6 minutes for rowers
2.Ramp test: continuous and seamless
increase in speed/power
3.Incremental test: step increases in
speed/ power; may be continuous or
discontinuous
Ramp & incremental are undertaken
to volitional exhaustion.
Measures:
• Expired air is normally collected either
continuously or for 1 minute at relevant
points throughout the test for
determination of gas exchange variables
(VE, VO2 , VCO2 ).
• Heart rate and RPE are usually recorded
• Blood may also be removed for (lactate
or other metabolites) analysis
1. Supramaximal
2. Ramp
3. Incremental
(continuous or
discontinuous)
Time
Work
rate
Workrate
@
VO2max

MEASURING AEROBIC POWER IN
THE LABORATAORY
Criteria for identifying VO2max in an incremental test:
- VO2 should level off at the highest exercise intensity
(<2.0mL.kg-1.min-1 or 3% increase) despite an increase in
the work rate. Otherwise VO2peak.
- RER >1.15
- Heart rate within 10 beats of predicted maximum
- Post-exercise (4-5 min) total blood lactate > 8.0 mMol.L-1
- Subjective fatigue and volitional exhaustion
- RPE of 19-20 on Borg Scale
Requirements for valid assessment. The exercise must:
• utilise at least 50% of total muscle mass
• be continuous and rhythmical
• be undertaken for a prolonged period (>4min)
• be performed under standard conditions avoiding excessive heat, humidity,
pollution or altitude
Results must be independent of motivation or skill

LABORATORY TESTS TO PREDICT
ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE
Maximal Lactate Steady State (MLSS):
- accurate determination of the maximum exercise intensity at which
LA levels remain stable
- invasive and requires multiple laboratory visits
Lactate Threshold (TLAC):
- provides an estimate of MLSS using an incremental exercise test
- rapid, but invasive and not always representative of MLSS
- affected by glycogen depletion
Ventilatory Threshold (TVENT):
- provides a non-invasive estimate of MLSS
- rapid and non-invasive, but results not always easy to interpret
Exercise economy:
- oxygen cost at a given submaximal power output

MAXIMAL LACTATE STEADY STATE
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)
Bloodlactate(mMol.L-1)
200 W
220 W
240 W
260 W
280 W
300 W
MLSS
workrate

LACTATE THRESHOLD (TLAC)
Whole blood
lactate (mM)
10
8
6
4
2
0
Increasing Work rate / Speed
Lactate Threshold-1
(T
LAC
)
Lactate Threshold-2
(T
LAC
)

FIXED BLOOD LACTATE
CONCENTRATION
Fixed blood or ‘reference’ lactate concentrations is a simple
way of identifying lactate thresholds. The measurement of
LT1 and LT2 is simply performed by determining the power
output at the set blood lactate concentrations
Using reference blood lactate
concentrations helps to
minimize the biological
variation in terms of where the
inflection points are perceived
to be in the blood lactate
curve

REFERENCE BLOOD LACTATE
CONCENTRATIONS

TRAINING ZONES BASED ON THE
BLOOD LACTATE CURVE
HR and RPE can
be use to control
/ monitor training

VENTILATORY THRESHOLD (TVENT)
5
4
3
2
1
0
250
200
150
100
50
0
Ventilatory
Threshold-1
(TVENT)
VE
(L.min-1)
VO2
(L.min-1)
Increasing Work rate / Speed
Ventilatory
Threshold-2
(TVENT)
Tvent-2 = respiratory compensation point
Tvent-1 = metabolic threshold

COINCIDENCE OF TLAC WITH TVENT
Whole blood
lactate (mM)
10
8
6
4
2
0
Work rate / Speed
Lactate Threshold
(TLAC)
5
4
3
2
1
0
Work rate / Speed
VO2
(l.min-1
)
250
200
150
100
50
0
VE
(l.min-1
)
Ventilatory
Threshold
(TVENT)
Glycogen depleted
Normal Glycogen levels

CALCULATING AEROBIC AND
ANAEROBIC THRESHOLDS FROM
RESPIRATORY DATA

CALCULATING AEROBIC AND
ANAEROBIC THRESHOLDS FROM
RESPIRATORY DATA
Ventilatory
equivalent method
Initially both the
VE/VO2 and
VE/VCO2
decrease. Later
an intensity is
reached where
VE/VO2
increases at a
much faster rate

CALCULATING AEROBIC AND
ANAEROBIC THRESHOLDS FROM
RESPIRATORY DATA
V-slope method
Tvent is the point at
which VCO2
increases at a
faster rate than
VO2

PROTOCOL FOR MEASURING
RUNNING ECONOMY
1) Conduct a VO2max test on a treadmill
2) From the data develop a regression equation relating
VO2 (mL kg-1 min-1) to running speed (m s-1; km h-1)
3) Measure the oxygen cost at 60, 70, 80 and 90% VO2max
4) Plot O2 uptake (y axis) against running speed (x axis)

CALCULATING ANAEROBIC
THRESHOLD FROM HEART RATE
DATA?
Deflection from linearity at high
intensities has been associated with
blood lactate accumulation (Conconi et
al, 1982) and anaerobic threshold.
Can be performed in the field and
related to the disciplines’ velocity.
However, measure is not always
evident and there are questions over
its reliability.

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS –
HOW CAN THEY BE UTILIZED? 1
Incremental treadmill test
HR and lactate response
How can it help the
athlete?
Can aid:
Training
prescription
E = Easy running
S = Steady running
T = Tempo running
I = Interval training
Has the training period had
the desired effect?
How does the data fit within
the norms?

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS –
HOW CAN THEY BE UTILIZED? 2
Norms
NBA Guards
60-65 ml kg-1min-1 (V02 max)
NBA Forwards and Centres
55-60 ml kg-1min-1
National League Average
52 ml kg-1min-1
(Range 33-65 ml kg-1min-1)
Most team sports use field testing
Using sport specific movement patterns

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS –
HOW CAN THEY BE UTILIZED? 3
17.7m
12.7m
In
A B
5m
Normative Data
England Senior Men/Women 55.4 / 50.8 mL.kg-1min-1 VO2 max
Single sprint <2.6/<2.9 s
Run Three <9.5/<11.0 s
505 Cricket Agility Test <1.9/2.2 s
Rolling Start

MONITORING TRAINING LOAD
There is a distinct difference between training volume, intensity
and load.
Training volume does not incorporate training intensity over the
session, and therefore does not provide a valid measure of
training load (e.g. distance, time, total weight lifted, time at
crease (cricket), points / games (racket sports).
Conversely while training intensity helps to describe how hard a
session was, it does not provide any guide as to how long the
session was (e.g. velocity, heart rate, %VO2 reserve, lifts per
min, recovery time between sprints).
Therefore the product of the two variables is equivalent to the
‘load’ of the training session.

TRAINING IMPULSE (TRIMPS)
LOADING
A simple method to calculate training load is the average heart
rate across the session multiplied by its duration (training
impulse or TRIMPS)
The purpose of TRIMPS is to provide a quantitative measure of
‘load’ using the HR response observed during the session
TRIMPS is only suited to endurance exercise with limited HR
variation
TRIMPS does provide a simple and objective measure of
training load from a session
TRIMPS load: Duration (min) x HRaverage (b min-1)

MONITORING TRAINING LOAD
http://www.ismarttrain.com/articles/TRIMPS.php

OVERVIEW OF ATHLETE
ASSESSMENT
Factors that contribute to performance in a sport need to be identified prior
to designing a testing protocol
Those attributes most necessary of a top class competitor are the ones to
assess in order to identify strengths and weaknesses
The energy systems, muscle groups and movement patterns used in
competition are the ones to assess in physiological tests
Tests should adhere to well established guidelines which respect the rights
of the athlete and ensure validity, accuracy and reliability of the results
Test results should be fed back to athletes and coaches in an
understandable way which provides the basis for future training
programmes and a source of motivation
Really important to be aware of normative data for the tests you use and to
have “population specific” norms
Testing should be undertaken regularly as part of an ongoing and
adaptable programme of monitoring.